When we are onstage, we smile: The effects of emotional labor on employee work outcomes

International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 906–915

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International Journal of Hospitality Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

When we are onstage, we smile: The effects of emotional labor on employee work outcomes Kay H. Chu a,1 , Melissa A. Baker b,2 , Suzanne K. Murrmann c,∗ a b c

Department of Hospitality Management, Tunghai University, P.O. Box 891, Taichung 40704, Taiwan Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Tech, 362 Wallace Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Tech, 356 Wallace Hall, Blacksburg, VA 24060, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords: Emotional labor Work outcomes Job satisfaction Emotional exhaustion Hospitality employees

a b s t r a c t A growing body of literature has confirmed the deleterious effects of emotional labor on service employees. The study adds to it by investigating two hypothesized antecedents to emotional labor; affectivity and empathy which is conceptualized as a two-dimensional construct composed of emotional contagion and empathic concern. It also examines the impact of emotional labor on job satisfaction and exhaustion. The results confirmed a two-dimensional structure of emotional labor, emotive dissonance, and emotive effort. Hospitality employees with higher positive affect tend to experience less emotive dissonance while individuals with higher negative affect exert more effort to enact emotional labor. A positive relationship was found between emotional contagion and emotive dissonance, and emotive effort and job satisfaction. The results also suggested a negative relationship between emotive effort and emotional exhaustion. An unexpected negative relationship was found between emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion. Managerial implications discuss training and acting techniques to more effectively manage employee emotional labor. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Research and popular press note that more than ever, employees are encountering demanding, difficult, and oppositional customers. During most interactions, front-line employees are expected to smile and be cheerful regardless of personal feelings or emotions. Hospitality employees are particularly vulnerable to the concept of emotional labor because of service credos that require them to maintain a positive, friendly, and smiling disposition even in circumstances that evoke negative emotional reactions to common service encounters (Pizam, 2004). Hospitality employees smile because it is expected, because they are almost always onstage. Employees often present such positive attitudes through facial expressions, body language, or tone of voice. To an extent, every job requires some degree of emotional labor (Chu and Murrmann, 2006) as industries are increasingly moving toward a servicedominant logic, where some aspect of service is becoming a part of most transactions. This is critical to the very nature of service and hospitality as the interaction between employees and customers is

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 540 231 8421; fax: +1 540 231 8313. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.H. Chu), [email protected] (M.A. Baker), [email protected] (S.K. Murrmann). 1 Tel.: +866 4 223590121x37706; fax: +886 4 2350 6053. 2 Tel.: +1 781 724 4347. 0278-4319/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.10.009

a significant component of the service encounter, which can affect the service quality. The concept of emotional labor originated with Hochschild (1983) who defines emotional labor as “the management of feelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display; emotional labor is sold for a wage and therefore has exchange value” (p. 7). Since then, researchers have attempted to conceptualize and develop this construct. Much of the early research focuses on emotional labor in relation to service quality (Albrecht and Zemke, 1985; Bowen et al., 1989; Rafaeli and Sutton, 1989). Hospitality applications include case studies on flight attendants (Hochschild, 1983), fast-food employees (Leinder, 1993), wait staff (Adelman, 1989; Paules, 1991; Rose, 2001), and amusement park employees (Van Maanen and Kunda, 1989). These case studies sought to provide a fundamental understanding of how emotions are regulated and managed in response to display rules so that work goals can be achieved. Further empirical development ensued as researchers began using quantitative approaches to explore the dimensions of emotional labor, and its impact on employees’ well-being and organizational performance (Wharton, 1993; Morris and Feldman, 1996; Grandey, 2000; Liu et al., 2004) in non-hospitality service occupations of nurses, bank tellers, and university administrators. Despite development, quantitative research on emotional labor for the hospitality industry can offer needed insight (Kim, 2008) to assist in enhancing the well-being of employees that are especially vulnerable (Pizam, 2004).

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Emotional labor is related to all service occupations (Grandey et al., 2002) and is relevant to marketing, human resources, business, and organizational psychology. Lucas and Deery (2004) indicated that emotional labor is a significant job requirement of hospitality service jobs. Therefore, emotional labor is of particular relevance for hospitality academics and researchers. Pizam (2004) also notes that hospitality employees are particularly vulnerable to the demands for emotional labor, because “their jobs generally require maintaining a friendly and positive disposition even in situations that normally elicit negative emotional reactions such as impatient, demanding or irate customers, hectic work pace, etc” (p. 315). Kim (2008) states that hospitality employees frequently encounter difficult and demanding customers. Despite this notion however, there continues to be a lack of quantitative research in the hospitality academic field and debate exists regarding the antecedents and consequences of emotional labor (Chu and Murrmann, 2006). These researchers suggest that to empirically validate the effects of emotional labor on service providers, more studies are needed in which quantitative evidence is collected from hospitality employees to support the rich texture data of theoretical research. Furthermore, Lucas and Deery (2004) urge that hospitality researchers need to forwardly progress the boundaries of theory making that is hospitality specific, relevant, and useful. Debate continues regarding the conceptualization of and different theoretical approaches to emotional labor (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002) and there is disagreement over its operationalization (Bono and Vey, 2005). More recently, researchers argue that emotional labor studies should investigate individual differences when explaining the variation in emotional labor consequences because individual characteristics affect how an individual performs emotional labor (Diefendorff et al., 2005; Zapf and Holz, 2006). Yet to date, few studies have. Little is known about the role of individual difference variables in predicting emotional labor and its moderating negative impacts. By incorporating the employee focused approach with individual difference variables, this research hopes to provide better understanding of the psychological process of emotional labor and aid in the development of emotional labor theory. To address these gaps, we attempt to extend hospitality theory by developing and testing a model of emotional labor. The purposes of this study are to investigate the emotional management process hospitality employees use while performing emotional labor for their customers, as well as the effects of such labor on employee work outcomes. This research investigates the respective roles of two aspects of emotional labor on two indices of well-being, and the influence of two individual difference variables, affectivity and empathy, using a context specific approach. By investigating these variables, this research fills an important gap in the literature by progressing emotional labor theories as well as providing specific human resource strategies for managing employee emotional labor.

2. Literature review and hypothesis development 2.1. Emotional labor Hochschild’s (1983) conceptualization of emotional labor is based on a service acting paradigm which compares service to a “show”, the service employee to the “actor”, the customer to the “audience”, and the work setting to the “stage”. The work place provides the setting and context for the employee to perform for the customer. To act out the desired emotional expression, three acting strategies are identified: surface acting, deep acting, and genuine acting (Hochschild, 1983; Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993).

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Surface acting refers to the act of displaying an emotion that is not felt and could involve both suppression of felt emotions and feigning unfelt emotions (Henig-Thurau et al., 2006). Surface acting involves employees simulating emotions that are not actually felt by a change in their outward appearance such as expressions, gestures, voice, or tone, in accordance with the required emotions. Deep acting actively invokes thoughts, images, or memories to induce the “right” emotional expression (Hochschild, 1983). In genuine acting, felt emotions are congruent with expressed emotions. Genuine acting is what the employees spontaneously and personally experience and express (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). Bono and Vey (2005) find that there is disagreement over the operationalization of the concept of emotional labor. Therefore, how emotional labor affects employees psychologically is difficult to assess though considerable efforts have been put into its study. An extensive literature review finds some research surrounding negative consequences, such as burn-out or job dissatisfaction (Hochschild, 1983; Wharton, 1993; Morris and Feldman, 1996; Abraham, 1998; Grandey, 2000; Kim, 2008). Research also examines other impacts on an individual’s psychological well-being such as poor self-esteem, depression, role-alienation, and self-alienation (Richman, 1988; Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993; Fineman, 1993; Tolich, 1993; Wharton, 1993). Conversely, some qualitative researchers suggest positive effects of emotional labor such as financial rewards (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1987), increased satisfaction, security, increased self-efficacy and self-esteem (Strickland, 1992; Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993; Tolich, 1993; Wharton, 1993). These studies find that although customers are major stress producers for front-line employees, they also provide employees with many pleasurable and satisfying experiences including a sense of achievement (Wong and Wang, 2009), and at times, create amusing moments and enliven otherwise monotonous tasks (Tolich, 1993). However, a distinction still exists between conceptualizing and defining emotional labor because researchers have used the different theoretical approaches of a job-focused or an employee-focused approach (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002). The job-focused approach emphasizes the presence of emotional labor in one’s job, and focuses on the frequency of emotional display, duration and intensity of emotional display, the variety of emotions to be expressed and emotional dissonance (Morris and Feldman, 1997). Conversely, the employee-focused approach examines the internal-emotion management process of employees who are expected to present the proper emotions while at work (Kruml and Geddes, 2000; Grandey, 2000). This perspective emphasizes the different acting methods required of employees who have to change their outward appearance and behavior, and control their inner emotional state. More recently, researchers argue that emotional labor studies should take into account individual differences when explaining the variation in emotional labor consequences because individual characteristics affect how an individual performs emotional labor (Diefendorff et al., 2005; Zapf and Holz, 2006). In other words, jobs that demand emotional expression do not necessarily have the same effects on all employees. Individual traits and personalities underlie much of the way people think and behave (Ashkanasy et al., 2002). Thus, the employee-focused approach can shed more light on the psychological process of emotional labor and help in the development of plausible emotional labor theories and human resource strategies. Therefore, as the purpose of this study is to examine the effects of emotional labor on employee work outcomes, the employeefocused approach was adopted. We also define emotional labor as the degree of manipulation of one’s inner feelings or outward behavior to exhibit the appropriate emotion in accordance with display rules. Some situations may require a greater degree of

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manipulation of one’s inner feelings (i.e., deep acting) than others (i.e., surface acting), and this may result in different degrees of emotive dissonance and emotive efforts. Previous research often examines behaviors of hospitality employees when constructing theory on emotional labor (Bono and Vey, 2005; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003), yet few studies collect quantitative evidence from hospitality employees to support the rich texture data of theoretical research, which led to the development of the specifically tailored hospitality emotional labor scale (Chu and Murrmann, 2006). While other models exist (Grandey, 2000; Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003; Diefendorff et al., 2005), this study adopted Kruml and Geddes (2000) two-dimensional model of emotive effort and emotive dissonance based on the support of Chu and Murrmann’s (2006) hospitality emotional labor scale. Kruml and Geddes (2000) instrument measures emotive dissonance on a continuum with surface acting and genuine acting on each end. Results suggest that emotive effort aligns with deep acting as effort to display the appropriate emotion increases (Kruml and Geddes, 2000; Chu and Murrmann, 2006). In other words, the two-dimensional factor structure empirically examines the associated antecedents and consequences of emotional labor with the emotive dissonance factor reflecting the difference between surface acting and genuine acting, and the emotive effort factor representing deep acting. We define emotive dissonance as the difference between felt emotions and external expectations of emotional display (Brotheridge and Lee, 2003) and emotive effort as the effort involved in displaying the emotion. 2.2. Antecedents of emotional labor Hochschild (1983) states that the ways in which service providers perform emotional labor are influenced by various individual and situational factors. Some research concentrates on situation-based factors such as job autonomy (Morris and Feldman, 1997; Kim, 2008). More recently, researchers are investigating the role of individual differences as precursors in determining how a person will engage in emotional labor, and if such differences lead to detrimental outcomes for the service provider (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1989; Grandey, 2000; Liu et al., 2004). In keeping with the employee-focused conceptualization of emotional labor, this study proposes two individual factors, affectivity and empathy, as antecedents of emotional labor. These were selected based on the literature review determining that they relate most closely to an individual’s emotional state (Chu and Murrmann, 2006; Bono and Vey, 2005). Affectivity represents a general tendency on the part of an individual to experience a particular mood, to react to things in a particular way and express certain emotions (Lazarus, 1993). Researchers identify two types of affectivity: positive affect (PA) and negative affect (NA). High PAs are individuals who possess high levels of positive affect and experience more positive than negative emotions, such as cheerfulness or enthusiasm. Conversely, high NAs are those with high levels of negative affect who experience more negative emotions, such as irritation or nervousness. Individuals with different affect tendencies evaluate and perceive the same display rules differently (Schaubroeck and Jones, 2000), and thereafter choose to engage in different acting methods. Research demonstrates that NA is generally positively related while PA demonstrates a negative association to surface acting (Brotheridge and Grandey, 2002; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003; Diefendorff et al., 2005). However, despite these findings, no rationale is provided (Kim, 2008). We suggest that when high PAs are asked to display positive emotions, they perform emotional labor with very little “acting” and may hardly recognize the effort of “acting cheerfully.” Conversely NAs need to display such emotions may

be tantamount to faking good cheer (Rafaeli and Sutton, 1989). A qualitative study of tour leaders finds that respondents admitted to displaying fake emotions to cope with situations of emotional dissonance (Wong and Wang, 2009). In other words, this requires employees to engage in “surface acting” which ultimately results in emotive dissonance as the employees may feel one set of emotions, but were required to display another. Consequently, when high NAs feign positive emotions, these individuals may engage in significantly more effort to produce a smile than their PA counterparts (Liu et al., 2004). Therefore, the following four hypotheses are proposed: H1.

Positive affect is negatively related to emotive dissonance.

H2.

Positive affect is negatively related to emotive effort.

H3.

Negative affect is positively related to emotive dissonance.

H4.

Negative affect is positively related to emotive effort.

“Empathy in the broadest sense refers to the reactions of one individual to the observed experiences of another” (Davis, 1983, p. 113). More narrowly, it has been defined as “the immediate experience of the emotions of another person” (Duan and Hill, 1996, p. 263), and is the ability to feel how another person feels. Research suggests that people with empathy are more sensitive to the needs of others, and hence, are perceived as emotionally intelligent people (Goleman, 1995). This ability to relate to people is considered an asset in the service (Parasuraman et al., 1988) and hospitality industry (Lee et al., 2011). A review of the literature surrounding this construct reveals a plethora of, at times, overlapping theories and definitions. Even though, this allows for its study in different situational perspectives (Duan and Hill, 1996). Empathy can be conceptualized as a two-dimensional construct, composed of emotional contagion and empathic concern. Emotional contagion refers to one’s ability to “catch” another’s mood (Hatfield et al., 1994). In other words, it is the flow of emotions from one individual to another, with the receiver “catching” the emotions of the sender. Individuals possessing high emotional contagion are sensitive and relate to the emotions of others, thereby having the ability to share their emotions, i.e., the ability to “feel with” others. Kruml and Geddes (2000) find that the more emotionally contagious a worker is, the less s/he will experience emotive dissonance. Such individuals are more likely to express their true feelings. Likewise, people who can “feel with” others will be more likely to exert efforts to display the desirable emotions based on the specific circumstances. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed for this study: H5. Emotional contagion is negatively related to emotive dissonance. H6.

Emotional contagion is positively related to emotive effort.

Davis (1983) describes empathic concern as concern for the well-being of others and the emotions one has toward a distressed target. In other words, when employees respond with empathic concern, their feelings are not aroused, nor do they parallel those of the customer. Employees “feel for” customers, but do not “feel with” them (Kruml and Geddes, 2000). Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) suggest that emotive dissonance is associated with the depth of concern a service provider has for the welfare of his or her customers. When individuals possess a high level of empathic concern, they utilize genuine acting to perform emotional labor. Even when a simultaneous genuine response is difficult to achieve, individuals with high empathic concern use deep acting to generate emotions and responses appropriate to the situation. The various degrees of empathic concern affect how one enacts emotional

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labor. Based on these arguments, the following two hypotheses are developed: H7. Empathic concern is negatively related to emotive dissonance. H8.

Empathic concern is positively related to emotive effort.

2.3. Consequences of emotional labor To understand what effect individual characteristics of affectivity and empathy have on emotional labor through emotive dissonance and emotive effort, this study examines two work outcomes: job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Job satisfaction is defined as a positive pleasant emotional state, resulting from an employee’s appraisal of his or her job (Locke, 1976). Hochschild (1983) suggests that to manage something as personal as emotions for commercial purposes would be inherently unsatisfying. Qualitative research argues that when there is the right person-job-fit, there will be a higher level of emotional harmony and job satisfaction (Johanson and Woods, 2008). Other researchers find job satisfaction to be negatively associated with surface acting (Morris and Feldman, 1997; Grandey, 2000). Hence, it is predicted that an increase in emotive dissonance would lead to decreased job satisfaction. There is less empirical support for the relationship between deep acting (emotive effort) and job satisfaction. It is argued that those who are more satisfied are more likely engaged in a positive, work-related state of mind and exhibit organizational citizenship behavior (Lee et al., 2011) such as display rules. In addition, Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) suggest that when employees are aware of the discrepancy between felt-emotion and desired-emotion they “fake in good faith” and try to close the emotional gap through deep acting. This makes them feel less phony, rewards them through the resulting successful social interaction, and consequently leads to a positive work outcome, just as in genuine acting. Hence, it is predicted that employees who exerted “deep acting” effort would experience increased levels of job satisfaction. Therefore, the following two hypotheses are proposed: H9. H10.

Emotive dissonance is negatively related to job satisfaction. Emotive effort is positively related to job satisfaction.

Maslach (1982) defines emotional exhaustion as a wearing out and overextension of the feelings of an employee at work. More specifically, emotionally exhausted individuals are those who find themselves in emotionally charged situations on a regular basis. A number of research studies report significant and positive correlations between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion ranging from .20 to .48 (Morris and Feldman, 1997; Abraham, 1998; Grandey, 2000; Kruml and Geddes, 2000; Zapf, 2002; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003). Similar results are found for emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion (Morris and Feldman, 1997; Grandey, 2000; Kruml and Geddes, 2000). Faking one’s emotions or emotional dissonance is expected to lead to higher strain (Bono and Vey, 2005). Hence, people who display “fake” emotions, i.e., engage in surface acting, experience a relatively high level of emotional exhaustion; while those who display genuine emotions, i.e., engage in deep acting, experience a relatively low level of emotional exhaustion. Based on this research, two final hypotheses are proposed for this study: H11. Emotive dissonance is positively related to emotional exhaustion. H12. Emotive effort is negatively related to emotional exhaustion.

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3. Methodology 3.1. The measurement of variables The survey instrument includes scales measuring (1) emotional labor, using the two sub-dimensions of emotive dissonance and emotive effort, (2) three antecedent constructs of emotional labor—affectivity, emotional contagion and empathic concern and (3) two consequent constructs of emotional labor—job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. 3.1.1. Emotional labor Hospitality employee emotional labor was measured using a 19item scale developed by Chu and Murrmann (2006). The scale is based on the two-factor model developed by Kruml and Geddes (2000) and included 11 items measuring emotive dissonance, and 8 items measuring emotive efforts. Items representative of emotive dissonance include “I have to cover up my true feelings when dealing with customers” and “I put on an act in order to deal with customers in an appropriate way”. Items representative of the scale measuring emotive effort include “I try to change my actual feelings to match those that I must express to customers” and “I try to talk myself out of feeling what I really feel when helping customers”. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency for which they engaged in these activities using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = rarely and 7 = always). The scale has been reported to have good internal consistency with an alpha coefficient of 0.88 (emotive dissonance) and 0.71 (emotive effort) (Chu and Murrmann, 2006). 3.1.2. Affectivity Employee emotional experience, i.e., positive and negative affectivity, was measured using the 20-item Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) developed by Watson et al. (1988). The scale is probably the most widely used to measure affectivity (Wright and Cropanzano, 1998) and consists of two, ten-item mood scales, one measuring positive affectivity, e.g. “enthusiastic”, “interested”, “inspired”, and one measuring negativity affectivity, e.g. “guilty”, “jittery”, “nervous”. Respondents were asked to indicate the frequency that they experienced these during their workday using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = rarely to 7 = always). A higher the score indicates a greater tendency toward experiencing a positive or negative mood. 3.1.3. Emotional contagion The ability to feel with others, e.g. “The people around me have great influence on my mood”, was measured using seven items reflecting emotional contagion from Mehrabian and Epstein’s (1972) Emotional Empathy Scale. Research using this scale has reported good reliability (alpha coefficient 0.72) (Kruml and Geddes, 2000). Responses were measured using a 7-point Likert scale 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. 3.1.4. Empathic concern Seven items measuring empathic concern were adopted from the Individual Reactivity Index (IRI) (Davis, 1983). The IRI scale has been widely adopted and has been suggested as a valid scale measuring empathy (Dillard and Hunter, 1989) with good reliability (Omdahl and O’Donnell, 1999). Items in this scale included “I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than myself” and “When I see someone being taken advantage of, I feel kind of protective toward them”. Responses were measured using a 7-point Likert scale 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree. 3.1.5. Job satisfaction Job satisfaction was measured using five items from the Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman and Oldham, 1975). The scale items

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asked respondents to indicate their agreement with statements such as “I am satisfied with the kind of work I do in this job”. Since the study investigated how performing emotional labor affects one’s satisfaction with the job, assessing an individual’s overall job satisfaction was viewed as more appropriate than measuring their satisfaction with different aspects of their jobs such as pay. Respondents were asked to indicate the level of satisfaction they experienced during their workday using a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). 3.1.6. Emotional exhaustion A nine-item scale was constructed to measure the feeling of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one’s work, i.e., emotional exhaustion. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach and Jackson, 1981) was used as a starting point for its construction. The scale was originally designed to measure burnout in terms of frequency and intensity. Items in the scale included “I feel emotionally drained from my work”, and “Working with people directly puts too much stress on me”. Pre-tests suggested the removal of two items from the questionnaire. Items were answered using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” where a high degree of emotional exhaustion is reflected in high scores on the scale. The questionnaire was pre-tested with one hundred customer contact hospitality employees. The majority of the test respondents were female (51.3%) and most had more than two years of hospitality industry experience (45%). The average length of work experience was 2.3 years. Pre-testing was done to minimize wording error, and to examine the uni-dimensionality of each construct, using principle components factor analysis. A separate factor analysis was conducted for each construct, since the factor structure for each variable was pre-determined. This process suggested the elimination of six items from emotional contagion, empathy concern, and emotional exhaustion due to unclear meaning or low factor loadings. Some items were rephrased for better clarification. 3.2. The sample and the procedure Seventeen hotels located on the east coast of the U.S. participated in the study. The general manager or HR director for each property was asked to distribute the study’s self-reported questionnaire, along with a letter outlining the intent of the research, to his/her full-time employees working in direct customer contact positions. The questionnaires were returned to them and then sent back to the researchers. A total of 285 questionnaires were returned. Thirty-two responses were not usable because the data were incomplete or inadequate. Thus, the final sample size included data from 253 respondents for testing the hypotheses. The majority of respondents were female (63%), Caucasian (58%), under 40 years old (70%), and with one to four years of tenure at current positions (67%). Thirty-three percent of time entry-level

employees worked in food service and 28% worked at the front desk while 15% held managerial positions. Twenty-six percent of the respondents had worked in customer-contact positions for periods varying between one and four years, another 26% between four and eight years and 15.8% had worked in customer contact positions for more than 20 years. 3.3. Analysis of data The data were analyzed with structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses, using LISREL 8.3 (Jöreskog and Sörbom, 1998), and adopting the two-stage approach based on measurement and structural models. In the measurement model, the posited relationships of the observed variables to each construct were examined using maximum likelihood (ML) confirmatory factor analysis as well as examining the reliability and discriminate validity of the research variables. After confirming the relationships, a structural model was performed to test the relationship among constructs against the proposed hypotheses. 4. Results Means, standard deviations, correlations, and construct reliability estimates are shown in Table 1. All reliability estimates were over 0.6, indicating acceptable internal consistency coefficients. The alpha values for emotive dissonance and emotive effort were 0.82 and 0.70, respectively (see Note, Table 1). The measurement model was first examined to specify the posited relationships of the observed variables to the latent variables. Sixty-one indicators were included to measure eight latent constructs. Before testing the overall measurement model, it is important to examine the uni-dimensionality of each construct (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). Therefore, each construct was examined to ensure that the indicators were valid and reliable in the measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Construct validity was confirmed as all observed indicators significantly loaded on their latent variables. Specifically, discriminant validity for each construct in the measurement model was secured by pairing constructs to test against one another (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). All chi-square differences were significant at p < .00, confirming that all constructs possess discriminant validity. In addition, convergent validity is present in the measurement model if all observable indicators load significantly on their latent variables (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). In this study, all observable indicators loaded significantly on their respective latent variables. However, although each construct was confirmed in its uni-dimensional measurement, when putting all the constructs together in one inclusive model, the fit indices became weaker due to the complexity of the factor structure. Therefore, based on the modification indices, the overall model needed to be re-specified

Table 1 Means, standard deviations, correlations, and construct reliabilities. Variables

Mean

Std. dev.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1. Positive affect 2. Negative affect 3. Emotional contagion 4. Emotional concern 5. Emotive dissonance 6. Emotive effort 7. Job satisfaction 8. Emotional exhaustion

5.71 2.41 2.80 5.20 4.92 4.17 4.83 2.79

.89 1.0 .89 .96 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.3

(.90) −.36** −.35** .31** .35** .05 .31** −.35**

(.88) .41** −.29** −.40** .13* −.32** .49**

(.65) −.21** −.27** .15** −.14* .34**

(.69) .24** .09 .12* −.25**

(.87) −.39** .38** −.51**

(.70) −.06 .19**

(.77) −.62**

(.87)

Note: N = 253. Reliabilities are in parentheses. * p < .05. ** p < .01.

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Table 2 Fit statistics and measurement scale properties (N = 253). Construct and indicators

Completely standardized loadingsa

Positive affect Enthusiastic Interested Inspired Negative affect Guilty Jittery Nervous Emotional contagion I cannot continue to feel OK if people around me are depressed. I become nervous if others around me seem to be nervous. The people around me have great influence on my mood. Empathic concern I often have tender, concerned feelings for people less fortunate than myself. When I see someone being taken advantage of, I feel kind of protective toward them. I would describe myself as a pretty soft-hearted person. Emotive dissonance I put on a mask in order to express the right emotions for my job. I have to cover up my true feelings when dealing with customers. I display emotions that I am not actually feeling. I fake the emotions I show when dealing with customers. I put on an act in order to deal with customers in an appropriate way. Emotive effort I work at calling up the feelings I need to show to customers. I try to talk myself out of feeling what I really feel when helping customers I try to change my actual feelings to match those that I must express to customers. Emotional exhaustion I feel frustrated by my job. Working with people directly puts too much stress on me. Job satisfaction I am satisfied with the kind of work I do in this job. Generally speaking, I am very satisfied with this job. Fit statistics Chi-square = 336.18 (df = 269, p-value = .0033) RMSEA = .031 CFI = .96 GFI = .91 NNFI = .96 IFI = .96

.76 .76 .81 .73 .72 .77 .42 .74 .59 .52 .64 .36 .68 .62 .58 .76 .77 .63 .67 .68 .82 .77 .60 .79

Construct/indicator reliability

Error variance

.71 .58 .58 .66 .66 .53 .51 .59 .65 .18 .55 .35 .63 .27 .40 .13 .82 .46 .39 .34 .57 .59 .70 .40 .45 .47 .77 .68 .60 .65 .35 .62

.29 .42 .42 .34 .34 .47 .49 .41 .35 .82 .45 .65 .39 .73 .60 .87 .28 .54 .61 .66 .43 .41 .30 .60 .55 .53 .23 .32 .40 .35 .65 .38

Note: N = 253. a All loadings are significant at p < .05 level.

to improve the model fit by deleting indicators that correlated highly with other indicators. As a result, the number of indicators decreased from 37 to 24. The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) retained a total number of 24 observed indicators for eight latent variables in the measurement model, as seen in Table 2. Although the chi-square value was significant at the 0.05 level, other fit-indices indicated a good fit between the model and the data (RMSEA = .031; CFI = .96; GFI = .91; IFI = .96; NNFI = .96). The second step in the structural equation modeling (SEM) was to identify the relationships among exogenous and endogenous variables. An analysis of the initial model resulted in a significant chi-square value of 400.71 (df = 234) indicating that the initial model was not fully supported by the data (Model 1 in Table 3). However, a further review of the fit indices suggested

that the initial structural model provided evidence of a good fit (RMSEA = .049; CFI = .91; GFI = .90). LISREL output suggested several modifications of indices to enhance the goodness-of-fit. Consequently, the modified model generated better goodness-of-fit figures. Model 4 in Table 3 presents the results of adding three parameters—emotive dissonance to emotive effort, emotional contagion to emotional exhaustion, and negative affect (NA) to emotional exhaustion. The chi-square value dropped and other fit indices increased each time a parameter was added. After three parameters were added, the model fit improved to an overall chi-square value of 333.71 (df = 231), CFI value of .94, GFI value of .92, and RMSEA value of .038 (Model 4 in Table 3) where the chi-square differences were all statistically significant. A schematic representation of this final

Table 3 Summary of specifications and fit statistics for the hypothesized model. Model

Parameter added

X2

df

RMSEA

CFI

GFI

X2

df

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3. Model 4.

Emotive dissonance to emotive effort Emotional contagion to emotional exhaustion Negative affect to emotional exhaustion

400.71 366.99 347.70 333.71

234 233 232 231

.049 .041 .040 .038

.91 .94 .94 .94

.90 .91 .91 .92

33.72* 19.29* 13.99*

1 1 1

*

Significant at p < .05 level.

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Fig. 1. Structural model.

structural model that includes a completely standardized solution is presented in Fig. 1 where the solid line indicates the supported hypotheses and the dotted line indicates non-supported hypotheses. 5. Discussion The results of this study confirm the two-dimensional model of emotive dissonance and emotive effort, proposed by Kruml and Geddes (2000). The empirical testing evidenced a good internal consistency for both. The results indicate that the psychological process of emotional labor may vary across individuals, and so do the consequences. The hypotheses related to positive affect (PA), an antecedent of emotional labor, are confirmed by the empirical evidence. Hospitality employees with higher levels of positive affect tended to experience less emotive dissonance. Thus, they perform genuine hospitality without much effort. This empirical finding corresponds to what Rafaeli and Sutton (1987) and Johanson and Woods (2008) suggest. If there is a good fit between personality and job characteristics, employees experience more emotional harmony than emotional dissonance. The results did not support Hypothesis 3, which tested the relationship between negative affect (NA) and emotive dissonance. However, individuals with higher NA, exert more effort to enact emotional labor, which confirms Hypothesis 4. These results indicate that those with higher levels of NA do not necessarily experience more emotive dissonance. In some situations where they successfully internalize the display rules, they may try harder to present the required emotional expressions. The hypotheses related to empathy yielded mixed results. Contrary to Hypothesis 5, there is no significant relationship between

emotional contagion and emotive dissonance. However, a positive relationship between emotional contagion and emotive effort (Hypothesis 6) is confirmed. This finding is consistent with prior research, which suggested that emotional contagion evokes altruistic actions toward the target person (Duan and Hill, 1996). Therefore, high emotional contagion individuals put forth more effort to induce a positive mood to meet customer expectations. Empathic concern, a construct of empathy, was found to be associated with neither emotive dissonance (Hypothesis 7) nor emotive effort (Hypothesis 8). The degree of an employee’s empathetic concern may not be a strong indicator of how employees enact emotional labor. The consequences of emotional labor, job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion, associated differently with emotive dissonance and emotive effort. As predicted, emotive effort (deep acting) associates positively with job satisfaction and negatively with emotional exhaustion. In other words, emotive effort (deep acting) leads to positive work outcomes for employees. These results confirm Hypotheses 10 and 12, and support Hochschild’s observation, that when employees successfully perform deep acting, they feel less phony and are more intrinsically rewarded by their performance. Contrary to our predication, emotive dissonance is positively associated with job satisfaction, and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion. The results show that when employees feel more emotive dissonance, which is the outcome of surface acting, they feel less emotionally exhausted and more satisfied with their jobs. On the other hand, when employees experience less emotive dissonance, which is the outcome of genuine acting, they feel more emotionally “worn out” and are less satisfied with their jobs. Taken together, these results show that surface acting protects an individual from getting emotionally drained by the job, and genuine acting makes an individual more vulnerable to service encounter

K.H. Chu et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 31 (2012) 906–915

hazards. These findings are contradictory to the hypotheses as well as prior research (Morris and Feldman, 1996; Grandey, 2000), yet lend support to some qualitative studies (Paules, 1991; Hochschild, 1983; Leinder, 1993). According to Hochschild (1983), genuine acting is a product of fusing the private self and the public self. The fusion of the “real” self and the “acting” self will be challenged by some unpleasant interactions with difficult customers, especially those who want to exercise the privilege that the “customer is always right.” Under such circumstances, employees are very often hurt, angered, or distressed because they cannot keep themselves at a safe emotional distance from their customers. On the other hand, surface acting allows employees to cognitively distance themselves from unpleasant service episodes, and thereby maintain their emotional equilibrium (Ashforth and Humphrey, 1993). Based on observations of flight attendants, Hochschild (1983) finds that recently hired service employees tend to genuinely enact emotional labor to meet customer expectations and the organizations’ expectations. However, as time goes by, the intensive public contact or the accumulation of unpleasant experiences with customers forces them to invest less and less of their true selves in their jobs to salvage a sense of self-esteem (Hochschild, 1983). They learn to use surface acting as self-protection. Thus, service employees feel less emotionally exhausted and more satisfied with their jobs. Wharton (1993) also reports a positive relationship between emotional labor and job satisfaction among wait staff in the hospitality industry. An examination of the effects of different acting strategies on employee work outcomes would not be complete without taking into account the importance of individual differences. This is an important and worthy of discussion after an examination of the consequences of emotional labor in relation to positive affect, negative affect, and emotional contagion. A closer examination of the consequences of emotional labor on employees with higher levels of PA reveals that such employees experience more negative work outcomes. Higher PAs, as discussed earlier, tend to genuinely enact emotional labor, and thus experience less emotive dissonance and exert less emotive effort, which in turn, results in negative work outcomes for them (low job satisfaction and high emotional exhaustion). And, from a service quality perspective, different acting techniques bring about different levels of authenticity of hospitality spirit shown to customers in the course of service. Genuine acting provides a more personalized and authentic service quality, followed by deep acting. Surface acting leads to positive work outcomes for employees; but from the customer’s perspective, surface acting may not satisfy the demand for genuine hospitality. Considering both employee work outcomes and service quality, deep acting is the acting technique that companies need to emphasize. Deep acting brings positive work outcomes for employees as emotive effort associates negatively with emotional exhaustion and positively with job satisfaction. It also serves as a mediator between NA and emotional exhaustion, and between emotional contagion and emotional exhaustion. As can be seen in Fig. 1, there are direct positive connections between NA and both emotional contagion and emotional exhaustion. These relationships indicate that high negative affect and high emotional contagion employees tend to experience more emotional exhaustion. However, the presence of emotive effort brings positive work outcomes for higher NAs and high emotional contagion employees, since the connection of emotive effort to emotional exhaustion is negative. The results suggest that when being asked to express positive emotions for commercial purposes, individuals with higher NA feel exhausted because they are required to express an emotion that they do not often experience. But if they could learn how to “deep act” positive emotions, they may feel less emotionally exhausted.

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Similarly, the ability to “feel with” another is assumed to be an asset in performing emotional labor. Sometimes, however, this ability can become a liability. High emotional contagion employees may get easily frustrated and exhausted if something goes wrong during the service encounter since customer-employee interaction is vital in determining how high such employees feel about their jobs. By exercising deep acting techniques, high “emotional contagion” employees can learn to personalize or depersonalize a service encounter as needed. Thus the presence of emotive effort changes the negative consequences to positive ones for high emotional contagion employees. Traditionally, the hospitality industry looks for the “right” person to hire. This means that management attempts to hire employees who are likely to display the desired company service standards and personality displays (Johanson and Woods, 2008). High positive affect individuals are considered ideal job candidates within the hospitality industry, especially for frontline positions. Contrary to this traditional belief, this study finds that when hiring high PAs for their ability to provide excellent service, companies also run the risk of losing them quickly because they suffer more of the negative effects of emotional labor and may thus leave the industry early. This supports previous research that found that high PA individuals who are dissatisfied with their jobs experience more withdrawal cognitions and have a greater intention to quit (Shaw, 1999) and proactively seek to change their situation (Judge, 1993). This could be one possible reason for the high employee turnover rate in the industry. As a result, relying on proper selection may not be the best or the only employment strategy. Compared with health workers or social workers, who are properly trained about how to engage in emotional labor, hospitality employees are simply asked to cope with it “or else” and not given any assistance in managing the emotional dissonance (Pizam, 2004, p. 316). While there was this recent call upon HR managers to initiate, our research supports the notion that hospitality organizations need to develop emotion-management training programs. Such training courses will help employees not only to act out emotional labor but also to cope with the negative consequences of emotional labor in a constructive way. Furthermore, as popular press and practitioner literature is increasingly filled with stories of irate customers (Kinman, 2009), employees, managers, and hospitality firms may particularly benefit from trainees being taught strategies to cope with enraged, irate customers. One such approach can involve the perspective-taking technique (Parker and Axtell, 2001) which places the employee in the customers’ shoes and thereby increases their ability to adopt a customer’s viewpoint. Another approach uses method-acting (Stanislavski, 1965) which encourages employees to explore how relevant events are related to appropriate responsive emotions and include thinking about happy things to elicit positive feelings. Such advanced training programs may provide employees with the necessary skills that lead to providing more satisfying employee–customer interactions. And ultimately, the organization will be the beneficiary with happy employees and happy customers. The limitations of the study primarily revolved around sampling. The samples were taken from various hotels, which had different levels of service quality. Hotels with different levels of service may make different demands on emotional labor. Thus, it is suggested that future researchers compare emotional labor performed by employees from hotels with different levels of service. An additional limitation is the measurement issue of emotional exhaustion. In this study, emotional exhaustion is measured using level of agreement scale to maintain a labeling consistency with other constructs being measured. However, emotional exhaustion more likely be viewed as the frequency of exhausted feelings that one experiences. Using an agreement response may affect participants’ response toward emotional exhaustion. Therefore, it is

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suggested that the results related to emotional exhaustion should be interpreted with caution, and future researchers should consider the use of a frequency scale when measuring this construct. The positive association between emotional dissonance and job satisfaction and negatively associated with emotional exhaustion are unexpected relationships. The authors suggest that when employees experience less emotive dissonance, as an outcome of genuine acting, they may become more emotionally worn out and job satisfaction decreases. Future research should further investigate these unexpected relationships. Hochschild (1983) suggests that there are situational and individual factors that influence the way individuals perform emotional labor. This study was conducted to investigate how individual factors influence employees when enacting emotional labor. Future research may include some situational factors (i.e., the presence of display rules, organizational support) as antecedents of emotional labor, and these preliminary efforts may have to be extended to map out the constructs that determine the types of emotional labor found in different kinds of service jobs. The role of length of experience is also noteworthy of future research in order to test Hochschild’s observations as these studies have been inconclusive. Bolton (2005) finds evidence that emotional labor is positively related to job satisfaction for employees who engage in emotional labor strategies for altruistic reasons. Future studies may also test empathy, perhaps as it moderates the negative impact of emotional labor on well-being or the role of empathy toward specific targets of customers, supervisors, and coworkers.

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