- Email: [email protected]
63 The concealed information test (CIT) as an application of psychophysiology: Future prospects and obstacles
26
Abstracts
/International
Journal
SYMPOSIUM 10: The North American Polygraph: Ethical and Methodological Implications for Scientific and Applied Psychophysiologists 60 THE NORTH AMERICAN POLYGRAPH ETHICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC AND APPLIED PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGISTS Robert J. Barry Department of Psychology, University of Wollongong, longong, Australia
of Psychophysiology
30 (1998)
7-94
attitudes (i.e., ignorant opinion). In the case of the CQT, the relevant principles are relatively basic or elementary. I shall summarize previously stated arguments that: with respect to basic science, the CQT’s mislzading use of terms like “control” renders it an unresearchable procedure; with respect to applications, it is not a test at all (in the sense that, say, an IQ test is a test), but an unstandardized interrogatory interview the main purpose of which is to secure a confession (whether that is reliable or not); with respect to ethics, it is a menace to the social fabric, in addition to being subject to an logico-ethical problem that has been previously identified as “the polygrapher’s dilemma”.
Wol-
The Polygraph has been used in the detection of deception for a number of years, and various causes of conem about the procedures used in its implementation, particularly in North America, have been raised. As Psychophysiologists, we have an ethical imperative to be knowledgable in regard to these issues in order that we may make informed comment,and adopt appropriate positions in the face of public debate. In this symposium, Furedy addresses the fundamental issues of principle in relation to the ‘Control Question Test’ procedure, and Saxe continues the exploration of ethical issues in relation to its validity. Ben-Shakhar outlines recent developments in relation to the ‘Concealed Information Test’, pointing to an ethical alternative to common Polygpph procedures. Finally, Rosenfeld outlines some of his data illustrating the value of adding ERP measures to the autonomic measures commonly used in this field. Discussion will emphasise that this field of applied psychophysiology will be advanced only through the combination of a valid and ethically-appropriate procedure with optimal physiological measures.
61 A PRINCIPLED EVALUATION OF THE “CONTROL” QUESTION “TEST”: BACK TO SOME SCIENTIFIC, APPLIED, AND ETHICAL BASICS John J. Furedy Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada Recently, supporters of the “control” question “test” (CQT) have provided survey-based positive evaluations of it by professional psychophysiologists. However, the majority of those surveyed are ignorant of the actual procedures that are part of the CQT, and have not considered its methodological and ethical implications. Similarly, a survey of leading professionals (aquaduct engineers, military experts, leading politicians, etc.) of the ancient Roman empire would probably have produced favorable opinions about the reading of entrails (which was regularly employed to make important decisions), but this evidence would hardly have validated entrails reading. In contrast, a principled evaluation considers logical and empirical considerations (i.e., informed knowledge) rather than
62 ETHICAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT THE CQT POLYGRAPH TEST Leonard Saxe Brandeis University and Graduate School and University Center, CUNY, New York, USA Legal and scientific controversy about the Control Question Test (CQT), a psychophysiological procedure that claims to provide an assessment of deception, continues unabated. Resolution of conflicting judgments about the CQT’s reliability and validity should be straightforward, but recent experience suggests the opposite. One reason disagreement continues is that CQT research is supported and conducted, almost exclusively, by proponents and agencies that assume its validity. One consequence is that the research tends to be atheoretical and fails to test the CQT’s underlying constructs. Failure to examine construct validity is particularly problematic because of the difficulty, in practice, of developing an adequate criterion of truth. If the CQT polygraph is to be accepted as valid, fundamental questions need to be answered about its assumptions. Key questions concern an individual’s understanding of the CQT questions and how responses are affected by factors such as novelty and habituation. This effort to ask basic questions needs to be undertaken not only from a psychophysiological perspective, but also by adapting ideas and paradigms from psychometrics, cognitive psychology and social psychology. Psychologists who promote a test have an ethical obligation to provide evidence of its effectiveness and the conditions under which it should be used. It is neither necessary nor possible for critics to prove that the test does not work. Until positive evidence of the assumptions of polygraphy can be provided, it remains an unvalidated procedure whose application seems unwarranted.
63 THE CONCEALED INFORMATION TEST (CIT) AS AN APPLICATION OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY: FUTURE PROSPECTS AND OBSTACLES Gershon Ben-Shakhar Department of Psychology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Abstracts
/International
Journal
of Psychophysiology
30 (1998)
7-94
27
This presentation will focus on the CIT as a potential applied method for psychophysiological detection. I shall briefly cxplain why this method, in contrast to the more commonly used Control Questions Test’, is based on scientific principles, can he administered in an objective and standardized manner, and can provide sufficient protection to innocent suspects. Therefore it is a potentially usable method for detecting inforrnation. I shall then discuss the two necessary requirements for a proper administration of the CIT in real life (identification of salient features of the relevant event, and preventing leakage of this information to potential suspects), and explain why it has not been frequently used. Recent studies, some which suggest that the CIT could be utilized more frequently than previously believed, and others that highlight some of its shortcomings, will be discussed. Finally, I will suggest future directions that could advance the development of a more useful and usable psychophysiological detection method based on the principles of the CIT.
memories, honestly believed but false memories, and fabricated memories.
64 EVENT-RELATED OF DECEPTION
The only noninvasive methods to trace the activation sequences in the human brain with good temporal resolution are magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG), recordings of the magnetic field and the electric potential distribution generated by the neural currents. Given a current distribution in a brain and an accurate description of the electromagnetic parameters of the surrounding tissues it is in principle straightforward to calculate the ensuing electromagnetic field. On the other hand, unique estimation of the currents from the measured field or the voltage distribution is possible only if suitable constraints are applied. Useful information about the neural events of the brain has been gained both with discrete, parametrized source models and with techniques yielding continuous, diffuse images of the currents. Advent of magnetometer arrays covering the whole head has made it possible to study complicated phenomena involving simultaneous or sequential processing in multiple cortical regions. MEG is thus a unique tool to study information processing in healthy humans. We have recently conducted several cognitive studies, which will be discussed as illustrative examples. It is also possible to record the ongoing rhythmic spontaneous brain activity in real time and follow its changes under different conditions. In addition to the alpha rhythm originating in the visual areas, similar spontaneous signals occur in the somatosensory and auditory systems. MEG measurements have provided new information both about the generation sites of these rhythmic activities and their functional significance. Both evoked responses and spontaneous activity recordings can be utilized in clinical studies. For example, the locations of the somatosensoly and motor cortices deduced from evoked field data can be superimposed on three-dimensional surface reconstructions of the brain and vasculature computed from MRI data. The resulting individual functional map can be a valuable aid in planning neurosurgical operations.
POTENTIALS
J. Peter Rosenfeld Department of Psychology, Evanston, Illinois, USA
IN DETECTION
Northwestern
University,
In the early 1990s we and others utilized the P300 response at one site (Pz) as an index of recognition of meaningful information in individuals who verbally deny knowledge of that information. Very recently, we have looked at a novel dependent variable based on P300, namely, the scaled scalp amplitude distribution or brain map as an index of deception. Johnson (1988, 1993) has argued persuasively that if two conditions (e.g.,truth-telling vs. deceiving) produce differing brain maps, one has strong evidence that different groups of neurogenerator neurons are activated by the two conditions. Thus using brain map as a dependent variable not only allows a new channel for practical deception detection. With the brain map variable, it also becomes possible to pose theoretical questions about deception, e.g., does self-aggrandizing deception involve a different brain state than altruistic deception? We have recently shown that although truth-tellers in different cognitive paradigms (autobiographical recognition vs. matching to sample) show differing brain maps-as one would expect since different cognitive activities are involved in the two tasks - during deceptive responding, the two brain maps become similar. Likewise, in a matching to sample task truth-telling involves differing brain maps for matches vs. mismatches, but during deception, the brain maps become superimposable. This is not simply a matter of differing task demands being associated with truth-telling versus deception; control conditions have been utilized to address this issue. Finally, utilizing the Deese-Roediger paradigm, we are presently comparing P300 brain maps in response to real
SYMPOSIUM 11: New Perspectives of Brain Imaging Techniques for Psychophysiological Studies
65 NEUROMAGNETIC TION
IMAGING
OF BRAIN
FUNC-
Matti Hamaliiinen Low Temperature Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 2200, 02015 HUT, Espoo, Finland
Abstracts
/International
Journal
SYMPOSIUM 10: The North American Polygraph: Ethical and Methodological Implications for Scientific and Applied Psychophysiologists 60 THE NORTH AMERICAN POLYGRAPH ETHICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS FOR SCIENTIFIC AND APPLIED PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGISTS Robert J. Barry Department of Psychology, University of Wollongong, longong, Australia
of Psychophysiology
30 (1998)
7-94
attitudes (i.e., ignorant opinion). In the case of the CQT, the relevant principles are relatively basic or elementary. I shall summarize previously stated arguments that: with respect to basic science, the CQT’s mislzading use of terms like “control” renders it an unresearchable procedure; with respect to applications, it is not a test at all (in the sense that, say, an IQ test is a test), but an unstandardized interrogatory interview the main purpose of which is to secure a confession (whether that is reliable or not); with respect to ethics, it is a menace to the social fabric, in addition to being subject to an logico-ethical problem that has been previously identified as “the polygrapher’s dilemma”.
Wol-
The Polygraph has been used in the detection of deception for a number of years, and various causes of conem about the procedures used in its implementation, particularly in North America, have been raised. As Psychophysiologists, we have an ethical imperative to be knowledgable in regard to these issues in order that we may make informed comment,and adopt appropriate positions in the face of public debate. In this symposium, Furedy addresses the fundamental issues of principle in relation to the ‘Control Question Test’ procedure, and Saxe continues the exploration of ethical issues in relation to its validity. Ben-Shakhar outlines recent developments in relation to the ‘Concealed Information Test’, pointing to an ethical alternative to common Polygpph procedures. Finally, Rosenfeld outlines some of his data illustrating the value of adding ERP measures to the autonomic measures commonly used in this field. Discussion will emphasise that this field of applied psychophysiology will be advanced only through the combination of a valid and ethically-appropriate procedure with optimal physiological measures.
61 A PRINCIPLED EVALUATION OF THE “CONTROL” QUESTION “TEST”: BACK TO SOME SCIENTIFIC, APPLIED, AND ETHICAL BASICS John J. Furedy Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada Recently, supporters of the “control” question “test” (CQT) have provided survey-based positive evaluations of it by professional psychophysiologists. However, the majority of those surveyed are ignorant of the actual procedures that are part of the CQT, and have not considered its methodological and ethical implications. Similarly, a survey of leading professionals (aquaduct engineers, military experts, leading politicians, etc.) of the ancient Roman empire would probably have produced favorable opinions about the reading of entrails (which was regularly employed to make important decisions), but this evidence would hardly have validated entrails reading. In contrast, a principled evaluation considers logical and empirical considerations (i.e., informed knowledge) rather than
62 ETHICAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT THE CQT POLYGRAPH TEST Leonard Saxe Brandeis University and Graduate School and University Center, CUNY, New York, USA Legal and scientific controversy about the Control Question Test (CQT), a psychophysiological procedure that claims to provide an assessment of deception, continues unabated. Resolution of conflicting judgments about the CQT’s reliability and validity should be straightforward, but recent experience suggests the opposite. One reason disagreement continues is that CQT research is supported and conducted, almost exclusively, by proponents and agencies that assume its validity. One consequence is that the research tends to be atheoretical and fails to test the CQT’s underlying constructs. Failure to examine construct validity is particularly problematic because of the difficulty, in practice, of developing an adequate criterion of truth. If the CQT polygraph is to be accepted as valid, fundamental questions need to be answered about its assumptions. Key questions concern an individual’s understanding of the CQT questions and how responses are affected by factors such as novelty and habituation. This effort to ask basic questions needs to be undertaken not only from a psychophysiological perspective, but also by adapting ideas and paradigms from psychometrics, cognitive psychology and social psychology. Psychologists who promote a test have an ethical obligation to provide evidence of its effectiveness and the conditions under which it should be used. It is neither necessary nor possible for critics to prove that the test does not work. Until positive evidence of the assumptions of polygraphy can be provided, it remains an unvalidated procedure whose application seems unwarranted.
63 THE CONCEALED INFORMATION TEST (CIT) AS AN APPLICATION OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY: FUTURE PROSPECTS AND OBSTACLES Gershon Ben-Shakhar Department of Psychology, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Abstracts
/International
Journal
of Psychophysiology
30 (1998)
7-94
27
This presentation will focus on the CIT as a potential applied method for psychophysiological detection. I shall briefly cxplain why this method, in contrast to the more commonly used Control Questions Test’, is based on scientific principles, can he administered in an objective and standardized manner, and can provide sufficient protection to innocent suspects. Therefore it is a potentially usable method for detecting inforrnation. I shall then discuss the two necessary requirements for a proper administration of the CIT in real life (identification of salient features of the relevant event, and preventing leakage of this information to potential suspects), and explain why it has not been frequently used. Recent studies, some which suggest that the CIT could be utilized more frequently than previously believed, and others that highlight some of its shortcomings, will be discussed. Finally, I will suggest future directions that could advance the development of a more useful and usable psychophysiological detection method based on the principles of the CIT.
memories, honestly believed but false memories, and fabricated memories.
64 EVENT-RELATED OF DECEPTION
The only noninvasive methods to trace the activation sequences in the human brain with good temporal resolution are magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG), recordings of the magnetic field and the electric potential distribution generated by the neural currents. Given a current distribution in a brain and an accurate description of the electromagnetic parameters of the surrounding tissues it is in principle straightforward to calculate the ensuing electromagnetic field. On the other hand, unique estimation of the currents from the measured field or the voltage distribution is possible only if suitable constraints are applied. Useful information about the neural events of the brain has been gained both with discrete, parametrized source models and with techniques yielding continuous, diffuse images of the currents. Advent of magnetometer arrays covering the whole head has made it possible to study complicated phenomena involving simultaneous or sequential processing in multiple cortical regions. MEG is thus a unique tool to study information processing in healthy humans. We have recently conducted several cognitive studies, which will be discussed as illustrative examples. It is also possible to record the ongoing rhythmic spontaneous brain activity in real time and follow its changes under different conditions. In addition to the alpha rhythm originating in the visual areas, similar spontaneous signals occur in the somatosensory and auditory systems. MEG measurements have provided new information both about the generation sites of these rhythmic activities and their functional significance. Both evoked responses and spontaneous activity recordings can be utilized in clinical studies. For example, the locations of the somatosensoly and motor cortices deduced from evoked field data can be superimposed on three-dimensional surface reconstructions of the brain and vasculature computed from MRI data. The resulting individual functional map can be a valuable aid in planning neurosurgical operations.
POTENTIALS
J. Peter Rosenfeld Department of Psychology, Evanston, Illinois, USA
IN DETECTION
Northwestern
University,
In the early 1990s we and others utilized the P300 response at one site (Pz) as an index of recognition of meaningful information in individuals who verbally deny knowledge of that information. Very recently, we have looked at a novel dependent variable based on P300, namely, the scaled scalp amplitude distribution or brain map as an index of deception. Johnson (1988, 1993) has argued persuasively that if two conditions (e.g.,truth-telling vs. deceiving) produce differing brain maps, one has strong evidence that different groups of neurogenerator neurons are activated by the two conditions. Thus using brain map as a dependent variable not only allows a new channel for practical deception detection. With the brain map variable, it also becomes possible to pose theoretical questions about deception, e.g., does self-aggrandizing deception involve a different brain state than altruistic deception? We have recently shown that although truth-tellers in different cognitive paradigms (autobiographical recognition vs. matching to sample) show differing brain maps-as one would expect since different cognitive activities are involved in the two tasks - during deceptive responding, the two brain maps become similar. Likewise, in a matching to sample task truth-telling involves differing brain maps for matches vs. mismatches, but during deception, the brain maps become superimposable. This is not simply a matter of differing task demands being associated with truth-telling versus deception; control conditions have been utilized to address this issue. Finally, utilizing the Deese-Roediger paradigm, we are presently comparing P300 brain maps in response to real
SYMPOSIUM 11: New Perspectives of Brain Imaging Techniques for Psychophysiological Studies
65 NEUROMAGNETIC TION
IMAGING
OF BRAIN
FUNC-
Matti Hamaliiinen Low Temperature Laboratory, Helsinki University of Technology, P.O. Box 2200, 02015 HUT, Espoo, Finland