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A comparative study of library and information science education: China and the United States
Intl. Inform. @ Libr. Rev. (1992) 24, 107-l 18
A Comparative Study of Library and Information Science Education: China and the United States ZIMING
LIU* ABSTRACT This paper delineates the historical retrospective and current status of library and information science education in China. Emphases are on analysing the similarities and differences in origin, evolution, scale, structure, curriculum, faculty and students in library and information science education between China and the United States. Possible causes are also explored. The golden age of China’s library education in the 1980s and the disastrous Great Cultural Revolution, both clearly show that China’s political situation has a greater influence on its library education than does the US political situation on American library education. On the other hand, it seems that the impact of financial resources and job market for librarians on American library education is more influential than on China’s. It has become clear that China’s substantial progress in the 1980s has reduced the gap between the two countries.
The saying, “the corner under the lighthouse is dark”, offers much food for thought. No matter how bright library and information science education is in one country, it still has its own “darkness”, a “darkness” that needs to be illuminated by the “lighthouses” from other countries. Comparison of education in library and information science in different countries offers opportunities for identifying common ground while distinguishing differences, as well as for assimilating what is useful and discarding what is not. China and the United States are two of the largest countries in the world. Despite very different social systems, levels of economic development and cultural backgrounds, the two nations still have much in common in library and information science * Doctoral student, eley, CA 94720, USA. 1057-2317,92,020107+
School
of Library
12 $03.00/0
and Information
Studies,
University
0
of California,
1992 Academic
Berk-
Press Limited
108
Z. LILJ
education.
approach
One of their common
the problems
presented
goals is to train qualified
students
by society’s increasing
information
to
needs with an active awareness ofissues. Therefore, comparative studies are important as a vehicle for learning from others’ strong points, to hi1 cllg
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In recent years, a number of articles have discussed library and information science education in China and in the United States, but there is no up-to-date, comprehensive comparative study between China and the United States. This paper begins by delineating the historical and current status with the goal of providing a better understanding of library and information science education in China. Emphases are on the similarities and differences. Possible causes are also discussed.
HISTORICAL AND CURRENT INFORMATION SCIENCE
STATUS OF LIBRARY AND EDUCATION IN CHINA
Although the practice of collecting documents in China has a long history, formal education in librarianship is a relatively new arrival on the scene of higher education in China. The beginning of formal education in librarianship can be traced back to 1920 when the first library school was established by an American librarian, Mary Elizabeth Wood (1862-1931), as a department ofBoone College at Wuhan. Wood introduced modern librarianship to China and her contributions to the development of library education in China have been wellrecognized. The department soon became the independent Boone Library School and was recognized by the Ministry of Education, being granted college status in 1929. During its 30 years of existence, it produced more than 200 graduates plus about 300 students who completed short-term training programmes there,’ many of whom became central figures in the field of librarianship. Boone Library School was the foundation for library education in China. In addition to Boone Library School, there are a few other institutions that offered library coursework: unfortunately, none of them survived for long. In 1949, the new Chinese government started to restructure its social, economic and educational systems. The Boone Library School was expanded and attached to Wuhan University in 1952 as a department of library science. A department of library science also appeared in Beijing University in 1949. Since 1956, both departments have offered 4-year undergraduate programmes. At about the same time, several other institutions, including Beijing Cultural College and the University of Science & Technology of China, offered 2-year special programmes.’
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*n1964, graduate programmes in library science started. These universities and colleges trained more than 4000 students, including 19 graduate degrees, 1542 undergraduate degrees and 908 students in 21ocL-z 3 year spe?a! gm~r2Err.e.. p .Cram . . . . . . lanaer. . ..* _.. Llura~ y cuucauon, me cUucaL101~ 111utlirx- nclas, was SCl’lCiiiSl) it iii ii enced by the “Great Cultural Revolution” from 1966 to 1976 which destroyed much of what had been achieved. By 1978, China had two library science departments, at Beijing University and Wuhan University. A consequence of this lack of emphasis on library education was that many libraries were seriously lacking well-trained personnel. This meant that only 2-5% of staff working in libraries and information centers had been professionally trained.4 A major complaint from library patrons was difficulty in obtaining appropriate documents. The chief reason for this could be the poor services provided by unqualified librarians. It is disturbing that a country that prides itself on its literary heritage reached such a situation. The year 1978 marked a new beginning for what has turned out to be a golden age for library and information science education. Major efforts have been made to train professional librarians. Since then library education has blossomed with an increase in quality as well as in quantity. Many colleges and universities have established library science departments or offered courses. These include Beijing University, Wuhan University, Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University and Nanjing University. A survey conducted by China’s Society of Library Science reported that there were 47 colleges and universities offering undergraduate programmes in library and information science, and two secondary professional schools.5 According to the most recent survey, the number of library schools/departments in China has increased to nearly 70, more than 30 times what it had been in 1978. But in comparison with the level of library education in the United States, and with the increasing need for information in a large country with a population of about 1.2 billion, there is still a long way to go. Library education and library development influenced each other in China. Both are also closely related to the economic, political and social environment. An official recognition of the need for qualified personnel is the motivating force in the development of library and information science education. Looking back over its historical development, three good periods can be distinguished in China: (I) the early period in the 192Os, (2) the development period from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, and (3) the golden age of the 1980s. The emergence of the three periods was not an accident. During the 192Os, libraries in China were confronted with the situation of the new replacing the old in response to the,influence of Western countries. Library education emerged as
110
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the time required. During the period from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, the government called for promoting the industrialization and a “March Towards Science”. One consequence was that libraries and library education expanded dramatically. In the l%Os, a policy of reform and opening up co the outside worid brought vast changes to library and information science education. China’s approach is uniquely its own because it neither simply imitated the Western educational systems in the early 20th century, nor did it copy indiscriminately those of the Soviet Union in the 1950s. China has sifted through and gradually integrated what it found valuable from the many and various educational systems of the world, evolving into a system with its very own Chinese charactersitics. In the past 40 years, particularly during the 198Os, notable progress in library and information science education has been achieved. There remain, however, a number of pressing problems that require careful thinking and appropriate planning.
SIMILARITIES
AND
DIFFERENCES
Origin and Evolution The establishment of formal education for librarianship in the United States preceded that in China. In fact, the United States greatly influenced early library education in China. The practice of apprenticeship and in-service training in American libraries was the standard approach until 1887, when Melvil Dewey started the first library school, the School of Library Economics, at Columbia University. A Graduate Library School was established at the University of Chicago in 1926.6 In earlier times, the Chinese word for “library” meant only “a place for storing books”. The modern concept of the library service did not come into being until the beginning of this century. Librarianship meant little more than something about keeping books. Formal library education as we understand today did not exist.’ Early library education in China was strongly influenced by the United States. Boone’s curriculum followed that of Columbia University. Two Boone instructors, Seng Zurong and Hu Qingsheng, having been professionally trained in the United States, brought Western librarianship to China. During the 195Os, however, when China turned its attention to the Soviet Union, the library field also favoured the Soviet models. The Chinese policy at that time was to eliminate American influence. After the Second World War the “information explosion” took place. The need for rapid and accurate access to information turned attention to innovative methods of bibliographic organization and information
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analysis In the 195Os, courses in documentation and information science became a component of American library education. As in many other developing countries, China had very few similar courses at that time. It was not until the 1980s that this situation radicallv chanced. in response to the technoiogicai changes that took piace during tilt: 197Os, many American library schools have been renamed to include “information science” or “information studies” in their titles. The mission of library schools has been broadened to reflect burgeoning information needs of society.8 “ Enrollment and placement difficulties provide additional motivation to broaden the range of constituencies served.“’ This is similar to what took place in China during the mid1980s. Since 1978, library and information science education has developed rapidly in China. The number of library schools increased from two in 1978 to 47 in 1985, and to nearly 70 in the late 1980s. This demonstrates an opposite trend to library school closings and declining enrolments that have occurred in the United States since 1978. According to statistical reports, the total number of MLS graduates decreased to 3982 during 1982183, a more than 20% decline from the 5029 MLS recipients during 1978/79.‘“,1’ It has even been suggested that the trend in American library school closings since 1978 could cause a domino effect, which will somehow bring about the demise of even more library schools.‘2”3 Scale and Structure Before 1978, China offered a 4-year undergraduate programme and The development in recent years 2- or 3-year special programmes. demonstrates an increase in variety as well as in the number of programmes. Training programmes at various levels to train incoming librarians as well as to upgrade the knowledge of existing information personnel are in great demand. After several years of preparation, a formal educational system has started to take shape in China. This consists of secondary school education, 2- or 3-year special programmes, 4-year Bachelor’s degree programmes, Z-year graduate diploma, 3-year Master’s degree programmes and doctoral programmes. There are nearly 70 library schools/departments at various levels in China, about 10 of which offer graduate programmes. Like their counterparts in the United States,‘” the leading library schools in China tend to be well established in the more prestigious parent institutions, such as Beijing University, Wuhan University and Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University. The United States is in the forefront of library and information science education in the world. According to a recent survey, there are
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about 60 library s&ools with graduate programmes accredited by the Association of Library and Information Science Education (ALISE), and about 20 of these offer doctoral programmes. There are also a number of schools of education that train teachers and provide education in library science so that they can run school libraries. Ifwe compare education for library and information science in China and the United States, an obvious difference in structure is that most universities in the United States offer graduate programmes, while undergraduate education is still the major approach in China. Even though some undergraduate courses are provided in a few professional library schools in the United States, students’ undergraduate majors are not professional programmes in library education. The main purpose of those courses is to teach students how to seek the information they need or for information activities other than professional work in libraries. They are not similar to professional undergraduate education in China. Curriculum The curriculum in the early library education in China followed that of America with some modification to suit the special needs of Chinese libraries, especially the great difference between ideograph and alphathe betical languages.15 During the 195Os, Soviet influence dominated curriculum in library and information science. Formerly, curricula in China centered on the “two Cs”: collection and catalogue. Now the curriculum design is based on the “four Cs”: collection, catalogue, computer and communication. The last two Cs are the effect of modern technological development, and their adoption hints at the birth of electronic libraries.“j Generally speaking, the undergraduate and graduate programmes in library and information science in China have two divisions: (1) humanities and social sciences, (2) science and technology. There are curricula in a few library schools that have their own areas of emphasis, For instance, the Information Engineering Department of Jilin Industrial University offers a number of mechanical and electrical speciality courses and stresses knowledge of related scientific theories. Students are cultivated for “all-round” information expertise in the machinemanufacturing industry. Most courses in library schools, however, have much in common The specialized courses for library science at Wuhan University and Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University are as follows:‘7 (1) (2) (3) (4)
introduction to library and information science, Classification and subject headings, Cataloguing books in both Chinese and Western languages, Bibliography,
CHINA
(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) ( 16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23)
AND
UNITED
113
STATES
Reference services, Information storage and retrieval, Automation of libraries, Non-book materials, Management of library services, Collection development, User studies, History of Chinese books, History of libraries in China, Rare editions and ancient books, Library architecture, Typing skill, The application of computers in libraries, Patent knowledge, Periodical management, Comparative librarianship, Literature of social sciences, Literature of science and technology, Practicum.
The courses for information (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)
THE
science at both universities
include:
Introduction to information science, Information retrieval, Sci-tech document management, Analysis and studies of scientific information, Components and structure of computers, Data structures, Computer networks, Information retrieval languages, Information retrieval systems, Expert systems, Programming languages, Operating systems, Message processing for Chinese characters, Formal languages and automation, Compiler and translator methods, Pattern recognition, Science of science, Economics of information, Practicum.
The above courses are the undergraduate courses. The courses of the graduate programmes vary greatly in different fields of study such as library management, local collections, theoretical studies of librarianship, and the history of libraries in China. Comparing the course offerings in the two Chinese universities with that of University of California at Berkeley, and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for example, most courses are basically very similar. The main differences with China are:
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(i,J China separates librarianship and information science into two _m_aj(ys,\&ile the TJci& S:atcs &&&&; iiii i’*^;.<. (ii) As in the Soviet Union, the Chinese curricula in library and information science include philosophy, political and economic studies and foreign languages, in addition to technical courses. It is obligatory for students in China to take courses in political economics and Marxist-Leninist philosophy. These take up about 15-20% of the hours of instruction.18 In the United States, there is no foreign language requirement for all graduate students. The requirement tends to be determined on the basis of the students’ choice of fields of study. For example, the PhD qualifying examination at the University of California at Berkeley includes a language requirement (French and German) for “History of printing and bookmaking” and for “History of publishing”. Other fields such as “Economics of information” do not have a language requirement but may have statistics or mathematics requirements. All graduate and undergraduate students in China are required to learn one foreign language (usually English), while a second foreign language, often French, German, Russian or Japanese, is optional. Iiii) American library schools offer “type of library” courses such as “Special libraries” and “Public libraries”. Such material is included in the course “Introduction to library science” in China. In addition, courses such as “Library materials for children”, “Children’s literature”, “Books of fantasy for children” and “Adult popular literature” appear less frequently in the curricula of library and information science in China. Iiv) Credit systems are applied in both countries. Although students in the United States tend to graduate in about the same time, credit hour requirements vary in American library schools. According to a recent report, the Master’s degree credit hour requirements for the academic year 1988/89 shows 28 units of credit are required at U.C. Berkeley, 36 at Indiana and Simmons, 38 at Florida State University, and 41 at the University of Southern Mississippi. Library schools at U.C. Berkeley, UCLA, and University of Wisconsin-Madison do not have specific credit requirements for doctoral degrees, Columbia University requires 30 credits, University of Michigan 50, University of Maryland 72, and Indiana University 90 (including 30 from MLS) .I9 Credit requirements are uniformly the same in all colleges and universities in China under “The regulations ofgranting academic degrees of the People’s Repub-
CHINA
AND
THE
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STATES
lit of China”. Master’s degree programmes rcq”‘I-e >c ;i CULL’-;ii& & &L;i;.
115 in Chin:s ..-:. .I!.,
Faculty and Students China’s education for library and information science is still young and has many problems to be solved. At the beginning of the expansion in the early 198Os, the lack of adequately qualified faculty was a very serious problem. Owing to the suspension of library education for a great many years, a lot of faculty members of the newly established library schools are from the libraries in their own universities. This being the case, they lack sufficient theoretical background even though they are experienced. It has been shown that the widespread practice of using library personnel for teaching is a makeshift device and has also given rise to problems (i.e. their courses were full of techniques and procedures) since work experience in libraries cannot be equated with teaching ability for which theoretical background is more important.” It seems particularly necessary that their theoretical background should be strengthened. In recent years, graduate programmes in China seem to have improved and the number of graduate degrees awarded has greatly increased. Library schools in China have, as a consequence of this improvement, been able to improve the quality of their faculty. Unlike faculty in China, the faculty in American universities support a large number of PhDs, which was a new development after the Second World War. In China, the programme of study is largely determined when students begin their graduate study. In the United States, students play a more active role in designing their curricula including individual study under faculty members, or proposing a personally designed field. Other differences are reflected by the fact that graduate students in China are paid by the state while they are studying, including tuition, research fee, basic living expenses, housing and medical care. Graduate students in the United States usually pay their own way, although a considerable amount of financial aid is available.
REASONS
FOR
DIFFERENCES
In addition to the political, economic and cultural factors, there arc several main reasons for the differences between library education in the US and in China and why library education grew so rapidly in the 1980s. (i)
The United States is a wealthy country. It has a longer history of formal library education, and its foundation of library edu-
116
(ii)
(iii)
Z. LIU cation is stronger. Overall enrolment in American library schools, however, declined in the 198Os, especially in the early part of decade owing to lack of demand for librarians in the job market. As mentioned previously, at the beginning of 1980s only 2-5% of library staff in China’s libraries had been professionally trained. As a result, the demand for qualified librarians was enormous. This provided a potential market for the rapid growth of library education in China during the last decade. The demand in the United States has been limited. The social need for information is one motivation for library education. In China, under the closed-door policy and centralized economic planning, there was less demand for information, librarians and information specialists. Therefore, the progress of library education in China moved very slowly until the 1980s. Libraries and the current economic situation always interact with each other. Economic development not only calls for the corresponding information services, but also provides favourable conditions for the develoment of libraries. On the other hand, the development of libraries is also beneficial for accelerating economic growth. *’ After 1978, the focus of Chinese government policies has been shifted from political ideology to economic construction, from centralized economic planning to a market-orientated planning approach. It was the shift of emphases and rapid economic growth that made the lack of libraries and librarians more serious. Undoubtedly, all these changes stimulated the progress of library education as well as the expansion of libraries in China. In China, housing for all undergraduate and graduate students is provided by the state. It has become increasingly obvious that providing housing for so many students limits the further expansion of enrolment.
CONCLUSION Using comparative analysis, we have discussed the similarities and differences in library and information science education between the two countries. Possible causes were also presented. Both the golden age of China’s library education in the 1980s and the disastrous “Great Cultural Revolution”, clearly show that China’s political situation has a greater influence on its library education than does the US political situation on American library education. On the other hand, it seems that the impact of financial resources and job market for librarians on
CHINA
AND
THE
UNITED
STATES
i j I
American library education is more influential than on China’s It has become clear that China’s substantial progress in the 1980s has reduced the gap between the two countries. As previously described, almost all leading library schools in both countries are in the large and prestigious institutions. Will their standing within the institutions rise or fall in the coming decade? How will they survive and develop in such an academic environment? What will the future bring for library and information education in each country? These are common questions confronted by library educators in both countries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to Professor Michael K. Buckland Norgard for their comments and assistance.
and Barbara
REFERENCES 1
2 3
10
11 12 13 14
Yan, Yimin (1988) Library and information science education in the People’s Republic of China. IN A. Kent (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Library and information science, Volume 5. New York. Dekker. p. 16 1. Li, Weiming (1989) Professional education for library and information personnel in China. International Library Review 21(2), pp. 263-75. Li, Jiyou and Yufang, Zhang (1985) Brief introduction to library science in Thailand. Paper presented at the symposium on library and information science education held by China’s Society of Library Science. Sichuan. Li, Weiming Ibid., p. 265. Huang, Zongzhong (1987) Introduction to library science (in Chinese). Wuhan. Wuhan University Press. p. 602. Shera, J. H. (1972) The foundation of education for librarianship. New York. Becker and Hayes. Lin, S. C. (1985) Historical development of library education in China. Journal of Library History 20(4), pp. 368-386. Paris, M. (1988) Library school closings: four case studies. Metuchen, NJ. Scarecrow. Buckland, M. K. (1985) The school, its faculty and students. In B. Stuart-Stubbs (Ed.) Changing technology and education for librarianship and information science. Greenwich, CT. JAI Press. p. 119. Association of Library and Information Science Education (1984) Library and information science education statistical report 1984. State College, Pennsylvania. ALISE. p. S-21. Association of American Library Schools (1980) Library education statistical report 1980. State College, Pennsylvania. AALS. p. S-26-27. Dyer, E. and O’Connor, D. (1983) Crisis in library education. Wilson Library Bulletin 57, p. 860. Paris, M. Ibid., p. 11. Deniel, E. H. (1986) The library/information school in context: the place of
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15 16
17 18 19 20 21
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LIU
library/information science education within higher education. Library Trends 34, pp. 623-643. Lin, S. C. Ibid., p. 371. Zhou, Ning and Lan, Lin (1990) Forty years development of library and information science education in China. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science 31(Z), pp. 162-169. Yan, Yimin. Ibid., p. 163. Olaisen, J. L. (1987) Library education and research in the Soviet Union compared with Scandinavia. International Library Review 19(Z), pp. 119142. Association for Library and Information Science Education (1990) Library and information science education statistical report 1990. Sarasota. ALISE. p. 173-l 75. Hu, W. L. (1990) Current state of library and information science development in China. Journal of Educationfor Library and Information Science 30(3), pp. 183-192. Liu, Ziming (1989) On the patterns of development of librarianship in China (in Chinese). Journal of the Graduates of Zhongshan Universily (China) 2, pp. 94-96.
A Comparative Study of Library and Information Science Education: China and the United States ZIMING
LIU* ABSTRACT This paper delineates the historical retrospective and current status of library and information science education in China. Emphases are on analysing the similarities and differences in origin, evolution, scale, structure, curriculum, faculty and students in library and information science education between China and the United States. Possible causes are also explored. The golden age of China’s library education in the 1980s and the disastrous Great Cultural Revolution, both clearly show that China’s political situation has a greater influence on its library education than does the US political situation on American library education. On the other hand, it seems that the impact of financial resources and job market for librarians on American library education is more influential than on China’s. It has become clear that China’s substantial progress in the 1980s has reduced the gap between the two countries.
The saying, “the corner under the lighthouse is dark”, offers much food for thought. No matter how bright library and information science education is in one country, it still has its own “darkness”, a “darkness” that needs to be illuminated by the “lighthouses” from other countries. Comparison of education in library and information science in different countries offers opportunities for identifying common ground while distinguishing differences, as well as for assimilating what is useful and discarding what is not. China and the United States are two of the largest countries in the world. Despite very different social systems, levels of economic development and cultural backgrounds, the two nations still have much in common in library and information science * Doctoral student, eley, CA 94720, USA. 1057-2317,92,020107+
School
of Library
12 $03.00/0
and Information
Studies,
University
0
of California,
1992 Academic
Berk-
Press Limited
108
Z. LILJ
education.
approach
One of their common
the problems
presented
goals is to train qualified
students
by society’s increasing
information
to
needs with an active awareness ofissues. Therefore, comparative studies are important as a vehicle for learning from others’ strong points, to hi1 cllg
LiIcii
.kb cAhlliSbc3,
aiiii
iij
iUi
Liici
iiikiiidiiuiiui
U1IUU~ldliUllig.
In recent years, a number of articles have discussed library and information science education in China and in the United States, but there is no up-to-date, comprehensive comparative study between China and the United States. This paper begins by delineating the historical and current status with the goal of providing a better understanding of library and information science education in China. Emphases are on the similarities and differences. Possible causes are also discussed.
HISTORICAL AND CURRENT INFORMATION SCIENCE
STATUS OF LIBRARY AND EDUCATION IN CHINA
Although the practice of collecting documents in China has a long history, formal education in librarianship is a relatively new arrival on the scene of higher education in China. The beginning of formal education in librarianship can be traced back to 1920 when the first library school was established by an American librarian, Mary Elizabeth Wood (1862-1931), as a department ofBoone College at Wuhan. Wood introduced modern librarianship to China and her contributions to the development of library education in China have been wellrecognized. The department soon became the independent Boone Library School and was recognized by the Ministry of Education, being granted college status in 1929. During its 30 years of existence, it produced more than 200 graduates plus about 300 students who completed short-term training programmes there,’ many of whom became central figures in the field of librarianship. Boone Library School was the foundation for library education in China. In addition to Boone Library School, there are a few other institutions that offered library coursework: unfortunately, none of them survived for long. In 1949, the new Chinese government started to restructure its social, economic and educational systems. The Boone Library School was expanded and attached to Wuhan University in 1952 as a department of library science. A department of library science also appeared in Beijing University in 1949. Since 1956, both departments have offered 4-year undergraduate programmes. At about the same time, several other institutions, including Beijing Cultural College and the University of Science & Technology of China, offered 2-year special programmes.’
CHINA
AND
THE
UNITED
STATES
109
*n1964, graduate programmes in library science started. These universities and colleges trained more than 4000 students, including 19 graduate degrees, 1542 undergraduate degrees and 908 students in 21ocL-z 3 year spe?a! gm~r2Err.e.. p .Cram . . . . . . lanaer. . ..* _.. Llura~ y cuucauon, me cUucaL101~ 111utlirx- nclas, was SCl’lCiiiSl) it iii ii enced by the “Great Cultural Revolution” from 1966 to 1976 which destroyed much of what had been achieved. By 1978, China had two library science departments, at Beijing University and Wuhan University. A consequence of this lack of emphasis on library education was that many libraries were seriously lacking well-trained personnel. This meant that only 2-5% of staff working in libraries and information centers had been professionally trained.4 A major complaint from library patrons was difficulty in obtaining appropriate documents. The chief reason for this could be the poor services provided by unqualified librarians. It is disturbing that a country that prides itself on its literary heritage reached such a situation. The year 1978 marked a new beginning for what has turned out to be a golden age for library and information science education. Major efforts have been made to train professional librarians. Since then library education has blossomed with an increase in quality as well as in quantity. Many colleges and universities have established library science departments or offered courses. These include Beijing University, Wuhan University, Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University and Nanjing University. A survey conducted by China’s Society of Library Science reported that there were 47 colleges and universities offering undergraduate programmes in library and information science, and two secondary professional schools.5 According to the most recent survey, the number of library schools/departments in China has increased to nearly 70, more than 30 times what it had been in 1978. But in comparison with the level of library education in the United States, and with the increasing need for information in a large country with a population of about 1.2 billion, there is still a long way to go. Library education and library development influenced each other in China. Both are also closely related to the economic, political and social environment. An official recognition of the need for qualified personnel is the motivating force in the development of library and information science education. Looking back over its historical development, three good periods can be distinguished in China: (I) the early period in the 192Os, (2) the development period from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, and (3) the golden age of the 1980s. The emergence of the three periods was not an accident. During the 192Os, libraries in China were confronted with the situation of the new replacing the old in response to the,influence of Western countries. Library education emerged as
110
Z.
LIU
the time required. During the period from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, the government called for promoting the industrialization and a “March Towards Science”. One consequence was that libraries and library education expanded dramatically. In the l%Os, a policy of reform and opening up co the outside worid brought vast changes to library and information science education. China’s approach is uniquely its own because it neither simply imitated the Western educational systems in the early 20th century, nor did it copy indiscriminately those of the Soviet Union in the 1950s. China has sifted through and gradually integrated what it found valuable from the many and various educational systems of the world, evolving into a system with its very own Chinese charactersitics. In the past 40 years, particularly during the 198Os, notable progress in library and information science education has been achieved. There remain, however, a number of pressing problems that require careful thinking and appropriate planning.
SIMILARITIES
AND
DIFFERENCES
Origin and Evolution The establishment of formal education for librarianship in the United States preceded that in China. In fact, the United States greatly influenced early library education in China. The practice of apprenticeship and in-service training in American libraries was the standard approach until 1887, when Melvil Dewey started the first library school, the School of Library Economics, at Columbia University. A Graduate Library School was established at the University of Chicago in 1926.6 In earlier times, the Chinese word for “library” meant only “a place for storing books”. The modern concept of the library service did not come into being until the beginning of this century. Librarianship meant little more than something about keeping books. Formal library education as we understand today did not exist.’ Early library education in China was strongly influenced by the United States. Boone’s curriculum followed that of Columbia University. Two Boone instructors, Seng Zurong and Hu Qingsheng, having been professionally trained in the United States, brought Western librarianship to China. During the 195Os, however, when China turned its attention to the Soviet Union, the library field also favoured the Soviet models. The Chinese policy at that time was to eliminate American influence. After the Second World War the “information explosion” took place. The need for rapid and accurate access to information turned attention to innovative methods of bibliographic organization and information
CHINA
AND
THE
UNITED
STATES
111
analysis In the 195Os, courses in documentation and information science became a component of American library education. As in many other developing countries, China had very few similar courses at that time. It was not until the 1980s that this situation radicallv chanced. in response to the technoiogicai changes that took piace during tilt: 197Os, many American library schools have been renamed to include “information science” or “information studies” in their titles. The mission of library schools has been broadened to reflect burgeoning information needs of society.8 “ Enrollment and placement difficulties provide additional motivation to broaden the range of constituencies served.“’ This is similar to what took place in China during the mid1980s. Since 1978, library and information science education has developed rapidly in China. The number of library schools increased from two in 1978 to 47 in 1985, and to nearly 70 in the late 1980s. This demonstrates an opposite trend to library school closings and declining enrolments that have occurred in the United States since 1978. According to statistical reports, the total number of MLS graduates decreased to 3982 during 1982183, a more than 20% decline from the 5029 MLS recipients during 1978/79.‘“,1’ It has even been suggested that the trend in American library school closings since 1978 could cause a domino effect, which will somehow bring about the demise of even more library schools.‘2”3 Scale and Structure Before 1978, China offered a 4-year undergraduate programme and The development in recent years 2- or 3-year special programmes. demonstrates an increase in variety as well as in the number of programmes. Training programmes at various levels to train incoming librarians as well as to upgrade the knowledge of existing information personnel are in great demand. After several years of preparation, a formal educational system has started to take shape in China. This consists of secondary school education, 2- or 3-year special programmes, 4-year Bachelor’s degree programmes, Z-year graduate diploma, 3-year Master’s degree programmes and doctoral programmes. There are nearly 70 library schools/departments at various levels in China, about 10 of which offer graduate programmes. Like their counterparts in the United States,‘” the leading library schools in China tend to be well established in the more prestigious parent institutions, such as Beijing University, Wuhan University and Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University. The United States is in the forefront of library and information science education in the world. According to a recent survey, there are
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about 60 library s&ools with graduate programmes accredited by the Association of Library and Information Science Education (ALISE), and about 20 of these offer doctoral programmes. There are also a number of schools of education that train teachers and provide education in library science so that they can run school libraries. Ifwe compare education for library and information science in China and the United States, an obvious difference in structure is that most universities in the United States offer graduate programmes, while undergraduate education is still the major approach in China. Even though some undergraduate courses are provided in a few professional library schools in the United States, students’ undergraduate majors are not professional programmes in library education. The main purpose of those courses is to teach students how to seek the information they need or for information activities other than professional work in libraries. They are not similar to professional undergraduate education in China. Curriculum The curriculum in the early library education in China followed that of America with some modification to suit the special needs of Chinese libraries, especially the great difference between ideograph and alphathe betical languages.15 During the 195Os, Soviet influence dominated curriculum in library and information science. Formerly, curricula in China centered on the “two Cs”: collection and catalogue. Now the curriculum design is based on the “four Cs”: collection, catalogue, computer and communication. The last two Cs are the effect of modern technological development, and their adoption hints at the birth of electronic libraries.“j Generally speaking, the undergraduate and graduate programmes in library and information science in China have two divisions: (1) humanities and social sciences, (2) science and technology. There are curricula in a few library schools that have their own areas of emphasis, For instance, the Information Engineering Department of Jilin Industrial University offers a number of mechanical and electrical speciality courses and stresses knowledge of related scientific theories. Students are cultivated for “all-round” information expertise in the machinemanufacturing industry. Most courses in library schools, however, have much in common The specialized courses for library science at Wuhan University and Zhongshan (Sun Yatsen) University are as follows:‘7 (1) (2) (3) (4)
introduction to library and information science, Classification and subject headings, Cataloguing books in both Chinese and Western languages, Bibliography,
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(5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) ( 16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21) (22) (23)
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Reference services, Information storage and retrieval, Automation of libraries, Non-book materials, Management of library services, Collection development, User studies, History of Chinese books, History of libraries in China, Rare editions and ancient books, Library architecture, Typing skill, The application of computers in libraries, Patent knowledge, Periodical management, Comparative librarianship, Literature of social sciences, Literature of science and technology, Practicum.
The courses for information (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)
THE
science at both universities
include:
Introduction to information science, Information retrieval, Sci-tech document management, Analysis and studies of scientific information, Components and structure of computers, Data structures, Computer networks, Information retrieval languages, Information retrieval systems, Expert systems, Programming languages, Operating systems, Message processing for Chinese characters, Formal languages and automation, Compiler and translator methods, Pattern recognition, Science of science, Economics of information, Practicum.
The above courses are the undergraduate courses. The courses of the graduate programmes vary greatly in different fields of study such as library management, local collections, theoretical studies of librarianship, and the history of libraries in China. Comparing the course offerings in the two Chinese universities with that of University of California at Berkeley, and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign for example, most courses are basically very similar. The main differences with China are:
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(i,J China separates librarianship and information science into two _m_aj(ys,\&ile the TJci& S:atcs &&&&; iiii i’*^;.<. (ii) As in the Soviet Union, the Chinese curricula in library and information science include philosophy, political and economic studies and foreign languages, in addition to technical courses. It is obligatory for students in China to take courses in political economics and Marxist-Leninist philosophy. These take up about 15-20% of the hours of instruction.18 In the United States, there is no foreign language requirement for all graduate students. The requirement tends to be determined on the basis of the students’ choice of fields of study. For example, the PhD qualifying examination at the University of California at Berkeley includes a language requirement (French and German) for “History of printing and bookmaking” and for “History of publishing”. Other fields such as “Economics of information” do not have a language requirement but may have statistics or mathematics requirements. All graduate and undergraduate students in China are required to learn one foreign language (usually English), while a second foreign language, often French, German, Russian or Japanese, is optional. Iiii) American library schools offer “type of library” courses such as “Special libraries” and “Public libraries”. Such material is included in the course “Introduction to library science” in China. In addition, courses such as “Library materials for children”, “Children’s literature”, “Books of fantasy for children” and “Adult popular literature” appear less frequently in the curricula of library and information science in China. Iiv) Credit systems are applied in both countries. Although students in the United States tend to graduate in about the same time, credit hour requirements vary in American library schools. According to a recent report, the Master’s degree credit hour requirements for the academic year 1988/89 shows 28 units of credit are required at U.C. Berkeley, 36 at Indiana and Simmons, 38 at Florida State University, and 41 at the University of Southern Mississippi. Library schools at U.C. Berkeley, UCLA, and University of Wisconsin-Madison do not have specific credit requirements for doctoral degrees, Columbia University requires 30 credits, University of Michigan 50, University of Maryland 72, and Indiana University 90 (including 30 from MLS) .I9 Credit requirements are uniformly the same in all colleges and universities in China under “The regulations ofgranting academic degrees of the People’s Repub-
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lit of China”. Master’s degree programmes rcq”‘I-e >c ;i CULL’-;ii& & &L;i;.
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Faculty and Students China’s education for library and information science is still young and has many problems to be solved. At the beginning of the expansion in the early 198Os, the lack of adequately qualified faculty was a very serious problem. Owing to the suspension of library education for a great many years, a lot of faculty members of the newly established library schools are from the libraries in their own universities. This being the case, they lack sufficient theoretical background even though they are experienced. It has been shown that the widespread practice of using library personnel for teaching is a makeshift device and has also given rise to problems (i.e. their courses were full of techniques and procedures) since work experience in libraries cannot be equated with teaching ability for which theoretical background is more important.” It seems particularly necessary that their theoretical background should be strengthened. In recent years, graduate programmes in China seem to have improved and the number of graduate degrees awarded has greatly increased. Library schools in China have, as a consequence of this improvement, been able to improve the quality of their faculty. Unlike faculty in China, the faculty in American universities support a large number of PhDs, which was a new development after the Second World War. In China, the programme of study is largely determined when students begin their graduate study. In the United States, students play a more active role in designing their curricula including individual study under faculty members, or proposing a personally designed field. Other differences are reflected by the fact that graduate students in China are paid by the state while they are studying, including tuition, research fee, basic living expenses, housing and medical care. Graduate students in the United States usually pay their own way, although a considerable amount of financial aid is available.
REASONS
FOR
DIFFERENCES
In addition to the political, economic and cultural factors, there arc several main reasons for the differences between library education in the US and in China and why library education grew so rapidly in the 1980s. (i)
The United States is a wealthy country. It has a longer history of formal library education, and its foundation of library edu-
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(iii)
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CONCLUSION Using comparative analysis, we have discussed the similarities and differences in library and information science education between the two countries. Possible causes were also presented. Both the golden age of China’s library education in the 1980s and the disastrous “Great Cultural Revolution”, clearly show that China’s political situation has a greater influence on its library education than does the US political situation on American library education. On the other hand, it seems that the impact of financial resources and job market for librarians on
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American library education is more influential than on China’s It has become clear that China’s substantial progress in the 1980s has reduced the gap between the two countries. As previously described, almost all leading library schools in both countries are in the large and prestigious institutions. Will their standing within the institutions rise or fall in the coming decade? How will they survive and develop in such an academic environment? What will the future bring for library and information education in each country? These are common questions confronted by library educators in both countries.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is grateful to Professor Michael K. Buckland Norgard for their comments and assistance.
and Barbara
REFERENCES 1
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Yan, Yimin (1988) Library and information science education in the People’s Republic of China. IN A. Kent (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Library and information science, Volume 5. New York. Dekker. p. 16 1. Li, Weiming (1989) Professional education for library and information personnel in China. International Library Review 21(2), pp. 263-75. Li, Jiyou and Yufang, Zhang (1985) Brief introduction to library science in Thailand. Paper presented at the symposium on library and information science education held by China’s Society of Library Science. Sichuan. Li, Weiming Ibid., p. 265. Huang, Zongzhong (1987) Introduction to library science (in Chinese). Wuhan. Wuhan University Press. p. 602. Shera, J. H. (1972) The foundation of education for librarianship. New York. Becker and Hayes. Lin, S. C. (1985) Historical development of library education in China. Journal of Library History 20(4), pp. 368-386. Paris, M. (1988) Library school closings: four case studies. Metuchen, NJ. Scarecrow. Buckland, M. K. (1985) The school, its faculty and students. In B. Stuart-Stubbs (Ed.) Changing technology and education for librarianship and information science. Greenwich, CT. JAI Press. p. 119. Association of Library and Information Science Education (1984) Library and information science education statistical report 1984. State College, Pennsylvania. ALISE. p. S-21. Association of American Library Schools (1980) Library education statistical report 1980. State College, Pennsylvania. AALS. p. S-26-27. Dyer, E. and O’Connor, D. (1983) Crisis in library education. Wilson Library Bulletin 57, p. 860. Paris, M. Ibid., p. 11. Deniel, E. H. (1986) The library/information school in context: the place of
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