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1. Introduction to Laser Desorption and Ablation
1. INTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
John C. Miller Chemical and Biological Physics Section Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee
1.1 Introduction At the ripe age of 35 years, the laser has become a mature technological device with many vaned applications. This was not always true of course. For many years, the laser was viewed as “an answer in search of a question.” That is, it was seen as an elegant device, but one with no real, useful application outside of fundamental scientific research. In the last two decades, however, numerous laser applications have moved from the laboratory to the industrial workplace or the commercial market. Lasers are unique energy sources characterized by their spectral purity, spatial and temporal coherence, and high average and peak intensity. Each of these characteristics has led to applications that take advantage of these laser qualities. For instance, spatial coherence, which allows a highly collimated laser beam, has spawned remote-sensing, range-finding, and target designation applications. Other applications based on coherence include interferometry and holography. Likewise the property of monochromaticity (spectral purity) enables chemical and physical sensing techniques based on high-resolution spectroscopy. Many other unique uses of lasers include communications, information storage and manipulation, and entertainment. All of these “high-tech” applications have come to define everyday life in the late twentieth century. One property of lasers, however, that of high intensity, did not immediately lead to “delicate” applications but rather to those requiring “brute force.” That is, the laser was used in a macroscopic way either for material removal or heating. The first realistic applications involved cutting, drilling, and welding, and the laser was little more advanced than a saw, a drill, or a torch. In a humorous vein, A. L. Schawlow proposed and demonstrated the first “laser eraser” in 1965 [l]. The different absorbencies of paper and ink allowed the laser to selectively remove typewriter print without damaging the underlying paper. Another early application used a laser to generate a plasma at the surface of a solid, and the resulting spectral emission could be used for elemental analysis [2]. Vastly more expensive than traditional tools, however, the laser only slowly found niche uses where its advantages made up for the added cost
1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES Vol 30 ISSN 1 0 7 9 ~ 0 4 z , 9 8 sz5 no
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NTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
and complexity. Ready’s book [3] provides much detail about the applications of high powered lasers up to 1971. The present volume gives comprehensive reviews of the major applications of intense pulsed lasers since that classic reference.
1.2 Historical Development The laser age began with the birth of the first laser in 1960. T. H. Maiman [4] demonstrated the optical pumping of a ruby rod and the emission of coherent radiation. The 1960s were very important times for research involving laser-material interactions and the stage was set in that decade for virtually all of the later applications. In particular, many aspects of laser ablation were first studied during this decade. For instance, Brech and Cross [2] collected and spectrally dispersed the emitted light from ruby-laser ablated metals. This work formed the basis for the technique of laser microprobe emission spectroscopy for the elemental analysis of solid materials. Linlor [5] made measurements of the energy of ejected ions by time-of-flight determinations. This work, along with that of Honig and Woolston [6], was the first example of laser mass spectrometry, which was eventually introduced as a commercial instrument by Leybold-Heraeus in 1978. Muray [7] was the first of many to investigate laser photoemission of electrons. The study of ablation plumes by photography was initiated by Ready [8] in 1963. Other important papers appearing in 1963 were by Rosan et al. [9] for the first ablation studies of biological material and Howe [ 101 who used rotationally and vibrationally resolved molecular emission bands to measure temperatures of ablation plumes. Berkowitz and Chupka [ 111 were the first to observe clusters in an ablation plume. They observed carbon, magnesium, and boron cluster ions after postionization of ablated neutrals. Later, Basov and Krokhin [12] made the first suggestion of laser fusion, and as higher power lasers were used, vacuum ultraviolet [ 131 and X-ray emissions [I41 were detected. Higher power also led to the observation of multiplycharged ions [15] and to two- [16] and three-photon [17] photoemission. Measurable neutron fluxes from laser-heated targets were first reported in 1968 [ 181. Finally, of great importance in terms of modem applications of ablation, the first laser deposition of thin films was demonstrated by Smith and Turner [19] in 1965. Unfortunately these early films were of poor quality and the t e c h q u e could not compete with other established techniques. It was not until twenty years later that laser produced films were competitive. More details of these early studies can be found in the book by Ready [3]. Clearly the 1960s were a period of exploring many different aspects of laser ablation and coming to a first stage of experimental and theoretical understanding.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
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During the 1970s and early 1980s the development and understanding of laser desorption and ablation processes were incremental and steady. In particular, the field was dnven by advances in laser technology. As lasers got brighter, with shorter pulse lengths and correspondingly higher peak powers, and more stable in terms of shot-to-shot reproducibility, ablation studies moved into new regimes. The availability of new lasers, especially excimer lasers, and a broader wavelength capability led to new coupling possibilities. And, of course, the application of ablation studies to ever more types of materials vastly increased the diversity of data available. Concurrently the sophistication of ablation diagnostics also improved dramatically, led by advances in electronics and computers. However, the application of laser ablation to problems of practical import advanced very little in this period. The principal uses continued to be in emission and mass spectrometry for chemical analysis. This situation changed dramatically in the late 1980s. Zaitsev-Zotov et al. [20] first produced superconducting thin films by laser ablation in 1983. But the technique went virtually unnoticed until Venkatesan and coworkers [21, 221 demonstrated in 1987 the growth of the newly discovered high-temperature superconductors by laser ablation of bulk Y-Ba-Cu material followed by annealing in air or oxygen. Amazingly the stoichiometry of the thin films was virtually identical to that of the bulk. The ablation technique offered several advantages of simplicity, versatility, and experimental ease over traditional methods of sputtering or coevaporation. These results produced a “feedmg frenzy” as research groups around the world further refined and extended the technique. The recent book edited by Chnsey and Hubler [23] comprehensively reviews the last decade of research in pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of thin films. Several other applications of laser ablation “came of age” in the late 1980s. Particularly spectacular has been the growth of laser-based medical procedures. Laser surgery has matured tremendously, and many techmques have been approved for general clinical use. Laser-based ophthalmology is now widely available, and laser reshaping of soft tissue of the throat for the treatment of sleep apnea and control of snoring is an established technique. Laser ablation is a useful tool in the dermatology field for the removal of birthmarks or tattoos and most recently for cosmetic smoothing of wrinkled skin. When coupled with fiber optic delivery and viewing systems, laser surgery is increasingly being used for internal arthroscopic cutting and for arterial angloplasty. Dental applications are being studied as well. Although the PLD and medical applications are by far the most important in terms of economic impact, laser ablation has found several other important new uses. For instance, even though laser microanalysis by laser ablation coupled to mass spectrometry has been in use for two decades, the late 1980s saw the development of a new application to biological molecules. In matrix-assisted laser desorptionhonization (MALDI), the laser couples to an organic matrix
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INTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
such as nicotinic acid and pumps energy into the system. Large biological molecules dissolved in the matrix are desorbed and ionized in such a way that they are carried intact into the gas phase with little or no fragmentation. This technique has revolutionized the identification and study of large molecular weight biomolecules and polymers and has even been used to sequence genome fragments. Another application of laser ablation to another research field is its use with supersonic jet sources to volatilize, cool, and condense solids into clusters, which may then be studied by various spectroscopic techniques. Finally, extremely high power laser ablation has paved the way to the generation of high-energy plasmas, which serve as the source for bright X-ray sources and even coherent devices. Each of these modem applications of laser ablation is described in more detail in the following chapters of the present volume. As a paradigm for the evolving sophistication of laser ablation, the laser eraser described by Schawlow thirty years ago has now become a tool for graffiti removal and, more delicately, for art restoration [24, 251.
1.3 Annotated Bibliography 1.3.1 Journals
In the one or two decades after the demonstration of the first laser, most papers on laser ablation and desorption appeared in physics journals. As the emphasis shifted to applications, many more journals published such papers. It is not useful to simply list these journals as it would be a very long list. However, a few review articles have appeared, and some journals have published special issues on the subjects of interest here. They are as follows:
J. T. Cheung, and H. Sankur, “Growth of Thin Films by Laser-Induced Evaporation,” CRC Critical Reviews in Solid State and Material Sciences 15, 63, 1988. A comprehensive review. R. Srinivasan, and B. Braren, “Ultraviolet Laser Ablation of Organic Polymers,” Chem. Rev. 89, 1303, 1989. An excellent review. P. Kelly, ed., “Laser-Induced Material Modification,” OpticaI Engineering, vol. 28 (lo), 1989. A special issue with twelve articles; several are relevant to laser ablation and desorption. F. Hillencamp, R. C. Beavis, and B. Chait, “Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorptiod Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Biopolymers,” Anal. Chem. 63, 1193A, 1991. The first review of this subject by three of its first practitioners. G. K. Hubler, ed., “Pulsed Laser Ablation,” MRS Bulletin, vol. 17 (2), 1992. A special issue with four overview articles on PLD.
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R. Russo, “Laser Ablation for Spectrochemical Analysis,” Appl. Spectrosc. 49, 14A, 1995. A good overview of laser ablation, with emphasis on its use as a source for inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. “Applications of Laser Technology in Materials Processing,” Opt. and @ant. Electron. 27 (12), (1995). A special issue devoted to the industrial use of lasers. Several chapters cover different aspects of ablation. 1.3.2 Books
The following chronological list is not meant to be exhaustive, but it does include most of the major books relevant to laser ablationldesorption. In some cases, books are listed where only one or two chapters are relevant. Clearly it is not possible to list all such examples. Some foreign language or limited-access books have been omitted. J. F. Ready, Efects of High Power Laser Radiation, Academic Press, New York, 1971. The “classic” reference. Definitive account of the early state of the subject at that time. Still a useful overview. C. A. Anderson, ed., Microprobe Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973. Four chapters (12-15) provide a background summary of laser microprobe analysis and applications to geology, biological samples, and metals. Dated and of mostly historical interest. T. P. Hughes, Plasmas and Laser Light, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. An excellent summary of the theory of ablation as well as experimental results up to the publication date. G. Bekefi, Principles ofLaser Plasmas, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976. A good account of theoretical approaches with some, now dated, experimental results. J. F. Ready, Industrial Applications of Lasers, Academic Press, New York, 1978. Of mostly historical interest as industrial processing has changed dramatically since the 1970s. R. F. Wood, Laser Damage in Optical Materials, Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1986. A good overview of this field. E. H. Piepmeier, ed., Analytical Applications of Lasers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986. Chapter 19 is on laser ablation for atomic spectroscopy. L. J. Radziemski, R. W. Solarz, and J. A. Paisner, eds., Laser Spectroscopy and Its Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987. Chapter 5 contains a good account of laser plasma generation and analysis. L. J. Radziemski, and D. A. Cremers, eds., Laser-Induced Plasmas andApplicalions, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989. An excellent source covering laserproduced plasmas in both gaseous and solid samples. Applications to chemical analysis, hsion, semiconductor fabrication, and X-ray generation are described in detail.
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INTRODUCTlON TO LASER DESORPTlON AND ABLATION
R. M. Wood, ed., Selected Papers on Laser Damage in Optical Materials, SPIE Milestone Series vol. MS24, 1990. D. M. Lubman, ed., Lasers and Mass Spectrometry, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990. With an emphasis on chemical analysis, over half of the 23 chapters are relevant to laser ablation/desorption of solids or surfaces for subsequent examination by mass spectrometry. A. Vertes, R. Gijbels, and F. Adams, Laser Ionization Mass Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993. Similar to the previous listing. J. C. Miller, ed., Laser Ablation Principles and Applications, Springer Series in Material Science, vol. 28, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1994. Laser ablation is covered in detail with chapters on historical development, theory, optical surface damage, superconducting thin films, polymer ablation, mass spectrometry, and chemical analysis. B. Chrisey, and G. K. Hubler, eds., Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994. A comprehensive overview of the subject. Thirteen chapters cover fundamentals and experimental aspects of PLD. The latter twelve chapters offer a detailed literature survey of PLD studies of specific material types such as oxides, ferrites, biomaterials. M. von Allmen, and A. Blatter, Laser Beam Interactions With Materials: Physical Principles and Applications, Springer Series in Material Science, vol. 2, 2nd ed, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1995. A mostly theoretical account of laser-matter interactions with chapters on heating, melting and solidification, and evaporation and plasma formation. D. Bauerle, Laser Processing and Chemistiy, 2nd ed, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996. An up-to-date revision of an excellent book originally entitled Chemical Processing With Lasers. Thirty chapters cover a variety of topics very comprehensively. 1.3.3 Conference Series
The newest developments in any field first surface at conferences, and the proceedings of such conferences provide a useful snapshot of the current state of the subject. Conference series further allow one to follow the historical evolution of the hot topics over many years. The useful lifetime of such proceedings are, of course, limited because more complete accounts of the research are usually rapidly published in primary journals. Furthermore, conference proceedings often have a limited distribution and hence are sometimes difficult to obtain. Nonetheless the following list may prove useful. Annual Symposium on Optical Materials for High Power Lasers. Sometimes referred to as “the Boulder Damage Conference,” this meeting is the oldest and longest running conference in this field for which published proceedings are available. Initially published by the American Society for
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Testing Materials (ASTM), later proceedings were published by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), or The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). Somewhat confusingly the proceedings title is “Laser Induced Damage in Optical Materials” rather than the conference name.
A. J. Glass, and A. H. Guenter, eds., Damage in Laser Glass, ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub. 469, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1969. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Damage in Laser Materials, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.) Spec. Publ. 341, 1970. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Damage in Laser Materials: 1971, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 356, 1971. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1972, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 372, 1972. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1973, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 387, 1973. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: A Conference Report, Appl. Opt. 13, 74, 1974. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1974, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 414, 1974. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: The ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 14, 698, 1975. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1975, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 435, 1975. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 7th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 15, 1510, 1976. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1976, Nat. p Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 462, 1976. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 8th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 16, 1214, 1977. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Znduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1977, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 509, 1977. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 9th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 17, 2386, 1978. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1978, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 541, 1978. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 10th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 18, 2212, 1979. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1979, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.)Spec. Publ. 568, 1979. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., Laser-
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INTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1lth ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 19, 2212, 1980. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1980, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.) Spec. Publ. 620, 1981. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 12th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 20, 3003, 1981. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1981, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 638, 1983. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 13th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 22, 3276, 1983. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1982, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 669, 1984. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 14th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 23, 3782, 1984. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1983, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 688, 1985. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 15th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 25, 258, 1986. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1984, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 727, 1986. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 16th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 26, 813, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1985, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 746, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1986, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 752, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1987, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (U.S.) Spec. Pub1.756, 1988. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau,
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eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1989, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (US.)Spec. Publ. 801, ASTM STP 1117 and SPIE vol. 1438, 1989. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, andM. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1990, ASTM STP 1141 and SPIE vol. 1441, 1991. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1991, SPIE vol. 1624, 1992. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1992, SPIE vol. 1848, 1993. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1993, SPIE vol. 21 14, 1994. Desorption Induced by ElectronicTransitions (DIET). Earlier conferences emphasized electron and ion beam excitation, but more recent conferences describe many laser-based studies. N. H. Tolk, M. M. Traum, J. C. Tully, and T. E. Madey, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET I, Springer Series in Chemical Physics, vol. 24, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1983. W. Brenig and D. Menzil, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic TransitionsDIET II, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 4, Springer, Heidelberg, 1985. R. H. Stulen, and M. L. Knotek, eds., Desoi-ption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET ZIZ, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 13, Springer, Heidelberg, 1988. G. Betz, and P. Varga, eds. Desorption induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET IV, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 19, Springer-Verlag, Hiedelberg, 1990. A. R. Burns, E. B. Stechel, and D. R. Jennison, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET V, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol 3 1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993. M. Szymonski, and Z. Postawa, Nucl. Instr. and Methods, Phys. Res. B. 101, 1995. International Conference on Laser Ablation (COLA). Begun as a workshop in 1991, this was the first conference to focus solely on laser ablation. The series has emphasized fundamental understanding and has attempted to cover the broad applications in material science, analytical chemistry, biomedical sciences, t hn films, X-ray generation, pulsed laser deposition, and so on.
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INTRODUCTION TO IASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
J. C. Miller, and R. F. Haglund, Jr., eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 389, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991. J. C. Miller, and D. B. Geohegan, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications 11, American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings, vol. 288, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1994. E. Fogarassy, D. B. Geohegan, and M. Stuke, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications III, European Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings, Elsevier, New York, 1996; see also Applied Surface Science, vols. 96-98, 1996. R. F. Haglund, Jr., D. B. Geohegan, K. Murakami, and R. E. Russo, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications IV, Elsevier, New York, 1998; see also Applied Surjace Science, vols, xxx, 1998. Materials Research Society Symposia. In their two annual meetings, the MRS co-locates a number of focused symposia, each of which usually publishes a proceedings volume. Although many such proceedings may have a few papers relevant to laser ablationidesorption, the following symposia have limited themselves to this topic or have a significant number of related papers.
D. C. Paine, and J. C. Bravman, eds., Laser Ablation for Material Synthesis, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, vol. 191, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1990. B. Braren, J. J. Dubowski, and D. P. Norton, eds., Laser Ablation in Materials Processing: Fundamentals and Applications, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 285, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1993. H. A. Atwater, J. T. Dickinson, D. H. Lowndes, and A. Polman, eds., Film Synthesis and Growth Using Energetic Beams, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 388, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1995. D. C. Jacobson, D. E. Luzzi, T. F. Heinz, and M. Iwaki, eds., Beam-Solid Interactions for Materials Synthesis and Characterization, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 354, 1995. R. Singh, D. Norton, L. Laude, J. Narayan, and J. Cheung, eds., Advanced Laser Processing of Materials-Fundamentals and Applications, Material Research Society Proceedings, vol. 397, 1996. European Materials Research Society. Similar to the American society, the E-MRS sponsors focused symposia. In 1993, the COLA conference (see above) was co-located with the E-MRS meeting.
I. W. Boyd, and E. F. Krimmel, eds., Photon, Beam and Plasma Assisted Processing, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1989. E. Fogarassy, and S. Lazare, eds., Laser Ablation of Electronic Materials: Basic
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Mechanisms and Applications, European Materials Research Society Monographs, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1992. International Symposium on Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy. Although resonance ionization spectroscopy (RIS) is primarily a gasphase technique, it has often been used to analyze solids or surfaces following laser or electron beam vaporization. The conference series has thus always included a session on solids and a number of relevant papers may be found in each of the proceedings. In more recent years, MALDI has also been a frequent topic at these meetings.
G. S. Hurst, and M. G . Payne, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1984, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 71, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1984. G. S. Hurst and C. Gray Morgan, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1986, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 84, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1987. T. B. Lucatorto, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1988, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 94, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1989. J. E. Parks, and N. Omenetto, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1990, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 114, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1991. C. M. Miller, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1992, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 128, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1992. H.-J. Kluge, J. E. Parks, and K. Wendt, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1994, American Institute of Physics Proceedings, vol. 329, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1995. N. Winograd, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1966, American Institute of Physics Proceedings, vol. 388, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1997. NATO Advanced Study Institutes. sponsored conference.
Each is a one-time NATO-
L. D. Laude, D. Baerle, and M. Wautelet, eds., Interfaces Under Laser Iwadiation, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1987. L. D. Laude, ed., Excimer Lasers, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1994. International Laser Science Conference (ILS). Later called the Interdisciplinary Laser Science Conference, this meeting is sponsored by the Laser Science Division of the American Physical Society. Only the first four meetings
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INTRODUCTION '10 LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
published proceedings, but each conference had one or more sessions devoted to laser-condensed matter interaction, including ablation, PLD, and so on.
W. C. Stwalley, and M. Lapp, eds., Advances in Laser Science-I, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 146, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1986. M. Lapp, W. C. Stwalley, and G . A. Kenney-Wallace, eds., Advances in Laser Science-II, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 160, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1987. A. C. Tam, J. L. Gole, and W. C. Stwalley, eds., Advances in Laser Science-Ill, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 172, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1988. J. L. Gole, D. F. Heller, M. Lapp, and W. C Stwalley, eds., Advances in Laser Science-IV, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 191, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989.
Acknow Iedg ments Oak Ridge National Laboratory, managed by Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract number DE-ACO5960R22464. The submitted manuscript has been authored by a contractor of the U S . Government under contract No. DE-AC05-960R22464. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for U S . Government purposes.
References 1. Schawlow, A. L. Lasers. Science 149, 13 (1965). 2. Brech, F., and Cross, L. Optical micromission stimulated by a ruby maser. Appl. Spectrosc. 16, 59 (1962). 3. Ready, J. F. Effects of High-Power Laser Radiation. Academic Press, New York, 1971. 4. Maiman, T. H. Stimulated optical radiation. Nature 187, 493 (1960). 5. Linlor, W. I. Plasmas produced by laser bursts. Bull. Am. Phys. SOC. 7, 440 (7962). 6. Honig, R. E. and Woolston, J. R. Laser-induced emission of electrons, ions, and neutral atoms from solid surfaces. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2 , 138 (1963). 7. Muray, J. J. Photoelectric effect induced by high-intensity laser light beam from quartz and borosilicate glass. Bull. Am. Phys. SOC.8, 77 (1963). 8. Ready, J. F. Development of plume of material vaporized by giant-pulse laser. Appl. Phys. Lett. 3, 11 (1963). 9. Rosan, R. C., Healy, M. K., and McNary, Jr., W. F. Spectroscopic ultramicroanalysis with a laser. Science 142, 236 (1963).
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10. Howe, J. A. Observations on the maser-induced graphite jet. 1 Chem. Phys. 39, 1362 (1963). 11. Berkowitz, J., and Chupka, W. A. Mass spectrometric study of vapor ejected from graphite and other solids by focused laser beams. J Chern. Phys. 40, 2735 (1964). 12. Basov, N. G., and Krokhin, 0. N. Conditions for heating up of a plasma by the radiation from an optical generator. Zh. E h p . Teor. Fiz. 46, 171 (1964) [Sov. Phys. JETP 19, 123 (1964)l. 13. Ehler, A. W., and Weissler, G. L. Vacuum ultraviolet radiation from plasmas formed by a laser on metal surfaces. Appl. Phys. Lett. 8, 89 (1966). 14. Langer, P., Tonon, G., Floux, F., and Ducauze, A. Laser-induced emission of electrons, ions, and X-rays from solid targets. ZEEE QE2, 499 (1966). 15. Archibold, E., and Hughes, T. P. Electron temperature in a laser-heated plasma. Nature 204, 670 (1 964). 16. Sonneburg, H., Heffner, H., and Spicer, W. Two-photon photoelectric effect in Cs3Sb.Appl. Phys. Lett. 5, 95 (1964). 17. Logothetis, E. M., and Hartman, P. L. Three-photon photoelectric effect in gold. Phys. Rev. Lett. 18, 581 (1967). 18. Basov, N. G., Kruikov, P. G., Zakharov, S. D., Senatskii, Y . V., and Tchekalin, S. V. Experiments on the observation of neutron emission at the focus of the high-power laser radiation on a lithium deuteride surface. IEEE 1 Quant. Electron. QE4, 864 (1968). 19. Smith, H. M., and Turner, Vacuum, A. F. Deposited thin films using a ruby laser. Appl. Optics 4, 147 (1965). 20. Zaitsev-Zotov, S. V., Martynyuk, A. N., and Protasov, N. E. Superconductivity of BaPbl-,BiXO3films prepared by laser evaporation method. Sov. Phys. Solid State 25, 100 (1983). 21. Dijkkamp, D., Venkatesan, T., Wu, X. D., Shaheen, S. A,, Jiswari, N., Min-Lee, Y. H., McLean, W. L., and Croft, M. Preparation of Y-Ba-Cu oxide superconductor thin films using pulsed laser evaporation from high T, bulk material. Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 619 (1987). 22. Wu, X. D., Dijkkamp, D., Ogale, S. B., Inam, A,, Chase, E. W., Miceli, P. F., Chang, C. C., Tarascon, J. M., and Venkatesan, T. Epitaxial ordering of oxide superconductor thin films on (100) SrTi03 prepared by pulsed laser evaporation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 51, 861 (1987). 23. Chrisey, D. B., and Hubler, G. K., eds. Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994. 24. Matthews, D. L. Graffiti removal by laser. Sci. and Tech. Rev. April 1996. 25. Fotakis, C. Lasers for art’s sake! Opt. and Phot. News 30 (1995).
John C. Miller Chemical and Biological Physics Section Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge, Tennessee
1.1 Introduction At the ripe age of 35 years, the laser has become a mature technological device with many vaned applications. This was not always true of course. For many years, the laser was viewed as “an answer in search of a question.” That is, it was seen as an elegant device, but one with no real, useful application outside of fundamental scientific research. In the last two decades, however, numerous laser applications have moved from the laboratory to the industrial workplace or the commercial market. Lasers are unique energy sources characterized by their spectral purity, spatial and temporal coherence, and high average and peak intensity. Each of these characteristics has led to applications that take advantage of these laser qualities. For instance, spatial coherence, which allows a highly collimated laser beam, has spawned remote-sensing, range-finding, and target designation applications. Other applications based on coherence include interferometry and holography. Likewise the property of monochromaticity (spectral purity) enables chemical and physical sensing techniques based on high-resolution spectroscopy. Many other unique uses of lasers include communications, information storage and manipulation, and entertainment. All of these “high-tech” applications have come to define everyday life in the late twentieth century. One property of lasers, however, that of high intensity, did not immediately lead to “delicate” applications but rather to those requiring “brute force.” That is, the laser was used in a macroscopic way either for material removal or heating. The first realistic applications involved cutting, drilling, and welding, and the laser was little more advanced than a saw, a drill, or a torch. In a humorous vein, A. L. Schawlow proposed and demonstrated the first “laser eraser” in 1965 [l]. The different absorbencies of paper and ink allowed the laser to selectively remove typewriter print without damaging the underlying paper. Another early application used a laser to generate a plasma at the surface of a solid, and the resulting spectral emission could be used for elemental analysis [2]. Vastly more expensive than traditional tools, however, the laser only slowly found niche uses where its advantages made up for the added cost
1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS IN THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES Vol 30 ISSN 1 0 7 9 ~ 0 4 z , 9 8 sz5 no
Copyrrght 8 1998 by Academic Prew All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
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NTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
and complexity. Ready’s book [3] provides much detail about the applications of high powered lasers up to 1971. The present volume gives comprehensive reviews of the major applications of intense pulsed lasers since that classic reference.
1.2 Historical Development The laser age began with the birth of the first laser in 1960. T. H. Maiman [4] demonstrated the optical pumping of a ruby rod and the emission of coherent radiation. The 1960s were very important times for research involving laser-material interactions and the stage was set in that decade for virtually all of the later applications. In particular, many aspects of laser ablation were first studied during this decade. For instance, Brech and Cross [2] collected and spectrally dispersed the emitted light from ruby-laser ablated metals. This work formed the basis for the technique of laser microprobe emission spectroscopy for the elemental analysis of solid materials. Linlor [5] made measurements of the energy of ejected ions by time-of-flight determinations. This work, along with that of Honig and Woolston [6], was the first example of laser mass spectrometry, which was eventually introduced as a commercial instrument by Leybold-Heraeus in 1978. Muray [7] was the first of many to investigate laser photoemission of electrons. The study of ablation plumes by photography was initiated by Ready [8] in 1963. Other important papers appearing in 1963 were by Rosan et al. [9] for the first ablation studies of biological material and Howe [ 101 who used rotationally and vibrationally resolved molecular emission bands to measure temperatures of ablation plumes. Berkowitz and Chupka [ 111 were the first to observe clusters in an ablation plume. They observed carbon, magnesium, and boron cluster ions after postionization of ablated neutrals. Later, Basov and Krokhin [12] made the first suggestion of laser fusion, and as higher power lasers were used, vacuum ultraviolet [ 131 and X-ray emissions [I41 were detected. Higher power also led to the observation of multiplycharged ions [15] and to two- [16] and three-photon [17] photoemission. Measurable neutron fluxes from laser-heated targets were first reported in 1968 [ 181. Finally, of great importance in terms of modem applications of ablation, the first laser deposition of thin films was demonstrated by Smith and Turner [19] in 1965. Unfortunately these early films were of poor quality and the t e c h q u e could not compete with other established techniques. It was not until twenty years later that laser produced films were competitive. More details of these early studies can be found in the book by Ready [3]. Clearly the 1960s were a period of exploring many different aspects of laser ablation and coming to a first stage of experimental and theoretical understanding.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
3
During the 1970s and early 1980s the development and understanding of laser desorption and ablation processes were incremental and steady. In particular, the field was dnven by advances in laser technology. As lasers got brighter, with shorter pulse lengths and correspondingly higher peak powers, and more stable in terms of shot-to-shot reproducibility, ablation studies moved into new regimes. The availability of new lasers, especially excimer lasers, and a broader wavelength capability led to new coupling possibilities. And, of course, the application of ablation studies to ever more types of materials vastly increased the diversity of data available. Concurrently the sophistication of ablation diagnostics also improved dramatically, led by advances in electronics and computers. However, the application of laser ablation to problems of practical import advanced very little in this period. The principal uses continued to be in emission and mass spectrometry for chemical analysis. This situation changed dramatically in the late 1980s. Zaitsev-Zotov et al. [20] first produced superconducting thin films by laser ablation in 1983. But the technique went virtually unnoticed until Venkatesan and coworkers [21, 221 demonstrated in 1987 the growth of the newly discovered high-temperature superconductors by laser ablation of bulk Y-Ba-Cu material followed by annealing in air or oxygen. Amazingly the stoichiometry of the thin films was virtually identical to that of the bulk. The ablation technique offered several advantages of simplicity, versatility, and experimental ease over traditional methods of sputtering or coevaporation. These results produced a “feedmg frenzy” as research groups around the world further refined and extended the technique. The recent book edited by Chnsey and Hubler [23] comprehensively reviews the last decade of research in pulsed laser deposition (PLD) of thin films. Several other applications of laser ablation “came of age” in the late 1980s. Particularly spectacular has been the growth of laser-based medical procedures. Laser surgery has matured tremendously, and many techmques have been approved for general clinical use. Laser-based ophthalmology is now widely available, and laser reshaping of soft tissue of the throat for the treatment of sleep apnea and control of snoring is an established technique. Laser ablation is a useful tool in the dermatology field for the removal of birthmarks or tattoos and most recently for cosmetic smoothing of wrinkled skin. When coupled with fiber optic delivery and viewing systems, laser surgery is increasingly being used for internal arthroscopic cutting and for arterial angloplasty. Dental applications are being studied as well. Although the PLD and medical applications are by far the most important in terms of economic impact, laser ablation has found several other important new uses. For instance, even though laser microanalysis by laser ablation coupled to mass spectrometry has been in use for two decades, the late 1980s saw the development of a new application to biological molecules. In matrix-assisted laser desorptionhonization (MALDI), the laser couples to an organic matrix
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INTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
such as nicotinic acid and pumps energy into the system. Large biological molecules dissolved in the matrix are desorbed and ionized in such a way that they are carried intact into the gas phase with little or no fragmentation. This technique has revolutionized the identification and study of large molecular weight biomolecules and polymers and has even been used to sequence genome fragments. Another application of laser ablation to another research field is its use with supersonic jet sources to volatilize, cool, and condense solids into clusters, which may then be studied by various spectroscopic techniques. Finally, extremely high power laser ablation has paved the way to the generation of high-energy plasmas, which serve as the source for bright X-ray sources and even coherent devices. Each of these modem applications of laser ablation is described in more detail in the following chapters of the present volume. As a paradigm for the evolving sophistication of laser ablation, the laser eraser described by Schawlow thirty years ago has now become a tool for graffiti removal and, more delicately, for art restoration [24, 251.
1.3 Annotated Bibliography 1.3.1 Journals
In the one or two decades after the demonstration of the first laser, most papers on laser ablation and desorption appeared in physics journals. As the emphasis shifted to applications, many more journals published such papers. It is not useful to simply list these journals as it would be a very long list. However, a few review articles have appeared, and some journals have published special issues on the subjects of interest here. They are as follows:
J. T. Cheung, and H. Sankur, “Growth of Thin Films by Laser-Induced Evaporation,” CRC Critical Reviews in Solid State and Material Sciences 15, 63, 1988. A comprehensive review. R. Srinivasan, and B. Braren, “Ultraviolet Laser Ablation of Organic Polymers,” Chem. Rev. 89, 1303, 1989. An excellent review. P. Kelly, ed., “Laser-Induced Material Modification,” OpticaI Engineering, vol. 28 (lo), 1989. A special issue with twelve articles; several are relevant to laser ablation and desorption. F. Hillencamp, R. C. Beavis, and B. Chait, “Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorptiod Ionization Mass Spectrometry of Biopolymers,” Anal. Chem. 63, 1193A, 1991. The first review of this subject by three of its first practitioners. G. K. Hubler, ed., “Pulsed Laser Ablation,” MRS Bulletin, vol. 17 (2), 1992. A special issue with four overview articles on PLD.
A N N 0 IAI‘ED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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R. Russo, “Laser Ablation for Spectrochemical Analysis,” Appl. Spectrosc. 49, 14A, 1995. A good overview of laser ablation, with emphasis on its use as a source for inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. “Applications of Laser Technology in Materials Processing,” Opt. and @ant. Electron. 27 (12), (1995). A special issue devoted to the industrial use of lasers. Several chapters cover different aspects of ablation. 1.3.2 Books
The following chronological list is not meant to be exhaustive, but it does include most of the major books relevant to laser ablationldesorption. In some cases, books are listed where only one or two chapters are relevant. Clearly it is not possible to list all such examples. Some foreign language or limited-access books have been omitted. J. F. Ready, Efects of High Power Laser Radiation, Academic Press, New York, 1971. The “classic” reference. Definitive account of the early state of the subject at that time. Still a useful overview. C. A. Anderson, ed., Microprobe Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1973. Four chapters (12-15) provide a background summary of laser microprobe analysis and applications to geology, biological samples, and metals. Dated and of mostly historical interest. T. P. Hughes, Plasmas and Laser Light, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1975. An excellent summary of the theory of ablation as well as experimental results up to the publication date. G. Bekefi, Principles ofLaser Plasmas, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1976. A good account of theoretical approaches with some, now dated, experimental results. J. F. Ready, Industrial Applications of Lasers, Academic Press, New York, 1978. Of mostly historical interest as industrial processing has changed dramatically since the 1970s. R. F. Wood, Laser Damage in Optical Materials, Adam Hilger, Bristol, 1986. A good overview of this field. E. H. Piepmeier, ed., Analytical Applications of Lasers, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1986. Chapter 19 is on laser ablation for atomic spectroscopy. L. J. Radziemski, R. W. Solarz, and J. A. Paisner, eds., Laser Spectroscopy and Its Applications, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1987. Chapter 5 contains a good account of laser plasma generation and analysis. L. J. Radziemski, and D. A. Cremers, eds., Laser-Induced Plasmas andApplicalions, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1989. An excellent source covering laserproduced plasmas in both gaseous and solid samples. Applications to chemical analysis, hsion, semiconductor fabrication, and X-ray generation are described in detail.
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INTRODUCTlON TO LASER DESORPTlON AND ABLATION
R. M. Wood, ed., Selected Papers on Laser Damage in Optical Materials, SPIE Milestone Series vol. MS24, 1990. D. M. Lubman, ed., Lasers and Mass Spectrometry, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1990. With an emphasis on chemical analysis, over half of the 23 chapters are relevant to laser ablation/desorption of solids or surfaces for subsequent examination by mass spectrometry. A. Vertes, R. Gijbels, and F. Adams, Laser Ionization Mass Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1993. Similar to the previous listing. J. C. Miller, ed., Laser Ablation Principles and Applications, Springer Series in Material Science, vol. 28, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1994. Laser ablation is covered in detail with chapters on historical development, theory, optical surface damage, superconducting thin films, polymer ablation, mass spectrometry, and chemical analysis. B. Chrisey, and G. K. Hubler, eds., Pulsed Laser Deposition of Thin Films, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1994. A comprehensive overview of the subject. Thirteen chapters cover fundamentals and experimental aspects of PLD. The latter twelve chapters offer a detailed literature survey of PLD studies of specific material types such as oxides, ferrites, biomaterials. M. von Allmen, and A. Blatter, Laser Beam Interactions With Materials: Physical Principles and Applications, Springer Series in Material Science, vol. 2, 2nd ed, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1995. A mostly theoretical account of laser-matter interactions with chapters on heating, melting and solidification, and evaporation and plasma formation. D. Bauerle, Laser Processing and Chemistiy, 2nd ed, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996. An up-to-date revision of an excellent book originally entitled Chemical Processing With Lasers. Thirty chapters cover a variety of topics very comprehensively. 1.3.3 Conference Series
The newest developments in any field first surface at conferences, and the proceedings of such conferences provide a useful snapshot of the current state of the subject. Conference series further allow one to follow the historical evolution of the hot topics over many years. The useful lifetime of such proceedings are, of course, limited because more complete accounts of the research are usually rapidly published in primary journals. Furthermore, conference proceedings often have a limited distribution and hence are sometimes difficult to obtain. Nonetheless the following list may prove useful. Annual Symposium on Optical Materials for High Power Lasers. Sometimes referred to as “the Boulder Damage Conference,” this meeting is the oldest and longest running conference in this field for which published proceedings are available. Initially published by the American Society for
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
7
Testing Materials (ASTM), later proceedings were published by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), or The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE). Somewhat confusingly the proceedings title is “Laser Induced Damage in Optical Materials” rather than the conference name.
A. J. Glass, and A. H. Guenter, eds., Damage in Laser Glass, ASTM Spec. Tech. Pub. 469, ASTM, Philadelphia, 1969. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Damage in Laser Materials, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.) Spec. Publ. 341, 1970. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Damage in Laser Materials: 1971, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 356, 1971. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1972, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 372, 1972. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1973, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 387, 1973. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: A Conference Report, Appl. Opt. 13, 74, 1974. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1974, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 414, 1974. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: The ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 14, 698, 1975. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1975, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 435, 1975. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 7th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 15, 1510, 1976. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1976, Nat. p Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 462, 1976. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 8th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 16, 1214, 1977. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Znduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1977, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 509, 1977. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 9th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 17, 2386, 1978. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1978, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 541, 1978. A. J. Glass, and A. H. Geunther, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 10th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 18, 2212, 1979. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1979, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.)Spec. Publ. 568, 1979. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., Laser-
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INTRODUCTION TO LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1lth ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 19, 2212, 1980. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1980, Nat. Bur. Stand. (US.) Spec. Publ. 620, 1981. H. E. Bennett, A. J. Glass, A. H. Geunther, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 12th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 20, 3003, 1981. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1981, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 638, 1983. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 13th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 22, 3276, 1983. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1982, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 669, 1984. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 14th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 23, 3782, 1984. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1983, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 688, 1985. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 15th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 25, 258, 1986. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1984, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 727, 1986. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 16th ASTM Symposium, Appl. Opt. 26, 813, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1985, Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 746, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, eds., LaserInduced Damage in Optical Materials: 1986, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (U.S.) Spec. Publ. 752, 1987. H. E. Bennett, A. H. Geunther, D. Milam, and B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1987, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (U.S.) Spec. Pub1.756, 1988. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau,
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
9
eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1989, Nat. Inst. Stand. Tech. (US.)Spec. Publ. 801, ASTM STP 1117 and SPIE vol. 1438, 1989. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, andM. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1990, ASTM STP 1141 and SPIE vol. 1441, 1991. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1991, SPIE vol. 1624, 1992. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1992, SPIE vol. 1848, 1993. H. E. Bennett, L. L. Chase, A. H. Geunther, B. E. Newnam, and M. J. Soileau, eds., Laser-Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1993, SPIE vol. 21 14, 1994. Desorption Induced by ElectronicTransitions (DIET). Earlier conferences emphasized electron and ion beam excitation, but more recent conferences describe many laser-based studies. N. H. Tolk, M. M. Traum, J. C. Tully, and T. E. Madey, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET I, Springer Series in Chemical Physics, vol. 24, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1983. W. Brenig and D. Menzil, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic TransitionsDIET II, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 4, Springer, Heidelberg, 1985. R. H. Stulen, and M. L. Knotek, eds., Desoi-ption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET ZIZ, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 13, Springer, Heidelberg, 1988. G. Betz, and P. Varga, eds. Desorption induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET IV, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol. 19, Springer-Verlag, Hiedelberg, 1990. A. R. Burns, E. B. Stechel, and D. R. Jennison, eds., Desorption Induced by Electronic Transitions-DIET V, Springer Series in Surface Science, vol 3 1, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1993. M. Szymonski, and Z. Postawa, Nucl. Instr. and Methods, Phys. Res. B. 101, 1995. International Conference on Laser Ablation (COLA). Begun as a workshop in 1991, this was the first conference to focus solely on laser ablation. The series has emphasized fundamental understanding and has attempted to cover the broad applications in material science, analytical chemistry, biomedical sciences, t hn films, X-ray generation, pulsed laser deposition, and so on.
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INTRODUCTION TO IASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
J. C. Miller, and R. F. Haglund, Jr., eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications, Lecture Notes in Physics, vol. 389, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1991. J. C. Miller, and D. B. Geohegan, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications 11, American Institute of Physics Conference Proceedings, vol. 288, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1994. E. Fogarassy, D. B. Geohegan, and M. Stuke, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications III, European Materials Research Society Symposia Proceedings, Elsevier, New York, 1996; see also Applied Surface Science, vols. 96-98, 1996. R. F. Haglund, Jr., D. B. Geohegan, K. Murakami, and R. E. Russo, eds., Laser Ablation Mechanisms and Applications IV, Elsevier, New York, 1998; see also Applied Surjace Science, vols, xxx, 1998. Materials Research Society Symposia. In their two annual meetings, the MRS co-locates a number of focused symposia, each of which usually publishes a proceedings volume. Although many such proceedings may have a few papers relevant to laser ablationidesorption, the following symposia have limited themselves to this topic or have a significant number of related papers.
D. C. Paine, and J. C. Bravman, eds., Laser Ablation for Material Synthesis, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, vol. 191, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1990. B. Braren, J. J. Dubowski, and D. P. Norton, eds., Laser Ablation in Materials Processing: Fundamentals and Applications, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 285, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1993. H. A. Atwater, J. T. Dickinson, D. H. Lowndes, and A. Polman, eds., Film Synthesis and Growth Using Energetic Beams, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 388, Materials Research Society, Pittsburgh, 1995. D. C. Jacobson, D. E. Luzzi, T. F. Heinz, and M. Iwaki, eds., Beam-Solid Interactions for Materials Synthesis and Characterization, Materials Research Society Proceedings, vol. 354, 1995. R. Singh, D. Norton, L. Laude, J. Narayan, and J. Cheung, eds., Advanced Laser Processing of Materials-Fundamentals and Applications, Material Research Society Proceedings, vol. 397, 1996. European Materials Research Society. Similar to the American society, the E-MRS sponsors focused symposia. In 1993, the COLA conference (see above) was co-located with the E-MRS meeting.
I. W. Boyd, and E. F. Krimmel, eds., Photon, Beam and Plasma Assisted Processing, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1989. E. Fogarassy, and S. Lazare, eds., Laser Ablation of Electronic Materials: Basic
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Mechanisms and Applications, European Materials Research Society Monographs, North Holland, Amsterdam, 1992. International Symposium on Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy. Although resonance ionization spectroscopy (RIS) is primarily a gasphase technique, it has often been used to analyze solids or surfaces following laser or electron beam vaporization. The conference series has thus always included a session on solids and a number of relevant papers may be found in each of the proceedings. In more recent years, MALDI has also been a frequent topic at these meetings.
G. S. Hurst, and M. G . Payne, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1984, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 71, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1984. G. S. Hurst and C. Gray Morgan, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1986, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 84, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1987. T. B. Lucatorto, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1988, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 94, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1989. J. E. Parks, and N. Omenetto, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1990, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 114, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1991. C. M. Miller, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1992, The Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 128, The Institute of Physics, Bristol, 1992. H.-J. Kluge, J. E. Parks, and K. Wendt, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1994, American Institute of Physics Proceedings, vol. 329, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1995. N. Winograd, and J. E. Parks, eds., Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy 1966, American Institute of Physics Proceedings, vol. 388, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1997. NATO Advanced Study Institutes. sponsored conference.
Each is a one-time NATO-
L. D. Laude, D. Baerle, and M. Wautelet, eds., Interfaces Under Laser Iwadiation, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Dordrecht, 1987. L. D. Laude, ed., Excimer Lasers, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1994. International Laser Science Conference (ILS). Later called the Interdisciplinary Laser Science Conference, this meeting is sponsored by the Laser Science Division of the American Physical Society. Only the first four meetings
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INTRODUCTION '10 LASER DESORPTION AND ABLATION
published proceedings, but each conference had one or more sessions devoted to laser-condensed matter interaction, including ablation, PLD, and so on.
W. C. Stwalley, and M. Lapp, eds., Advances in Laser Science-I, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 146, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1986. M. Lapp, W. C. Stwalley, and G . A. Kenney-Wallace, eds., Advances in Laser Science-II, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 160, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1987. A. C. Tam, J. L. Gole, and W. C. Stwalley, eds., Advances in Laser Science-Ill, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 172, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1988. J. L. Gole, D. F. Heller, M. Lapp, and W. C Stwalley, eds., Advances in Laser Science-IV, American Institute of Physics Conference Series, vol. 191, American Institute of Physics, New York, 1989.
Acknow Iedg ments Oak Ridge National Laboratory, managed by Lockheed Martin Energy Research Corporation for the U.S. Department of Energy under contract number DE-ACO5960R22464. The submitted manuscript has been authored by a contractor of the U S . Government under contract No. DE-AC05-960R22464. Accordingly, the U.S. Government retains a nonexclusive, royalty-free license to publish or reproduce the published form of this contribution, or allow others to do so, for U S . Government purposes.
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