Yews (Taxus) along the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region: Exploring the ethnopharmacological relevance among communities of Mongol and Caucasian origins

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 147 (2013) 190–203

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Yews (Taxus) along the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region: Exploring the ethnopharmacological relevance among communities of Mongol and Caucasian origins a,d,n ¨ Ram C. Poudel a,b,c,d, Lian-Ming Gao a,n, Michael Moller , Sushim R. Baral e, Yadav Uprety f, Jie Liu a,b, De-Zhu Li a,b,n a

Key Laboratory of Biodiversity and Biogeography, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China Plant Germplasm and Genomics Center, Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China The Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China d Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 20A Inverleith Row, Edinburgh EH3 5LR, Scotland, UK e National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories, Department of Plant Resources, PO Box 3708, Godawari, Lalitpur, Nepal f Canada Research Chair in Aboriginal Forestry, Universite´ du Que´bec en Abitibi-Te´miscamingue, 445 Boulevard de l’Universite´, Rouyn-Noranda, Que´bec, Canada J9X 5E4 b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 13 October 2012 Received in revised form 23 February 2013 Accepted 27 February 2013 Available online 7 March 2013

Ethnopharmacological relevance: Three species of yews Taxus contorta Griff., Taxus mairei (Leme´e & Le´v.) S.Y. Hu ex T.S. Liu and Taxus wallichiana Zucc. distributed in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region have been commercially exploited in recent decades to extract an anticancer chemotherapeutic drug ’Taxol’. Additionally, indigenous people of this region are using yews for several other purposes including gastro-intestinal disorders, respiratory problems, skeletal system disorders, and as edible fruit, fodder, fish poison, traditional veterinary medicine, among others. Aim of the study: The study was designed to document and evaluate knowledge concerning uses of yews among indigenous communities of Mongol and Caucasian origins. Materials and methods: Ethnobotanical knowledge from 10 major ethnic/caste groups of Mongol and Caucasian origins in the Nepal Himalayas was documented in 2010 and 2011 from 27 sites covering the extant distribution range of the three species of Taxus. A total of 72 key informants (60 men, 12 women), recommended by the majority of people in informal group discussions at each study site, were interviewed to collect information on the importance of yews. Results: This study reports multidimensional uses of yews commonly practiced by different indigenous communities of Nepal and compared those with published uses along the HKH region. The key informants cited a total 45 uses under 21 categories. A greater use diversity and high consensus value for use types were recorded for medicinal uses (gastro-intestinal ailments, cough and cold, skeletomuscular system problem and others medicinal importance) followed by fruit consumption, household tools, agriculture implements and timber. A decline of yew populations and associated traditional knowledge among the younger generations of indigenous people was found. Conclusion: The present study shows a strong agreement of ethnobotanical knowledge on yews between communities of Mongols and Caucasian origins. Our findings further revealed the potential for additional therapeutic applications in yews of the HKH region, besides cancer treatment. To compensate the low yield of ’Taxol’, and the fact that three yew species are involved, the reported species-specific curative properties need to be validated scientifically and evaluated clinically. Moreover, initiatives should be taken immediately to stop further degradation of yew populations and the associated indigenous knowledge in the HKH region. & 2013 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.

Keywords: Hindu Kush-Himalaya Nepal Indigenous knowledge Gastro-intestinal ailments Taxines Bioprospecting

1. Introduction

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Corresponding authors at: Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 132 Lanhei Road, Kunming, Yunnan 650240, China. Tel.: þ86 871 5223505; fax: þ86 871 5217791. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L.-M. Gao), ¨ [email protected] (M. Moller), [email protected] (D.-Z. Li). 0378-8741/$ - see front matter & 2013 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2013.02.031

Species of Taxus (yews) are likely one of the most intensely investigated plants for their effectiveness to treat cancer and the associated negative impacts on natural populations due to overexploitation. After the discovery of the anticancer compound paclitaxel and the development of the chemotherapeutic drug

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’Taxol’ (Wani et al., 1971), the medicinal importance of yews has increased many folds. However, yews and their products have a long history of utilization throughout human history (Rogers, 1935). Several archeological records show the uses of yews from Neolithic to the Roman period for bows, axe shafts and spears (Hartzell, 1991). For example, the oldest known wooden tool that was found in Essex of England is a spear made from a shoot of a Taxus baccata L. This is also a testimony of the durability of yew wood (Oakley et al., 1977; Wilkinson, 1973). In Europe, Celts and Christians, specifically on the British Isles, had a great reverence for yew trees (Delahunty, 2007; Thomas and Polwart, 2003). Since they have a long life span ( 41000 years), yews were planted in churchyards as a symbol of eternal life. For centuries the indigenous communities in North America and Asia also highly prized utensils and furniture made of yew wood and still value its durability and strong decay-resistant qualities (Alaback et al., 1994; Gunther, 1945; Singh et al., 1990). Yews have also been highly regarded as medicine for hundreds of years by indigenous people (Gunther, 1945; Hartzell, 1991; Manandhar, 2002; Uprety et al., 2012a) of different ethnic background and by several medicinal systems, such as the Unani and Ayurveda in India (Dash, 1994) or the Han pharmacopoeia in China (Li et al., 2011). While yews have recently gained a reputation as an anticancer plant, documentation of several other therapeutic uses might be helpful to maximize the benefits from Taxus. Documentation of indigenous knowledge of various communities from different regions on different use values of a plant species may be of significance in solving complex health related problems (Kunwar and Bussmann, 2008; Reyes-Garcı´a et al., 2004; Uprety et al., 2010). Moreover, traditional knowledge which passes orally from generation to generation is on the verge of extinction, due to the disruption of cultural set-ups caused by a rapid socio-economic transformation and modernization of society (Gadgil et al., 1993). Since the younger generations are becoming more and more reluctant to adopt traditional practices, the older generations are left with nobody to handover their knowledge to (Signorini et al., 2009). In addition, several plant species themselves are disappearing at an alarming rate mainly at higher altitudes due to overharvesting, habitat destruction and abrupt climate change (Uprety et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2009). In this scenario, a systematic documentation of indigenous knowledge and its proper integration into scientific research may provide incentives for the sustainable utilization and conservation of a plant species (Uprety et al., 2012b). Pharmacological studies on some of the plant-based traditional therapeutic practices could lead to the development of drugs for several life threatening diseases (McClatchey et al., 2009). In addition, outstanding conservation and management practices prevalent in a community can be promoted and replicated in other areas (Hamilton, 2008). The genus Taxus comprises about 10 species which occur as scattered understorey forest trees mainly in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere and mountains of tropical SE Asia (Farjon, 2010). In the past, yews occurring along the Hindu KushHimalaya (HKH) and adjacent regions were regarded as belonging to one species, Taxus baccata (De Laubenfels, 1988), while Spjut over-split the species into six entities in this region, Taxus celebica (Warb.) H.L. Li, Taxus contorta Griff. var. contorta, Taxus contorta Griff. var. mucronata Spjut, Taxus phytonii Spjut, Taxus sumatrana (Miq.) de Laubenfels and Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (Spjut, 2007). Shah et al. (2008), on the basis of molecular and morphological data, showed that the European Taxus baccata only reaches eastwards into Iran and that it is then replaced by Taxus contorta Griff. (as Taxus fuana Nan Li & R.R. Mill) spreading from Pakistan to western Nepal, where it is then replaced by Taxus wallichiana Zucc. Recently, Poudel et al. (2012) using an integrative molecular-morphological taxonomic approach, demonstrated

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the occurrence of a third species in Nepal, viz. Taxus mairei (Leme´e & Le´v.) S.Y. Hu ex T.S. Liu, a species that has previously been considered to be endemic to the South of China. While detailed information on ancient and indigenous uses of yews in Europe and North America is available, this information is missing for the Himalayas. The Nepal Himalayas, situated approximately at the center of the HKH region, harbor all three species of Taxus. Nepal is a country of great diversity in terms of ethnicity, language, culture and ecology. Due to the complex topography and poor infrastructure development in Nepal, the majority of people live in rural areas and rely heavily on forests for their daily livelihood (Rayamajhi, 2009; Rijal et al., 2011). Indigenous people often live nearby forests and possess a substantial amount of traditional knowledge on plant utilization, with more than half of the higher plants in Nepal used in ethnomedicine (Kunwar and Bussmann, 2008). At the local floristic level, about a quarter of the plant species are important in medicine (Manandhar, 2002; Shrestha et al., 2000). Himalayan medicinal plants form important constituents of alternative medicinal systems such as Amchi, Ayurveda, Han Chinese, Unani and other traditional medicine systems (folklore and faith healing) that are prevalent in this region (Baral and Kurmi, 2006). A total of 125 ethnic groups and 123 languages/dialects are legally recognized in Nepal (CBS, 2012); its ethnographic structure comprises two major groups, descendants of Mongols close to Tibet towards the North and the East, and Caucasians in the South and the West, the Indo-Gangetic plain (Bhattachan and Pyakuryal, 1996). In this paper, we will address two questions: are indigenous ethnic/caste groups rich in indigenous knowledge on the ethnomedicinal and other values of Taxus in this region? And since Nepal is inhabited by different ethnic/caste groups migrated from the North (Mongol derived) and the West/South (Caucasian derived), does the indigenous knowledge they possess show similarities with people living in other parts of the HKH region? These are intriguing questions arising from the position of the Nepal Himalayas at the crossroads of different phytogeographic and ethnogeographic zones. Our aim was to investigate ethnobotanical uses of yews in Nepal Himalayas and to integrate our field-based data with published ethnobotanical uses of yews from different parts of the HKH region. We also aimed to compare ethnobotanical data at the regional level and highlight cross cultural uses that may provide evidence for bioactivity or efficacy of yew parts or products (Saslis-Lagoudakis et al., 2011; Uprety et al., 2010). Ethnobotanical studies are not new along the HKH region including Nepal (Jain, 2002; Kunwar and Bussmann, 2008; Manandhar, 2002; Shrestha et al., 2004). However, an organized field based study on a specific plant species exploring several indigenous uses among different ethnic/caste groups has not been carried out before.

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Study area The study was carried out in the Nepal Himalayas (N 261220 – 30127, E 80140 –881120 ), situated approximately in the middle of 3500 km long East-West running mountain ranges from the East of Afghanistan to the Northwest of Yunnan, China, generally known as the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region (Fig. 1). Nepal is a predominantly mountainous country with elevations ranging from 64 to 8848 m, including the world’s highest mountain, Mount Everest, also called Sagarmatha (Nepal) or Zhumulangma (China). A great diversity of habitats and vegetation types occurs along the altitudinal gradients. The present study was conducted mainly in three ecological zones, the subtropical (1600–2000 m), the temperate (2000–3000 m), and

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Fig. 1. Ethnographic map of Nepal showing both study sites and population localities of the three species of Taxus. Circles in different color represent study sites and population localities; dark blue circles—Taxus contorta, black circles—Taxus mairei and red circles—Taxus wallichiana. Areas with different color show the native area of 10 studied ethnic/caste groups (Gurung, Jirel/Sunwar, Limbu, Magar, Rai, Tamang, Himali-Bhotia, Sherpa, Thakali and Hill castes Parbate). The ethnographic map was modified from Gurung et al. (2006). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

the lower subalpine zone (3000–3600 m), where the three species of Taxus viz. Taxus contorta, Taxus mairei and Taxus wallichiana occur naturally (Poudel et al., 2012). The study sites were selected to cover the entire distribution ranges of all three Taxus species in Nepal and the native areas of major ethnic/caste groups (Fig. 1). We documented indigenous knowledge of nine major ethnic groups and a group called hill castes ’Parbate’ (Gurung et al., 2006). The percentage of the total population of these ethnic groups according to the census in 2011 is Magar (7.1%), Tamang (5.8%), Gurung (2.39%), Rai (2.3%), Limbu (1.58%), Sherpa (0.68%), Thakali (0.06%), Jirel/Sunwar (0.44%), and Himali-Bhotia (0.08%). Gurung et al. (2006) suggested mid-hills of far western and mid western development regions as the native area for different castes of caucasian origin, known as ’Parbate’. They form 28.8% of the total population in Nepal (CBS, 2012), and live together with other ethnic groups in the mid-hills. Thus, we applied the term hill castes ’Parbate’ in a slightly broader sense in this study. The 27 study sites were distributed across the ethnic/ caste groups as follows: Gurung: 4 (3 in Kaski, 1 in Lamjung), Himali-Bhotia: 3 (1 in Gorkha, 2 in Manang), hill castes ’Parbate’: 5 (1 in each Darchula, Doti, Jumla, Kavre, Sindhuli), Jirel/Sunwar: 1 (Ramechhap), Limbu: 2 (1 in each Panchthar, Taplejung), Magar: 4 (2 in Baglung, 1 in Kaski, 1 in Myagdi), Rai: 1 (Sankhuwasabha), Sherpa: 2 (1 in each Sagarmatha, Sindupalchok), Tamang: 4 (1 in each Dolakha, Kathmandu, Rasuwa, Sindhupalchok) and Thakali: 1 (Mustang). In Nepal, Taxus mairei occurs only in two sites (Poudel et al., 2012) and both were included in this study. Given the rare, scattered and patchy distribution of Taxus, biases may have occurred while selecting the number of study sites from the native areas of ethnic/caste groups, but will have been compensated for by the high number of sites. 2.2. Data collection The 27 study sites were visited in 2010 and 2011 to collect the ethnobotanical data related to the traditional uses of Taxus.

Information about ethnic/caste groups was obtained from published literature (Gurung et al., 2006). The natural occurrence points for Taxus populations was determined after consulting herbarium specimens deposited in the herbaria of Nepal (KATH and TUCH), UK (K, BM and E) and Japan (T). Written permission was obtained from the Nepal Ministry of Forests & Soil Conservation, Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Permit number: DoF066/67-827) to visit protected areas. Before carrying out any ethnobotanical surveys, the purpose of the study was described in detail to each community forest user group, and we received prior informed consent for every study site to conduct interviews and to visit their forests. Data was collected through market surveys, informal group discussions, direct interviews with key informants and by visiting populations of Taxus (Martin, 1995). In each group discussion, to attract the attention of the respondents at the beginning, we displayed A4 size photos of Taxus featuring its several descriptive characteristics, including habitat and asked participants to identify the plant. The main objectives of the informal group discussions in which 8–12 persons participated were to identify key informants, to record common uses of Taxus in the community and to determine the exact location of Taxus population in the area. To avoid possible bias, we requested participants in an informal group discussion to nominate a minimum of three local people as key informants for our study. The criteria for the selection of the informants were: profession of traditional healer, a person who visits forests frequently for his/her livelihood (forest dwellers, herders) and/ or an elder member of the community who has good knowledge of the local vegetation and its condition in the past and present. Candidates suggested by a majority were finally considered as key informants. In the different study sites, a minimum of one and up to a maximum of five persons were selected. Fortunately, all the informants recommended by the informal group discussion showed a strong willingness to share their knowledge. The data was collected through questionnaires in Nepali local languages. Wherever necessary, translators were also used to fully integrate

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the knowledge embedded in the local terms and utilization methods for Taxus. On each trip to Taxus populations, voucher specimens were collected. These were deposited in the National Herbarium and Plant Laboratories Kathmandu, Nepal; Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences herbarium, Kunming, China and/or at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh herbarium, Edinburgh, UK. Herbarium specimens collected from each study sites ¨ were identified according to Moller et al. (2007), Shah et al. (2008), Farjon (2010) and Poudel et al. (2012). This study is part of an integrated research project conducted from 2009 to 2012 with the aim to clarify the taxonomy, phylogeography and conservation genetics of yews along the HKH region. 2.3. Data analysis As a quantitative measurement of indigenous knowledge we took the consensus among the informants reflecting shared knowledge (Reyes-Garcı´a et al., 2004). Quantitative analysis of the traditional knowledge on yew utilization among different ethnic/caste groups was done using five different parameters suggested by Byg and Balslev (2001) and Monteiro et al. (2006). These parameters (informant diversity value, ID; informant equitability value, IE; consensus value for use types, CUT; use diversity value, UD; and use equitability value, UE) are useful to understand and to quantify the distribution of knowledge and use pattern of yews among the groups. Details on the parameters used and their applications are given in Byg and Balslev (2001) and Monteiro et al. (2006). The three species of Taxus show an allopatric distribution in Nepal Himalayas (Poudel et al., 2012), and none of the species co-occur in our 27 study sites (Fig. 1). Thus, we attempted to compare traditional knowledge on use values between ethnic/caste groups and among species. Key informants were initially grouped into ethnic/caste groups and then into gender and age classes (younger o40 years and elder Z40 years) (Byg and Balslev, 2001; Monteiro et al., 2006). A nonparametric test of statistical significance (Kruskal–Wallis test, H) was used to evaluate the knowledge among different ethnic/caste groups. All analyses were performed in Excel and SPSS (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).

3. Results and discussion 3.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the key informants A total of 72 key informants were interviewed (60 men, 12 women). The age range was 32–80 for men and 35–75 for women. Fifteen (20.8%) informants, all men, were engaged in traditional healing and spiritual healing or shamanism. The majority of informants had no formal education (44%, 15 men, 9 women), while 35% had attained primary level (grade 3–6) and 21% secondary level (grade 7–10) education. Occupation-wise, 67% of the informant were farmers, 15% engaged in seasonal tourism (mostly women), 9.7% were civil servants in village level offices, 4.2% were laborers, 2.8% had own forest based micro-enterprises and 1.4% were teachers in local schools. We have not documented the details of people participating in informal group discussions conducted at each study site. The maximum number of people participating in informal group discussions was 12, the majority of these (70%) were men and in the age range of 16–76 years. 3.2. Vernacular names The colloquial English name of Taxus plants in the Himalayas is ’Himalayan yew’. Given the controversies among taxonomist in

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the number of species of Taxus in the HKH region (Farjon, 2010; Spjut, 2007), the name ’Himalayan yew’ is not helpful for its users. After Shah et al. (2008), Farjon (2010) and Poudel et al. (2012), the taxonomy and the number of species in the HKH region were clarified. Thus, the species in the western and eastern Himalayas are known as ’Western Himalayan yew’ (Taxus contorta) and ’Eastern Himalayan yew’ (Taxus wallichiana) respectively. A recent new report of a further species of South China in the HKH region is ’Maire’s yew’ (Taxus mairei) (Poudel et al., 2012). Our study documented several vernacular names used by indigenous people and caste groups in the HKH region (Table 1). Communities in the study area were found highly knowledgeable regarding naming of plants. Taxus is known by different names among different ethnic communities. Since none of the Taxus species co-exist in the native areas of the studied ethnic/caste groups, the vernacular names used by particular communities refer to those yew species occurring in the ethnic/caste’s respective areas, and are in general unrelated to the botanical nomenclature of a species. 3.3. Traditional knowledge of informants In most cases, the informants acquired knowledge from their parents and neighbors. In the case of 15 traditional healers, 10 were trained by their fathers or grandfathers and 5 obtained their knowledge from the renowned shaman or spiritual leader in their community. Of the 72 informants interviewed, there was no significant difference in terms of diversity of uses cited between men and women (P40.05; H¼ 0.150). However, a significant difference was obtained between age groups (Po0.05; H¼22.973) (Table 2). In many ethnobotanical studies, gender is expected to be an important factor and women showed more knowledge on medicinal and food values (Voeks, 2007). However, in the present study, we did not find a significant difference of traditional knowledge between gender. A significantly low level of knowledge was observed in younger respondents ( o40 years age) in the ethnic/caste groups for which we had informants of both age classes ( o40 and Z40 years old). The most knowledgeable younger informant knew 10 values of uses for yews, while elder informants reported a maximum of 16 uses. This relative lack of knowledge on plant uses in the younger generation was also reported earlier from the Himalayas (Kandari et al., 2012), Africa (Ssegawa and Kasenene, 2007) and South America (Monteiro et al., 2006) and appears to be a worrying general trend. The majority of informants (60) reported that nowadays they rarely used yews and yew products compared to 10–15 years before. The reasons given for this reduced use or limited practice of yew utilization were different among informants; 59% attributed it to the rarity of the plant in recent years and prohibitions imposed by the Nepal Government Forest Regulation (1995), while 41% indicated the availability of cheaper alternative products in the market and people’s attraction towards allopathic medicines. In accordance to the findings of Giday et al. (2003), the rarity of yews in several areas has increased the risk of the loss of associated traditional knowledge in the Himalayas. 3.4. Diversity in indigenous uses 3.4.1. Diversity and distribution of knowledge Yews in the Himalayas appeared to have multipurpose uses (Tables 3 and 4; Fig. 2). Our question related to the greater diversity of knowledge among ethnic/caste groups of Nepal was positively answered. Several uses cited by the informants have also been reported from other parts of the HKH region (Table 3). The values of use of Taxus cited by the informants were directly proportionate to the number of informants. However, we did not find a significant difference (P40.05) in the total informant

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Table 1 Vernacular names used by indigenous people for Taxus species occurring in HKH regions. Names with asterisks were obtained from the literature. Species

Vernacular names

Ethnic/caste group, language

District/state/area

Country

Taxus contorta

Luith, Luinth Lautho, Lauth, Laudo salla, Lautho sallo Herkath Chhemmersing, Jemer sing, Jhamarshing, Chyangsing, Silingi Sangsing Kandeloti, KandeLota, Sanga Sung, Tongsa sing Barmi, Bermi, Banrya, Chodan, Srap, Thuna Birmi, Pastul Gallu, Nhare shin, Rakhal, Thuner Rakhyal, Thangi Sang Ga Xing Western Himalayan yew Barme salla, Pate salla, Sallo, Lauth salla Dhunu, Dingsableh, Ksheh, Sehblei, Soh blei Nan Fang Hong Dou Shan Kyauk-tinyu Mairei yew, South China yew Bham salla, Lauth salla, Talispatra Manduparni, Sthaunek, Sukhapuspa, Talispatra, Talispatri, Thuneraka Siding, Silding, Sigi, Silting

Nepali Nepali Magar Thakali Sherpa, Gurung Himali-Bhotia, Sherpa Nepali, Himali-Bhotia

Darchula Doti, Jumla Baglung Mustang Manang Gorkha Humla, Dolpa Galliyat, Palans & Leepa Valley Kashmir Garhwal, Kumaon, Dharchula Himanchal Pradesh Jilong-Xizang

Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal* Pakistan* India* India* India* China*

Kavre, Sindhuli Meghalaya

Nepal India* China* Myanmar*

Rasuwa, Kavre, Kaski

Nepal India*, Nepal Nepal

Sali, Salin, Silinge Luit, Ruith, Silinge Rahan Dhengre La swan Kitangma Cheongbu, Dhegreshalla, Tunsi Talisa, Tesiang, Tesing Thuno, Yen Dhengrey Salla, Keyrang-Shing, Kirang-Shing, Xu Mi Hong dou Shan Gya Kar Shing, Kyi Gag Chung Wa Kyayk-tinyu Eastern Himalayan yew

Gurung Magar Rai Limbu Newar

Gorkha, Dolakha, Rasuwa, Sindhupalchok Kaski, Lamjung Kaski, Myagdi Sakhuwasabha Taplejung Kathamandu Arunachal Sikkim, Darjeeling Arunachal Manipur

Taxus mairei

Taxus wallichiana

Bhotiya Tibetan English Nepali Khasia, Jaintia Chinese-Han English Nepali Sanskrit Tamang, Gurung

Lepcha, Bhutia, Nepali

Nepali, Sharchop-kha Han-Chinese Tibetan

Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal Nepal India* India* India* India* Bhutan* China* China* Myanmar*

English

diversity values (ID) among ethnic/caste groups and among species (except Taxus mairei) (Table 2). Differences observed between the informant diversity value (ID) and informant equitability value (IE) in each ethnic/caste groups suggested that knowledge on use values of yews is not distributed homogenously among informants in each community. For all ethnic/caste groups, non-homogeneity of knowledge was significant mainly between younger o40 and Z40 older informants, indicating that older generations knew more about the uses of yew than younger generations. Thus, knowledge diversity and distribution were uniform in terms of gender, but not in terms of age.

3.4.2. Use diversity value All parts of yew trees were suggested to be important for wider purposes (Tables 3 and 5). A total of 45 types of uses were reported in 21 categories (Tables 5 and 6). Out of 10 ethnic/caste groups, 9 cited greater use diversity values for medicinal purposes (gastro-intestinal ailments, cough and cold, skeleto-muscular system problems and others) (Fig. 2), followed by timber, household tools and agriculture implements, while the Gurung ethnic group showed an opposite trend with timber in the first position followed by medicinal uses, household tools and agriculture implements. The same categories were seen with greatest diversity value for the three different species of Taxus when evaluated separately (Table 5). In case of the consensus value for the use types (CTU), medicinal value for human in total and edible fruit (the seed is poisonous but people eat the non-poisonous sweet

fleshy red aril that surrounds the seed) was of greatest importance in all the studied ethnic/caste groups involving the three species of Taxus (Table 6). Moreover, the highest value of equitability (EU) was recorded for gastro-intestinal disorders, followed by timber uses. Thus, it can be concluded that people in all communities are more familiar with the medicinal and timber value than other uses of Taxus. Additionally, diversity in use practices particularly in different use categories was highest in Tamang and Himali-Bhotia, followed by Gurung, Parbate, Sherpa, Limbu, Rai, Thakali, Magar and Jirel/Sunwar. The human development index (HDI), which measures life expectancy, literacy rate, gross domestic production, social status and participation in governance structure, showed that the native area of Tamang and Himali-Bhotia had the lowest values (UNDP-Nepal, 2009), indicating a strong dependency of these communities on natural resources. Within castes, Parbate people of the western Nepal reported 26 uses of Taxus contorta, but people of the same caste in eastern Nepal provided only 12 uses of Taxus mairei. A similar pattern was observed for the Magar ethnic group. The Magar communities of Baglung (Hila), Myagdi and Kaski districts reported 18 uses of Taxus wallichiana, while the same ethnic group reported just over half (10) uses for Taxus contorta from the Bobang site of the Baglung district. Species-wise, Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana had one and 14 unique use types respectively. Similarly, 11 use types were cited for all three species, while 19 use types were common to Taxus contorta and Taxus wallichiana (Table 6). The discrepancies in the number of use types for different species

0.313 7 0.111 – – – 0.313 7 0.111 0.125 7 0.000 0.375 7 0.130 0.557 70.065 0.516 70.106 0.375 70.063 0.656 70.156 0.578 70.085 0.354 70.055 0.712 70.085 0.542 7 0.127 – – – 0.542 7 0.127 – 0.542 7 0.127 0.3967 0.104 0.5007 0.000 – 0.5007 0.000 0.3447 0.156 0.1887 0.000 0.5007 0.000

0.675 70.103 0.656 70.281 0.375 70.000 0.937 70.000 0.687 70.095 – 0.687 70.095

0.5007 0.081 – – – 0.5007 0.081 0.188 7 0.000 0.578 7 0.030

0.703 70.138 0.875 7 0.000 – 0.875 7 0.000 0.646 7 0.178 0.437 7 0.000 0.750 70.250

0.644 7 0.076 – – – 0.644 7 0.076 0.375 7 0.000 0.711 7 0.078

3.5. Yews in major systems of medicines

b

a

ID, informant diversity value. IE, informant equitability value (Byg and Balslev, 2001).

0.6157 0.081 – – – 0.6157 0.081 0.4377 0.188 0.7037 0.053 0.729 7 0.137 0.625 7 0.000 – 0.625 7 0.000 0.781 7 0.219 – 0.781 7 0.219 0.703 7 0.063 0.750 7 0.187 – 0.750 7 0.187 0.687 7 0.070 – 0.687 7 0.070 totalb (mean 7 SE) total for women for women o40 years-old for women Z40 years-old total for men for men o 40 years-old for men Z 40 years-old IE IE IE IE IE IE IE

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and ethnic/caste groups might be due to the number of study sites/informants included (Reyes-Garcı´a et al., 2007); 16 sites and 48 informants were included for Taxus wallichiana compared to only about half (9 sites/20 informants) for Taxus contorta, and very few (2 sites/4 informants) for Taxus mairei. Nevertheless, the consensus among all informants in respect to the three species was observed mainly for medicinal values, edible fruit, timber, household utensils and agriculture implements (Tables 5 and 6). The strong agreement between informants on the use as edible fruit and in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders is possibly due to their dual benefits (food and medicinal value) obtained from the fleshy arils of Taxus. Several other wild edible plants, such as Aegle marmelos and Phyllanthus emblica have food values and medicinal efficacies and local people are dependent on both these properties (Uprety et al., 2012b).

0.542 7 0.040 0.562 7 0.00 – 0.562 7 0.000 0.539 7 0.046 – 0.539 7 0.046

4 20 8 0.111 7 0.040 – – – 0.111 7 0.040 0.044 70.000 0.133 7 0.046 12 107 12 0.198 70.023 0.183 70.038 0.133 70.022 0.233 70.056 0.2067 0.030 0.126 70.020 0.253 70.030 4 45 10 0.250 70.049 0.311 7 0.000 – 0.311 7 0.000 0.230 70.063 0.156 7 0.000 0.267 7 0.089 5 40 9 0.178 7 0.029 – – – 0.178 7 0.029 0.067 70.000 0.206 70.011 5 54 11 0.2407 0.037 0.233 70.100 0.133 70.000 0.333 70.000 0.244 70.042 – 0.244 70.042 3 19 5 0.1417 0.037 0.1787 0.000 – 0.1787 0.000 0.1227 0.056 0.0677 0.000 0.1787 0.000 6 59 11 0.2197 0.029 – – – 0.2197 0.0290 0.1567 0.067 0.2507 0.019 3 35 9 0.259 7 0.049 0.222 7 0.000 – 0.222 7 0.000 0.278 7 0.078 – 0.278 7 0.078 8 90 13 0.250 7 0.023 0.267 7 0.067 – 0.267 7 0.067 0.251 7 0.025 – 0.251 7 0.025 Total informants Total no of uses cited Types of use categories ID totala (mean 7 SE) ID total for women ID for women o 40 years-old ID for women Z 40 years-old ID total for men ID for men o 40 years-old ID for men Z 40 years-old

Magar Parbate

10 103 13 0.229 7 0.027 – – – 0.229 7 0.027 0.133 7 0.000 0.253 7 0.028

3 26 7 0.193 7 0.045 – – – 0.193 7 0.045 – 0.193 7 0.045

9 78 7 0.193 7 0.014 0.2007 0.000 – 0.2007 0.000 0.192 7 0.016 – 0.192 7 00.016

Parbate Gurung Sherpa Himali-Bhotia Thakali

Rai

Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta

Table 2 Quantitative measures of knowledge about the three species of Taxus in 10 different ethnic/caste groups of Nepal.

Limbu

Tamang

Jirel/Sunwar

Magar

Taxus mairei

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Alternative systems of medicines viz. Amchi, Ayurvedic, Han Chinese and Unani are widely practiced in the HKH region. The majority of these are holistic systems of health care with the concept of presence of different elements in the human body (Mukherjee and Wahile, 2006) which imbalance or disturbance causes illness. The treatment is aimed at regaining the balance of basic elements and functions of the body. The Ayurveda and Unani systems are in practice in the Indian lowland areas, while the Amchi and Han Chinese systems are predominantly practiced in the Trans-Himalaya, the Tibetan Plateau and different parts of China. Despite differences in the origin, mode of treatment and some specific theories, all these medicine systems rely on medicinal compounds obtained from plants and other natural resources. Moreover, high altitude and Trans-Himalayan plants and natural products form major constituents in Amchi and Han Chinese medicinal formulations (Baral and Kurmi, 2006; Ghimire et al., 2008). In the Unani system, bark and leaf extracts of Taxus form important ingredients for the drug Zarnab which is used in cardiac disorders. Several formulations, such as Talisadi-Churna, Talisadi-Vati, Sudarshan-Churna, and Lavanbhaskar-Churna in the Ayurveda medicine are made using Taxus extracts (Chauhan, 1999; Dash, 1994). In Ayurveda, Taxus is reported to have diverse medicinal efficacies such as aphrodisiac, promoter of intellect and alleviator of all three doshas (vayu: wind, pitta: bile and kapha: phlegm). In Amchi medicine, Taxus is prized for its effectiveness in the treatment of fever and the relief of muscular pain. Several therapeutic values of Taxus have been reported in the ancient literature in Han Chinese medicines. Taxus extracts alone or in combination with other natural products are used to treat a broad range of health problems, like skin diseases, gastro-intestinal disorders, parasitic infections and urinary system problems (Li et al., 2011). Some of the medicinal uses cited by our informants showed a high degree of correlation with the above mentioned dominant traditional systems of medicines. At the same time a few other uses (e.g. for some gastrointestinal disorders, headache, lactative properties) seem to be locally originated knowledge that may have developed among indigenous people over many generations. 3.6. Yew and its toxic properties A complex mixture of highly toxic alkaloids (taxines) has been reported from Taxus (Wilson et al., 2001). Except for the fleshy red aril, all parts of the plant are regarded as toxic to animals and humans. The toxicity of Taxus has been known since antiquity. Celts used Taxus extracts to poison the tips of their arrows and even committed ritual suicide by drinking juice from the Taxus leaves (Hartzell, 1991). Reports of fatal intoxications in cattle,

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Table 3 Indigenous uses of yews in the Nepal Himalayas with similar reports from other parts of the HKH region. SN Use categories

1

Others Agriculture implements

2.

Animal bedding

3

Dye yielding

4 5

Ethnoveterinary Fencing

6

Fish poison

7

Fodder

8

Food

9

Fuelwood

10 Household tools

11 Incense

12 Musical instrument

13 Ornamental/ decoration

14 Religious/ sacred

15 Thatching 16 Timber

Taxa/taxon

Ethnic/ caste groupsa

Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus wallichiana Taxus mairei Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana

1, 2, 3, 4, Wood is hard thus used to make plough 5, 6, 7, 8, (Halo, anau), handles of knives to cut grass (Hasiya) and digging tools (Bauso, Kodalo) 9, 10

Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus mairei Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana

Taxus contorta Taxus contorta

Traditional uses

8, 10

Branches are used as animal bedding

6

Dye extracted from the bark used to color religious materials and occasionally wool and yarn Bark paste is applied on fractured bone and bandaged with cotton cloth Taxus tree grown at the margin of farmlands functions as good fence Leaf extracts is used to kill fish

3, 5 7, 9 6

1,3, 5, 6, 7, 8

Similar reports from the HKH region

NW India (Gaur, 2008); Nepal (Shrestha, 2006) NW India (Pande et al., 2007); NE India (Bharati and Sharma, 2010) Nepal (Bhattarai et al., 2010) Pakistan (Ishtiaq et al., 2012); India (Anonymous, 1992); Nepal (DPR, 1976)

Young branches are collected as fodder; it is believed that yew leaves keep sheep and yak healthy Young yew shoots are given to pregnant yak (nak) to increase milk production 1, 2, 3, 4, Red fleshy aril outside ripen seeds are consumed as 5, 6, 7, 8, wild fruits 9, 10

Pakistan (Jabeen et al., 2009); NE India (Nimachow et al., 2010); Nepal (Kayastha, 1985)

1, 7, 9

Pakistan (Shah et al., 2008); NW India (Uniyal et al., 2003)

Tree branches are used as fuelwood

Pakistan (Jabeen et al., 2009); NW India (Singh et al., 1990); NE India (Jaiswal, 2010); Nepal (Manandhar, 2002)

1, 2, 3, 4, Wood is used to make wooden utensils, handles 5, 6, 7, 8, of knives (Khukuri) and fried pans (Tapke), milk and whey containers (Theki), water container (Panelo), 9, 10 cups, wine cups (Tongba) and grain pounder (Musal)

Pakistan (Jabeen et al., 2009); NW India (Singh et al., 1990); India (Anonymous, 1992); Bhutan (Wangyal, 2012); Nepal (Ghimire et al., 2008)

7, 8

Nepal (IUCN-Nepal, 2004)

Wood is burned as incense

1, 3, 5, 6, Yews along Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan is commonly 7, 8 known as Dhangre sallo that refers to its popular use for making the frame of drum (Dhaygro), a common musical instrument used during religious ceremonies by the majority of indigenous people of Mongol descendence. Shamans play drums during spiritual performances 1, 7, 9, 10 Tree is grown in the garden in front of house. During festivals branches are used to decorate houses

(Ghimire et al., 2008)

NW India (Singh et al., 1990); Nepal (Shrestha, 2006)

1, 4, 7, 10 Temple, Monastery or shrines were seen at the side of big old yew tree. The place underneath and around yew tree is regarded as holy place thus littering and open defecation around is strictly prohibited Wooden pole of yew known locally as Maulo is placed at the middle of pond nearby the village. Yew pole or log is worshiped as of Snake god (Naga) and kind of god for shamans (Jhakri) Carved articles made of Taxus wood are used to chase bad sprits (Bhut dhapaune) 6, 10 Yew branches are used as thatching materials for animal huts Pakistan (Ahmed et al., 2004); Nepal (Kunwar and Adhikari, 2005) Pakistan (Jabeen et al., 2009); NW India (Singh et al., 1, 2, 3, 4, Most preferred wood for house construction purposes: pillars, 1990); NE India (Nimachow et al., 2010) 5, 6, 7, 8, beam, cross beams, window frame and door frames 9, 10

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Table 3 (continued ) SN Use categories

Taxa/taxon

Ethnic/ caste groupsa

Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana

Traditional uses

Similar reports from the HKH region

In western Nepal yew wood are prized for house construction and making furniture In central Nepal wood is used in temple and monasteries Various sized of poles are used to make permanent to seasonal animal huts in mid hills Good quality wood for electric polls and wooden boards or planks for suspension bridges

Medicinal 17 Cough and cold

18 Gastrointestinal ailments

19 Others (fever, stimulant, cancer)

20 Respiratory system disorder 21 Skeletomuscalar system problem a

Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana

6, 10

Leaf juice is taken during cough and cold. Leaf juice with little honey breaks cough and clear throat and respiratory tract

Taxus wallichiana

6

Taxus contorta Taxus wallichiana

1, 2, 3, 5, Leaf juice is taken orally for relieving headache. Bark paste also 8, 10 applied externally on the forehead to get relief from headache. Bark decoction is used in pain, muscular pain, joint pain and or rheumatisms

India (Kaul, 1997); Nepal (Baral and Kurmi, 2006)

1, 2, 3, 4, 1/4 Glass leaf juice or decoction is taken orally for several gastro- Pakistan (Baquar, 1995); NW India (Kala et al., 2005); NE India (Hussain and Hore, 2007); Nepal 5, 6, 7, 8, intestinal related problems (diarrhea, indigestion, stomachache (Manandhar, 2002) and liver problems) 9, 10

1, 5, 9,

Red fleshy aril is eaten for its carminative, expectorant and stomachic properties 2, 3, 4, Leaf and bark juice (aprox. two spoons) is taken every day for 6, 7, 8, fever and falling pulse Bark is used as substitute of tea during winter to feel warm 10 Tea from Taxus bark is also believes to increase vitality and cure other health related problem Leaf and or bark juice is take every day to cure cancer Leaves and bark are pounded and the paste is given with honey for respiratory problems like bronchitis and asthma

NW India (Kaul, 1997; Phondani et al., 2010; Singh et al., 1990) Nepal (Bhattarai et al., 2010; Ghimire et al., 2008; Kunwar et al., 2006)

Pakistan (Ishtiaq et al., 2012); India (Anonymous, 1992); Nepal (DPR, 1976) Pakistan (Haq, 2012); India (Anonymous, 1992); NW India (Chauhan, 1999); NE India (Hussain and Hore, 2007); Nepal (Kunwar et al., 2006)

Ethnic/caste groups: 1, Gurung; 2, Jirel/Sunwar; 3, Limbu; 4, Magar; 5, Rai; 6, Tamang; 7, Himali-Bhotia; 8, Sherpa; 9, Thakali; 10, Hill castes ’Parbate’.

horses and sheep caused by eating yew twigs are common in Europe (Handeland, 2008; Wilson et al., 2001). However, no similar case was reported during our field trips in Nepal. Interestingly, 32% (23) of our informants use young yew twigs as fodder for yak and sheep (!). Moreover, some of the informants suggested that giving Taxus to pregnant nak (female yak) may enhance milk production. Taxus twigs harvested for fodder purpose was also reported from Pakistan and India (Jabeen et al., 2009; Nimachow et al., 2010). In our study sites, severe impacts of intense browsing by cattle and goats were readily observed around Taxus trees, where seedlings could only be found in less accessible places among shrubbery. Previous studies outside the HKH region have shown that the level of intoxication varies considerably between species, both for domestic and wild animals (Handeland, 2008; Wilson et al., 2001). Goats can tolerate five times greater intake per kg body weight than sheep and cattle (Wilson and Hooser, 2007). It is assumed that the susceptibility to intoxication in animal species depends on the quantity and frequency of intakes. Regular ingestion of small amounts mobilizes a detoxification system, thereby increasing the tolerance against intoxication (Handeland, 2008). In this regard, regular feeding of Taxus to cattle, a common practice in the HKH region, might be a way to increase their insensitivity to the yew’s poison. Alternatively, the HKH yews may contain low levels of toxic alkaloids. Shanker et al. (2002) showed that the stem of the Himalayan yew (species not clear) is highly toxic compared to other parts. However, detailed studies are needed on all three species of yew now known to be distributed in the HKH region, to identify their individual level

of toxicity (or beneficial effects, such as increased lactation) compared to congeners occurring outside the HKH region. 3.7. Reliability of indigenous knowledge We compared the results of our study with published information from different parts of Nepal (Baral and Kurmi, 2006; Bhattarai et al., 2010; Ghimire et al., 2008; Kunwar et al., 2006; Manandhar, 2002; Rokaya et al., 2010; Shrestha et al., 2004; Uprety et al., 2010) and the HKH region (Anonymous, 1992; Chauhan, 1999; Jabeen et al., 2009; Jaiswal, 2010; Nimachow et al., 2010; Singh et al., 1990; Wangyal, 2012). All the uses, except for the religious importance and use as animal bedding, were already reported from the HKH region (Table 3). Some additional uses of yews reported in previous ethnobotanical studies from the HKH region including Nepal are given in Table 4. The shared ethnobotanical knowledge between ethnic/ caste groups of Nepal and communities from the HKH region strongly suggest knowledge or cultural exchanges between ethnic/caste groups in this region. Cultural exchanges between different ethnic communities have been reported from the Bolivian Amazon (Reyes-Garcı´a et al., 2003), Ethopia (Balemie and Kebebew, 2006), Mexico (Leonti et al., 2003) and SE Asia (Inta et al., 2008). The therapeutic value of yews for gastro-intestinal disorders, commonly reported in this study, appeared to be widely practiced in Pakistan (Baquar, 1995), NW India (Kala et al., 2005) and NE India (Hussain and Hore, 2007). The majority of uses documented from different ethnic/caste groups of Nepal showed strong similarities with the curative properties of Taxus

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Table 4 Indigenous uses of yews in the HKH region obtained from ethnobotanical publications. SN Use categories

Taxa/taxon

Traditional uses

References

1

Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus wallichiana Taxus mairei Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana Taxus mairei Taxus contorta Taxus mairei Taxus wallichiana

Leaf is useful in nervousness, epilepsy, heat disorders, hypertension, hysteria

Pakistan (Ishtiaq et al., 2012); India (Kaul, 1997); NE India (Hussain and Hore, 2007; Jaiswal, 2010)

Bark is taken as herbal tea to treat piles Stem used in the treatment of septic wounds Leaves are used in the treatment of irregular menstruation Twigs are worn by young unmarried females of the Naga tribes as an ornament and also to prevent pregnancy Leaves and bark extracts are added to hair oil, beauty and shaving creams and dentrifrices. Bark is used to make red powder or paste. Brahmin women and man of India mark their forehead with a red dot

Nepal (Ghimire et al., 2008) NE India (Albert et al., 2008) NE India (Jaiswal, 2010) NE India (Mehra et al., 1975)

2

Medicinal

Cosmetics

Nepal (Shrestha, 2006); India (Anonymous, 1992)

Fig. 2. Number of reports in different categories of yew uses in the Nepal Himalayas.

mentioned in the dominant traditional health care systems (Amchi, Ayurveda, Han Chinese and Unani) of this region. However, the majority of pharmacological studies are focused on anticancer properties of yews occurring in the HKH region (Chattopadhyay et al., 2003, 2006; Reddy et al., 2009), and little has been done on the scientific validation of its effectiveness against the other medicinal ailments or disorders reported in this study, such as respiratory system disorders (Patel et al., 2009), skeleto-muscular system problems (Nisar et al., 2008) and fever (Khan et al., 2011). To maximize the benefits that can be obtained from yews, several medicinal preparations reported from indigenous people need to be tested and evaluated clinically. 3.8. Bioprospecting and pharmacological screening of yews This study revealed important knowledge on ethno-medicinal and other uses of yews in the HKH region. Given the recent finding of the occurrence of three genetically and morphologically distinct species of Taxus and their precise demarcation in the HKH

region (Poudel et al., 2012), more targeted systematic scientific studies are possible and necessary to evaluate the phytochemical compounds and bioactive ingredients in the three species. Although some studies revealed that medicinal properties in plants show phylogenetic patterns within a genus (SaslisLagoudakis et al., 2012), their quantities and qualities may vary significantly among species (Georg et al., 1993; Vidensek et al., 1990; Zhang et al., 2008). The selective use values (fodder, medicinal properties) reported in this study may further indicate the existence of differences in the phytochemical components between Taxus species in the study area and congeners distributed outside the HKH region (Hartzell, 1991; Wilson and Hooser, 2007). In the past, only one species of Taxus was believed to exist in the HKH region. Many studies relied on market samples, e.g. from garden accessions of unknown origin and from different altitudinal ranges (Nepal, Bhutan, NE India and Myanmar), and are possibly mixtures of different species producing misleading or inconsistent results. Therefore, individual screening and bioprospecting of all three Taxus species and a re-evaluation

Table 5 Use-diversity value (UD) and use equitability value (UE) for 21 use categories of Taxus species in different ethnic/caste groups of Nepal Himalayas. Major categories

a b

Taxus mairei

Taxus wallichiana

Himali-Bhotia

Thakali

Parbate

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

0.022 – – – – 0.022 – 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.111 0.044 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 – – – 0.067

0.200 – – – – 0.200 – 0.200 0.200 0.200 1.000 0.400 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 – – – 0.600

0.022 – – – – 0.022 – – 0.022 0.022 0.111 0.044 – – 0.022 0.022 – – – – 0.067

0.200 – – – – 0.200 – – 0.200 0.200 1.000 0.400 – – 0.200 0.200 – – – – 0.600

0.044 – 0.044 – – – – – 0.022 – 0.089 0.044 – – 0.022 0.067 0.022 – 0.089 0.022 0.044

a

EU

Magar b

0.500 – 0.500 – – – – – 0.250 – 1.000 0.500 – – 0.250 0.750 0.250 – 1.000 0.250 0.500

Sherpa

UDa

EU

b

0.044 – – – – – – – 0.022 – 0.067 0.044 – – – – – – – – 0.022

0.667 – – – – – – – 0.333 – 1.000 0.667 – – – – – – – –– 0.333

Rai

Limbu

Tamang

Jirel/Sunwar

Gurung

Magar

Parbate a

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

EU

UD

0.022 0.022 – – – – – 0.022 0.022 – 0.111 0.067 0.022 0.022 – 0.022 – – 0.089 – 0.067

0.200 0.200 – – – – – 0.200 0.200 – 1.000 0.600 0.200 0.200 – 0.200 – – 0.800 – 0.600

0.022 – – – 0.022 – – 0.022 0.022 – 0.111 0.044 – 0.022 – – – – 0.067 – 0.067

0.200 – – – 0.200 – – 0.200 0.200 – 1.000 0.400 – 0.200 – – – – 0.600 – 0.600

0.022 – – –– 0.022 – – 0.022 0.022 – 0.111 0.044 – 0.022 – 0.067 – – 0.067 – 0.067

0.200 – – – 0.200 – – 0.200 0.200 – 1.000 0.400 – 0.200 – 0.600 – – 0.600 – 0.600

0.022 – 0.067 0.022 – – 0.022 0.022 0.022 – 0.111 0.067 – 0.022 – 0.022 – 0.044 – 0.022 0.067

0.200 – 0.600 0.200 – – 0.200 0.200 0.200 – 1.000 0.600 – 0.200 – 0.200 – 0.400 –– 0.200 0.600

0.022 – – – – – – – 0.022 – 0.067 0.022 – – – 0.044 – – 0.067 – 0.044

0.333 – – – – – – – 0.333 – 1.000 0.333 – – – 0.667 – – 1.000 – 0.667

0.044 – – – 0.022 – – 0.022 0.022 – 0.089 0.067 – 0.022 0.022 0.022 0.022 – 0.022 – 0.111

0.400 – – – 0.200 – – 0.200 0.200 – 0.800 0.600 – 0.200 0.200 0.200 0.200 – 0.200 – 1.000

0.044 – – – – – – – 0.022 – 0.111 0.044 – – – 0.044 0.022 – – – 0.089

0.400 – – – – – – – 0.200 – 1.000 0.400 – – – 0.400 0.200 – – – 0.800

0.044 – – – – – – – 0.022 – 0.089 0.044 – – 0.022 0.022 0.022 – – – 0.022

EU

b

0.500 – – – – – – – 0.250 – 1.000 0.500 – – 0.250 0.250 0.250 – – – 0.250

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Agriculture implements Animal bedding Cough and cold Dye yielding Ethno-veterinary Fencing Fish poison Fodder Food Fuelwood Gastro-intestinal ailments Household tools Incense Musical instrument Ornamental/decoration Others (fever, stimulant, cancer) Religious/sacred Respiratory system disorder Skeleto-muscalar system problem Thatching Timber

Taxus contorta

Use-diversity value (UD). Use equitability value (UE) (Byg and Balslev, 2001).

199

200

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Table 6 Informant consensus value for use types (CUT) of Taxus contorta, Taxus mairei and Taxus wallichiana among different ethnic/caste groups of Nepal Himalayas. Use types

Taxus wallichiana

Taxus contorta

Himali-Bhotia Thakali Parbate Magar Total Sherpa Animal bedding Bridge planks Digging tools handles Drum frame Dye Electricity poles Fencing Fish poison Fodder Fuelwood Furnitures House construction House decoration Incense Materials for cattle hut Maulo Milk product container Musal (long pestle) Panelo (water container) Plough Raw fruit Thatching Tree (religious) Utensils’ handle Veterinary Medicinal Any type of Pain Asthma Bronchitis Cancer Cold Cough Diarrhea Expectorant Falling pulse Fever Headache Increase body temperature Increase vitality Indigestion Joint pain/swelling Laxative Liver problems Muscle pain Rheumatism Stomach ache

– – 0.067 0.044 – – 0.067 – 0.111 0.133 0.004 0.027 0.111 0.044 0.009 – 0.011 – – – 0.156 – 0.044 0.039 – 0.711

– – 0.033 – – – 0.067 – – 0.067 0.009 0.013 0.044 – 0.009 – 0.006 – – – 0.067 – – 0.011 – 0.244

– – 0.044 – – – – – – – 0.013 0.018 0.044 – 0.000 – 0.000 0.006 – 0.022 0.113 0.067 0.011 0.022 – 0.644

– – 0.033 – – – – – – – – – – – 0.013 – 0.006 – – 0.011 0.067 – – 0.011 – 0.133

– – 0.178 0.044 – – 0.133 – 0.111 0.200 0.027 0.058 0.199 0.044 0.031 – 0.022 0.006 – 0.033 0.422 0.067 0.056 0.083 – 1.733

– – 0.004 – – 0.027 – – – – – – 0.027 – 0.036 0.022 – – 0.027

– – – 0.004 – – 0.004 – – – – – – 0.013 – 0.009 0.004 – – 0.013

0.009 – – 0.004 0.022 0.011 0.013 – – – 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.013 – 0.022 – 0.009 0.009 0.022

– – – – – – 0.009 – – – – – – – – 0.009 – – – 0.009

0.009 – – 0.012 0.015 0.007 0.053 – – – 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.053 – 0.076 0.027 0.009 0.009 0.071

0.067 – 0.044 0.089 – – – – – – 0.013 0.013 – 0.022 0.022 0.011 0.006 – – 0.111 – – 0.017 – 0.400 0.004 – – 0.004 – – 0.013 – – – – – – 0.013 0.004 0.013 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.013

(in doubtful cases) of outputs from previous studies might be necessary to obtain consistent results and draw accurate conclusions. 3.9. Conservation of Taxus The study of Mitscher published in the New York Times (NYT, 1992) and of Georg et al. (1993) showed the presence of large amount of ‘Taxol’ in the leaves of the Himalayan yews and stimulated the widespread commercial collection of Taxus in the HKH region. Although the present study revealed an extensive domestic use of yews by indigenous people of the HKH region, it could barely the cause behind the declining abundance of the species (Hamilton, 2004). Rather, the indiscriminate felling of trees for commercial purpose that has taken place in recent decades extirpated several pure stands of Taxus from this region (Nimachow et al., 2010; Poudel et al., 2012). When we posed questions to informants about whether they are familiar with commercial collections in their area, 71% (!) gave a positive answer. In the study area, the populations of yew species were

Rai

Taxus mairei

Limbu Tamang Jirel/Sunwar Gurung Magar Total Parbate Total

– – 0.022 0.044 – – – – 0.067 – 0.013 0.009 – – 0.009 – 0.011 – – – 0.111 – – 0.017 0.044 0.311

– – 0.022 0.022 – – – – 0.044 – 0.004 0.009 – – 0.009 – 0.011 – – – 0.089 – – 0.017 0.022 0.556

– – – – – – 0.013 – – – – – – 0.004 0.004 0.013 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.013

0.009 – – – – – 0.018 – 0.009 – – 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.067 0.004 – 0.009 0.013

– – 0.078 0.178 0.044 – – 0.044 0.200 – 0.004 0.031 – – 0.009 – 0.006 – 0.006 – 0.200 0.067 – 0.033 – 1.000 – 0.033 0.033 0.013 0.015 0.015 0.013 0.015 – – – – – 0.031 – 0.036 0.009 – – 0.044

– – 0.011 – – – – – – – 0.004 0.009 – – – – – – – – 0.067 – – 0.011 – 0.378 0.044 – – 0.022 – – 0.067 – – 0.022 0.044 – – – – 0.067 – 0.067 – 0.044

– 0.009 0.111 0.067 – 0.013 – – 0.044 0.089 0.004 0.027 0.089 – 0.013 – 0.039 – 0.011 0.056 0.222 – 0.022 0.013 – 0.778 – – – 0.013 – 0.004 – – – – – – 0.044 – 0.044 – – 0.004 0.044

– 0.004 0.089 – – – – – – – 0.004 0.009 – – 0.018 0.022 0.017 – – 0.033 0.200 – – 0.039 – 0.844 – – – 0.009 – – 0.031 – – 0.009 – – – 0.027 – 0.040 0.013 – –– 0.040

0.067 0.013 0.378 0.400 0.044 0.013 – 0.044 0.400 0.089 0.049 0.107 0.089 0.022 0.080 0.022 0.094 0.006 0.017 0.089 1.000 0.067 0.022 0.178 0.067 4.267 0.022 0.033 0.033 0.044 0.015 0.015 0.107 0.015 0.009 0.013 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.129 0.018 0.173 0.036 0.022 0.022 0.178

– – 0.033 – – – – – – – – 0.009 0.022 – – – – – – – 0.044 – 0.022 0.017 – 0.156 – – – 0.009 – – 0.004 – – – – – – 0.009 – 0.004 – – – 0.004

– – 0.033 – – – – – – – – 0.009 0.022 – – – – – – – 0.044 – 0.022 0.017 – 0.156 – – – 0.009 – – 0.004 – – – – – – 0.009 – 0.004 – – – 0.004

in relatively good condition, particularly inside the few community forests and conservation areas, but pure natural stands are now very rare. Severe browsing and the slow regeneration ability have been identified as additional major factors for the reduction of Taxus populations in the HKH region including Nepal (Lanker et al., 2010; Poudel et al., 2012; Ugyen and Olsen, 2008). Interestingly, all three species of yews in some study sites were found growing near a temple, monastery or inside sacred areas. Numerous sacred sites occur along the HKH region (Ghate et al., 2004; Salick et al., 2007), where conservation ethics are deeply ingrained in the culture and tradition of indigenous people. They believe that cutting trees from sacred sites may harm their families. Due to religious and spiritual beliefs in the conservation of certain species, or whole sacred sites, endangered plant species like Taxus may greatly benefit from this protection. Despite the overexploitation of yews elsewhere, individual trees at sacred sites are acting as a valuable gene pool for future conservation activities (UNESCO-MAB, 2003; Xu et al., 2010). For a sustainable conservation of Taxus and its habitats, sacred sites should be effectively managed at the landscape level so as to

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ensure recurrent gene flow between small patches of Taxus in the remaining forests in this region. There could be an argument that scientific validation and commercialization of pharmacological components obtained through knowledge from indigenous people may add additional pressure on Taxus populations, though not necessarily. It may create opportunities and possibilities of attracting the interest of local people and their active involvement in both in situ and ex situ conservation activities (Hamilton, 2004), relieving the pressure on natural populations. Medicinal plants are an integral part of the rural economy of Nepal as they provide strong contributions to the health, financial income and livelihood security of rural people (Rijal et al., 2011). For local people, the conservation incentive of any plant depends on the economic role the species plays in their livelihood (Hamilton, 2004). Awareness and concern have been raised for years on the local, national and international level to conserve populations of yews in the HKH region. The Nepal government has placed Taxus under forest regulations (1995) that set strict criteria for commercial collections and prohibits the felling of trees. Similarly, other countries along the HKH region i.e., Bhutan, China and India have completely banned wild harvesting of Taxus (Mulliken and Crofton, 2008). In Nepal, both governmental and nongovernmental organizations that are dedicated to the economic development of the plant sector have prioritized the cultivation of medicinal plants, including Taxus. They also provide financial and technical support for community forest user groups to cultivate Taxus inside community forests or private lands. During our survey, we visited Taxus nurseries and cultivation plots in nine study sites. The relatively better condition of Taxus populations in community forests and protected areas compared to the national forest is perhaps a direct result of these government regulations and community forest efforts. Nevertheless, more local people should be encouraged to grow Taxus on commercial scales, and at the same time, Taxus populations should be managed effectively inside the protected areas and community forests (Lanker et al., 2010).

4. Conclusions This paper showed that the studied ethnic/caste groups of Nepal possess a substantial amount of knowledge on the indigenous uses of Taxus, and that they value all three species similarly to people from other parts of the HKH region. Thus these similarities may indicate the correlations between the unique position of Nepal at the crossroads of different phytogeographic and ethnographic structures of the people in respect to neighboring countries. Moreover, the indigenous knowledge reported from Nepal and a comparison with practices in other parts of the HKH region revealed a great potential of yews in the treatment of several health related disorders, besides cancer. Detailed pharmacological studies based on the findings related to the therapeutic practices documented here might be helpful to maximize the benefits from the yews of the HKH region. In addition, two important issues have been identified; firstly, a great dependency of local people on Taxus for a wide variety of purposes, and secondly, the declining trend of Taxus populations is mirrored in a decline in knowledge of indigenous use values. Although this study may have partly addressed the second issue by documenting the ethnobotanical knowledge, more work is urgently needed to conserve the remnant natural populations of yew and to increase the economic benefits from Taxus for the socio-economic prosperity of the local people. Both, ex situ and in situ practices, involving local communities, are essential for the conservation and sustainable utilization of yews. Moreover,

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further research on the scientific validation of indigenous knowledge and capacity building of indigenous people, including traditional healers, would be beneficial to secure their knowledge more effectively.

Acknowledgments We are thankful to the community forest user groups of our study sites for helping us to collect traditional knowledge in their communities. Thanks are due to the key informants for providing valuable information. We are also grateful to Dharma R. Dhungana, Krishna K. Shrestha, Apsara Chapagain, Binod K. Poudel, Anuj Pokhrel and Pitambar Bhandari for their help. Finally we thank anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments. This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC: 30700042), the West Light Programme of Chinese Academy of Sciences (9223111W1) and the Talent project of Yunnan province, China (2008YP064). The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh is supported by the Rural and Environment Science and Analytical Services division (RESAS) in the Scottish Government.

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