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body approach versus a conventional approach to aerobic dance
A Comparison of a Mind/Body Approach Versus a Conventional Approach to Aerobic Dance Deborah
Kern, CHES, PhD
Mind/Body Wellness Dallas, Texas
Judith
Center
Baker, CHES, MSW, PhD
Texas Woman’s Denton, Texas
University
ver the past 15 years, Americans have taken a more active interest in health than ever before. The physiological benefits of exercise are now well-documented, and substantial evidence indicates that aerobic activity performed on a regular basis will aid in the reduction of risk factors that may lead to cardiovascular disease.’ Recently, however, a new emphasis is being placed on the psychological benefits of aerobic activity. Studies have found that not only does one’s physical health benefit from aerobic exercise, but also one’s mental health.2 Earlier anecdotal reports of post-exercise positive effects have been confirmed by numerous scientific investigations.3 Specifically, exercise appears to have a tranquilizing and antidepressant effect on participants.4 Due to the lack of research examining the psychological effects of different types of aerobic dance instruction, this study focused on the effects of two different teaching methods in aerobic dance classes on general self-esteem, physical self-esteem, and state-trait anxiety.
0
BACKGROUND
AND
SIGNIFICANCE
Three centuries after Descartes, the sciences of medicine and health promotion are still based on “the notion of the body as a machine, of disease as the consequence of breakdown of the machine, and of the doctor’s task as repairer of the machine.“5 This paradigm has led to a prominence of “healthism” in the United States, a belief in which a physically fit body is equated with total health and wellness. Not only is a physically fit body considered the key criterion for health and wellness, it has become a moral imperative.6 Therefore, in their efforts to promote health, fitness professionals have focused on changing physical characteristics such as body fat percentages, weight, resting heart rate, and aerobic capacity. By emphasizing physical goals, fitness programs teach individuals to
30
WOMEN’S
HEALTH
ISSUES
VOL.
7, NO.
1 JANUARY/FEBRUARY
1997
o
1997 by The Jacobs of Women’s Health Published by Elsevier 1049-3&x7/97/$17.00 PII s1049-3867@6)00065-5
Institute Science
Inc
value discipline, self-restraint, denial, and external control. This value system has led to the development of countless diet programs and books that espouse restrained eating, self-discipline, and a regimented eating style in order to achieve a desired physical state. It has also led to the increase in personal fitness trainers who are hired to design exercise programs and motivate their clients who seek desired physical outcomes. In the arena of aerobics classes, this value system has led many instructors to use a teaching style in which the instructor leads the class in uniform movement, focusing on isolated parts of the body, in order to achieve desired physical outcomes.7 There are many criticisms of this approach to health promotion: the increasing number of individuals who exercise excessively,8 the rising incidence of eating disorders,’ and the promotion of a thinness standard of body attractiveness as a panacea for life’s difficulties.” An alternative to the conventional biomedical model for health promotion is the new holistic or mind/body model which is now being implemented by a growing number of health organizations.” The mind/body model provides the conceptual framework for this study.
MIND/BODY
APPROACH
TO AEROBIC
DANCE
INSTRUCTION
An alternative to traditional instruction is a mind/body approach. The mind/ body approach as defined in this study is represented in the literature by yoga, martial arts, and mind/body fitness instruction. Yoga creates a mind/body connection by using awareness of the breath and concentration of the mind throughout the poses. Unlike the conventional instructional approach in aerobic dance class, participants are encouraged to move according to their own breathing patterns instead of to the beat of the music. Also, unlike the conventional instructional approach, there is not a list of contraindicated movements. Instead, participants are encouraged to move within their own comfort zone in order to prevent injury.” In a mind/body approach, exercises are drawn from ancient disciplines such as yoga, tai chi, and aikido, as well as from modern systems, such as Feldenkrais and Alexander techniques, and from dance movement therapy. Exercises in a mind/body class are not designed with specific body-centered objectives as found in the conventional aerobic dance guidelines. Instead, objectives include, but are not limited to, enhancing awareness of breathing, increasing ability to breathe, feeling the connection of feet to the ground, experiencing the interplay among the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of well-being, feeling powerful, and feeling gracefuli The aerobic portion of this type of class allows creativity and spontaneity to emerge in students. Instructors are encouraged to design choreography to inspire a sense of letting go and to remember that students have individual rhythms. Therefore, choreography is simple in order to allow students to explore how the movement feels rather than just go through the motions. If possible, instructors are to have students turn away from the mirrors in order to help them feel the movements rather than watch them. It is more important in this type of class that students feel the movement rather than learn complicated steps.i3
METHODOLOGY Population The population older, enrolled
and Sample
Selection
used for this study was female students, 18 years of age and in aerobics classes at Texas Woman’s University. From this
KERN
& BAKER:
AEROBIC
DANCE
APPROACH
31
population, a convenience sample of 77 subjects was recruited from four physical activity classes. Subjects in two classes were designated as the mind/body aerobics class, and subjects in the other two classes were designated as the standard conventional aerobics class. The 37 subjects in a standard conventional aerobics class were divided into two classes: one class of 18 and one class of 19 students. The 40 subjects in an mind/body aerobics class were divided into two classes of 20 students each.
Procedures Both groups, two classes per group, participated in l-hour aerobics classes twice a week for 7 weeks. Classes were canceled for 2 days during the treatment period due to weather conditions; therefore, the treatment consisted of 13 sessions. The same instructor taught the mind/body aerobics class using a mind/body approach and the conventional aerobics class with a conventional approach. Experimenter bias by the instructor was controlled by having the instructor review the list of characteristics for each class that she taught. Also, the instructor was videotaped in each of the classes in order to monitor verbal and nonverbal differences in class instruction.
Aerobic
Dance
Instruction
Guidelines
We followed aerobic dance instruction guidelines from the American Council on Exercise Aerobics Instructor Manual’4 and the Exer-Safety Associationi when teaching the conventional aerobics classes. For the mind/body aerobics classes, we followed a mind/body approach based on neuromuscular integrative action that was designed specifically for the purpose of this study. This approach combined guidelines from yoga,” martial arts,8 and mind/body fitness instruction.‘3
Instrumentation The following three instruments were used in this study: Field and Steinhardt’s Physical Self-Esteem Scale,16 the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale,i7 and the StateTrait Anxiety Inventory.i8 The Physical Self-Esteem Scale is an 11-item scale constructed to measure physical self-esteem. This scale was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in physical self-esteem between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. Using data collected in this study, the (Y coefficients for the pretest and posttest were .87 and .91, respectively. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in general self-esteem between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. It consists of ten items with four response choices and is designed to measure self-esteem. A reliability analysis of Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale using data collected in this study produced satisfactory cx coefficients in the pretest and posttest of .85 and .91, respectively. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, developed by Speilberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene, was used to measure the dependent variables, state and trait anxiety. It was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in state-trait anxiety between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. The CYcoefficient calculated in this study for anxiety state was .93 in the pretest and posttest. For the anxiety trait scale, the OLcoefficient was .91 in the pretest and posttest.
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TREATMENT Using pretest scores as determine differences in analyses was .05. Focus groups were recorded content of the themes in the discussions theme group.
DESCRIPTIVE
1
OF THE DATA
covariates, analysis of covariance was calculated to posttest means. The level of significance used for all held at the end of the treatment phase. The tapefocus groups was analyzed by discerning prevailing and counting the frequency of statements made per
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE SAMPLE
The age of the participants in this study ranged from 18 to 51 years with a mean age of 22.2 years, a mode of 18 years, and a standard deviation of 5.89. The 31 participants who were assigned to the conventional aerobics class had a mean age of 23.2 years with a standard deviation of 6.9, and the 37 participants assigned to the experimental treatment group had a mean age of 21.32 years with a standard deviation of 4.72.
TESTS
OF THE HYPOTHESES
Analyses of covariance were conducted to compare the posttest scores of the two treatment groups using the pretest scores as covariates. The results showed no significant difference between group scores on physical self-esteem, general self-esteem, or state anxiety. However, there was a statistically significant difference between group scores on trait anxiety. In an analysis of variance, it was determined that the pretest score means for trait anxiety of 46.13 for the conventional aerobics class and 45.95 for the experimental treatment group were not significantly different, P > .05. However, an analysis of covariance found that the posttest score means of 47.29 for the conventional aerobics classand 45.05 for the treatment group were significantly different, P < .05.
FOCUS
GROUP
ANALYSIS
Following Krueger’s” suggested format, a focus group was conducted at the end of the last class for each of the four classes.The control focus groups had 14 and 15 volunteers, respectively, representing 78% of the total group. There were 13 and 14 volunteers, respectively, in the experimental treatment focus groups, representing 67% of the total group. In response to the question, “How did you feel right after this class?” 71% of the conventional aerobics class responses referred to physical conditions, such as being out of breath, tired, or hungry. Eighty-seven percent of the experimental treatment group responses dealt with emotional conditions, such as feeling awake, less stressed, relaxed, calm, uplifted, and light. They also said they felt like they had more energy and strength and felt more energized. All of the mind/body aerobics class responses to the question, “How did you feel right after class?” were positive in nature. In response to the question, “How did participation in this class affect other areas of your life ?” the majority of answers from the conventional aerobics class, 75%, had a physical condition theme and were positive in nature. The responses included: “I slept better,” “I ate better,” “I lost weight.” Of the responses that were emotional in nature, half were positive, such as, “I felt
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& BAKER:
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33
good about myself for working out,” and half were negative, such as, “I felt guilty if I ate bad food because I had worked out.” The experimental treatment group responses were divided evenly between positive physical statements and positive emotional statements. Group members’ responses included, “During stressful times, it has helped me to lengthen my body and breathe,” “I stretch when I feel stressed while working on the computer,” “I am able to concentrate in class better,” ” I use the breathing when I get mad, and it helps calm me down.” In response to the question, “What feelings did you experience during this class?” the majority of answers from the conventional aerobics class, 75%, dealt with emotional issues. Forty-four percent of the responses mentioned frustration. For instance, words and phrases participants used to express feelings included, “Confusion,” ” Frustrated because I couldn’t keep up,” “Stressed to keep up with everyone else,” “Incompetent,” “Uncoordinated,” and “Struggling.” There were a few, however, who said they felt accomplished when they finally “learned the steps and thought” the class was “a release of frustration and aggression.” Conversely, 77% of the experimental treatment group’s answers focused on comments such as, “Joy,” “Hope,” “Appreciation for my body,” “Moving freely,” “Rejuvenation,” “Power,” and “Grace.” Aerobics instructors can learn from this study that when participants are encouraged to listen to their own mind and body signals, the movement in class can accomplish more than the physical goals of increasing aerobic capacity and burning body fat. Hopefully, aerobics instructors and health educators alike will be encouraged to learn teaching techniques that enable the participants in their classes to find direction from within themselves rather than from external sources.
FINDINGS Although studies have shown the positive effects of aerobic activity on psychological well-being, the literature fails to provide documentation of the effect of different styles of teaching aerobic activity on psychological variables. The analysis of the data in this study uncovered information regarding the effect of a mind/body teaching approach as compared with a conventional teaching approach on selected psychological variables.
General
Self-Esteem
There were no significant changes in general self-esteem as a result of the 7-week exercise sessions. However, several studies have shown improvements in general self-esteem following exercise programs ranging from 12 weeks to 1 year.20 This indicates that a 7-week treatment period may not be sufficient to result in changes in self-esteem.
Physical
Self-Esteem
The analysis of physical self-esteem posttest scores indicated no significant difference between the treatment and conventional aerobics class. Considering the enormous social pressures for women to achieve unrealistic beauty standards, a 14-session intervention was probably not long enough to impact physical self-esteem attitudes, and perhaps only heightened body awareness.
State Anxiety State anxiety is the anxiety an individual feels at a particular moment in time. A review of the literature shows that aerobic exercise ranging in duration from 34
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8 weeks to 1 year positively affects state anxiety.21 In these studies, tests were administered immediately following the exercise session to determine mood at that moment. In this present study, however, the researchers were more interested in the long-term effect on participants. Therefore, tests were administered prior to an exercise session. Because the participants in this study were college students, state anxiety may have been impacted by the pressures of school. Many of the students had mid-term examinations on the day of the posttest administration. This could be the reason that there were no significant differences in posttest state anxiety scores.
Trait
Anxiety
Trait anxiety is the anxiety an individual feels in terms of frequency of occurrence. It describes an individual’s overall level of anxiety in life. In this study, the trait anxiety posttest scores were significantly different, (P < .05) between the treatment and conventional aerobics classes. Moreover, the conventional aerobics class score increased, whereas the treatment group score decreased. Results from the focus groups support the findings in this analysis. Whereas members of the conventional aerobics class stated that they often felt “rushed,” ” guilty” if they ate fattening foods, and “stressed to keep up with everyone else,” the members of the treatment group stated that they felt “less stressed,” “ relaxed,” and “calm,” and that they had learned to use the breathing techniques whenever they felt angry or stressed outside of class, and that they had learned to “let go” while participating in this class.
DISCUSSION Berger and Owen22 compared the relative mood benefits of swimming and Hatha yoga and found that yoga participants focus inward to physical sensations in order to stretch their muscles as far as possible and yet avoid reaching a point of painfulness. Although yoga is not an aerobic activity, Berger and Owen= found that both swimming and yoga were effective in reducing stress. They theorized that facilitated abdominal breathing was the mechanism that helped lower stress in the groups. The mind/body teaching approach used in this study also used abdominal breathing and emphasized tuning inward and moving in comfort. The focus group responses from the mind/body groups support the theory that abdominal breathing and noticing internal stress cues is helpful in reducing trait anxiety. Based on the results in this study, recommendations can be made for health educators and aerobics instructors. Health educators should be aware that, when they are teaching people to increase physical activity, some activities may be more conducive to helping people cope with stress more effectively in their lives and other activities may actually add stress to their lives.
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FURTHER
On the basis of the data and findings presented recommendations for future study are made:
STUDY
in this study,
the following
1. Replicate the study using a larger and randomly selected sample in order to increase the power of the study. 2. Replicate the study with a treatment duration of at least 6 months in order to increase the effect of the treatment.
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3. Replicate the study using other aerobic activities that are led by an instructor determine if the results of this study can be generalized to other activities.
IMPLICATIONS
FOR HEALTH EDUCATORS AEROBICS INSTRUCTORS
to
AND
This study has several implications for health education in general and fitness education in particular. Based on the results of this study, a fitness professional may wish to learn how to deliver mind/body aerobic dance programs, and health education professionals may wish to act as a resource in directing clients to these programs. This study is the first quasi-experimental design research to compare a mind/body teaching approach in aerobic dance with a conventional approach. In this way, the results contribute to the literature that examines the relationship between aerobic activity and psychological variables. Furthermore, this study provides qualitative insight into the assumptions that aerobic activity improves psychological well-being by showing that the positive psychological effects may differ depending on the teaching approach that is used in the aerobic activity.
REFERENCES 1. Kasch F, Wallace J, Van Camp S, Verity L. A longitudinal study of cardiovascular stability in active men aged 45-65 years. Phys Sport Med 1988;16:117-26. 2. Dishman RK. Exercise adherence: its impact on public health. Champaign (IL): Human Kinetics, 1988. 3. Morgan WI’. Psychological benefits of physical exercise. In: Nagle F, Montoye, H, editors. Exercise, health and disease. Springfield (MO): Charles C. Thomas, 1981. 4. Berger BG. Running away from anxiety and depression: a female as well as male race. In: Sachs ML, Buffone G, editors. Running as therapy: an integrated approach. Lincoln (NE): Univ. of Nebraska Univ. Press, 1984. 5. Engel GL. The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science 1977;196:129-36. 6. Colquhoun D. Images of healthism in health-based physical education. In: Kirk D, Tinning R, editors. Physical education, curriculum and culture: critical issues in the contemporary crisis. New York: Palmer Press, 1990;228-51. 7. Rosas D, Rosas C. Non-impact aerobics: the NIA technique. New York: Avon, 1987. 8. Davis C. Weight and diet preoccupation and addictiveness: the role of exercise. Personality Individual Difference 1990;11:823-7. 9. Yates A. Compulsive exercise and the eating disorders: toward an integrated theory of activity. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1993. 10. Silverstein B, Perdue L, Peterson B, Kelly E. The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles 1986;14:519-32. 11. Pelletier K. Mind-body health: research, clinical, and policy applications. Am J Health Promotion 1992;6:345-58. 12. Radha SS. Hatha yoga: the hidden language. Boston (MA): Shambhala, 1978. 13. E&stein D, Keeling G. Principles of health from eastern disciplines are finding their way into Western workouts: East meets West. IDEA Today 1991;10:47-50. 14. American Council on Exercise. Aerobics instructor manual. San Diego (CA): ACE, 1987. 15. Exer-Safety Association. The basic training program for safety certification: seminar in aerobics, fitness and exercise. Exer-Safety Association, 1986. 16. Field LK, Steinhardt MA. The relationship of mind/body behavior to selfreinforcement, self-esteem, and expectancy values for exercise. Am J Health Promotion 1992;1:6-13. 17. Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self. Princeton (NJ): Princeton Univ. Press, 1965.
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18. Speilberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. STAI manual. Palo Alto (CA): Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., 1970. 19. Krueger RA. Designing and conducting focus group interviews, Social Marketing in Public Health Conference, Tampa, FL, 1992. 20. Sonstroem RJ. Exercise and self-esteem. In: Tregung RL, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. Lexington (MA): Collmore Press, 123-55, 1984. 21. Berger BG, Owen DR. Anxiety reductions with swimming: relationships between exercise and state, trait, and somatic anxiety. Int J Sport Psychology 1987;18:286-302. 22. Berger BG, Owen DR. Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: aerobic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual Motor Skill 1992;75:1331-43. 23. Berger BG, Owen DR. Preliminary analysis of a causal relationship between swimming and stress reduction: intense exercise may negate the effects. Int J Sport Psychol 1992;23:7C-85.
KERN
& BAKER:
AEROBIC
DANCE
APPROACH
37
Kern, CHES, PhD
Mind/Body Wellness Dallas, Texas
Judith
Center
Baker, CHES, MSW, PhD
Texas Woman’s Denton, Texas
University
ver the past 15 years, Americans have taken a more active interest in health than ever before. The physiological benefits of exercise are now well-documented, and substantial evidence indicates that aerobic activity performed on a regular basis will aid in the reduction of risk factors that may lead to cardiovascular disease.’ Recently, however, a new emphasis is being placed on the psychological benefits of aerobic activity. Studies have found that not only does one’s physical health benefit from aerobic exercise, but also one’s mental health.2 Earlier anecdotal reports of post-exercise positive effects have been confirmed by numerous scientific investigations.3 Specifically, exercise appears to have a tranquilizing and antidepressant effect on participants.4 Due to the lack of research examining the psychological effects of different types of aerobic dance instruction, this study focused on the effects of two different teaching methods in aerobic dance classes on general self-esteem, physical self-esteem, and state-trait anxiety.
0
BACKGROUND
AND
SIGNIFICANCE
Three centuries after Descartes, the sciences of medicine and health promotion are still based on “the notion of the body as a machine, of disease as the consequence of breakdown of the machine, and of the doctor’s task as repairer of the machine.“5 This paradigm has led to a prominence of “healthism” in the United States, a belief in which a physically fit body is equated with total health and wellness. Not only is a physically fit body considered the key criterion for health and wellness, it has become a moral imperative.6 Therefore, in their efforts to promote health, fitness professionals have focused on changing physical characteristics such as body fat percentages, weight, resting heart rate, and aerobic capacity. By emphasizing physical goals, fitness programs teach individuals to
30
WOMEN’S
HEALTH
ISSUES
VOL.
7, NO.
1 JANUARY/FEBRUARY
1997
o
1997 by The Jacobs of Women’s Health Published by Elsevier 1049-3&x7/97/$17.00 PII s1049-3867@6)00065-5
Institute Science
Inc
value discipline, self-restraint, denial, and external control. This value system has led to the development of countless diet programs and books that espouse restrained eating, self-discipline, and a regimented eating style in order to achieve a desired physical state. It has also led to the increase in personal fitness trainers who are hired to design exercise programs and motivate their clients who seek desired physical outcomes. In the arena of aerobics classes, this value system has led many instructors to use a teaching style in which the instructor leads the class in uniform movement, focusing on isolated parts of the body, in order to achieve desired physical outcomes.7 There are many criticisms of this approach to health promotion: the increasing number of individuals who exercise excessively,8 the rising incidence of eating disorders,’ and the promotion of a thinness standard of body attractiveness as a panacea for life’s difficulties.” An alternative to the conventional biomedical model for health promotion is the new holistic or mind/body model which is now being implemented by a growing number of health organizations.” The mind/body model provides the conceptual framework for this study.
MIND/BODY
APPROACH
TO AEROBIC
DANCE
INSTRUCTION
An alternative to traditional instruction is a mind/body approach. The mind/ body approach as defined in this study is represented in the literature by yoga, martial arts, and mind/body fitness instruction. Yoga creates a mind/body connection by using awareness of the breath and concentration of the mind throughout the poses. Unlike the conventional instructional approach in aerobic dance class, participants are encouraged to move according to their own breathing patterns instead of to the beat of the music. Also, unlike the conventional instructional approach, there is not a list of contraindicated movements. Instead, participants are encouraged to move within their own comfort zone in order to prevent injury.” In a mind/body approach, exercises are drawn from ancient disciplines such as yoga, tai chi, and aikido, as well as from modern systems, such as Feldenkrais and Alexander techniques, and from dance movement therapy. Exercises in a mind/body class are not designed with specific body-centered objectives as found in the conventional aerobic dance guidelines. Instead, objectives include, but are not limited to, enhancing awareness of breathing, increasing ability to breathe, feeling the connection of feet to the ground, experiencing the interplay among the physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects of well-being, feeling powerful, and feeling gracefuli The aerobic portion of this type of class allows creativity and spontaneity to emerge in students. Instructors are encouraged to design choreography to inspire a sense of letting go and to remember that students have individual rhythms. Therefore, choreography is simple in order to allow students to explore how the movement feels rather than just go through the motions. If possible, instructors are to have students turn away from the mirrors in order to help them feel the movements rather than watch them. It is more important in this type of class that students feel the movement rather than learn complicated steps.i3
METHODOLOGY Population The population older, enrolled
and Sample
Selection
used for this study was female students, 18 years of age and in aerobics classes at Texas Woman’s University. From this
KERN
& BAKER:
AEROBIC
DANCE
APPROACH
31
population, a convenience sample of 77 subjects was recruited from four physical activity classes. Subjects in two classes were designated as the mind/body aerobics class, and subjects in the other two classes were designated as the standard conventional aerobics class. The 37 subjects in a standard conventional aerobics class were divided into two classes: one class of 18 and one class of 19 students. The 40 subjects in an mind/body aerobics class were divided into two classes of 20 students each.
Procedures Both groups, two classes per group, participated in l-hour aerobics classes twice a week for 7 weeks. Classes were canceled for 2 days during the treatment period due to weather conditions; therefore, the treatment consisted of 13 sessions. The same instructor taught the mind/body aerobics class using a mind/body approach and the conventional aerobics class with a conventional approach. Experimenter bias by the instructor was controlled by having the instructor review the list of characteristics for each class that she taught. Also, the instructor was videotaped in each of the classes in order to monitor verbal and nonverbal differences in class instruction.
Aerobic
Dance
Instruction
Guidelines
We followed aerobic dance instruction guidelines from the American Council on Exercise Aerobics Instructor Manual’4 and the Exer-Safety Associationi when teaching the conventional aerobics classes. For the mind/body aerobics classes, we followed a mind/body approach based on neuromuscular integrative action that was designed specifically for the purpose of this study. This approach combined guidelines from yoga,” martial arts,8 and mind/body fitness instruction.‘3
Instrumentation The following three instruments were used in this study: Field and Steinhardt’s Physical Self-Esteem Scale,16 the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale,i7 and the StateTrait Anxiety Inventory.i8 The Physical Self-Esteem Scale is an 11-item scale constructed to measure physical self-esteem. This scale was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in physical self-esteem between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. Using data collected in this study, the (Y coefficients for the pretest and posttest were .87 and .91, respectively. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in general self-esteem between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. It consists of ten items with four response choices and is designed to measure self-esteem. A reliability analysis of Rosenberg’s Self-Esteem Scale using data collected in this study produced satisfactory cx coefficients in the pretest and posttest of .85 and .91, respectively. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, developed by Speilberger, Gorsuch, and Lushene, was used to measure the dependent variables, state and trait anxiety. It was chosen to test the hypothesis that there is no difference in state-trait anxiety between participants in conventional aerobics classes and those in mind/body aerobics classes. The CYcoefficient calculated in this study for anxiety state was .93 in the pretest and posttest. For the anxiety trait scale, the OLcoefficient was .91 in the pretest and posttest.
32
WOMEN’S
HEALTH
ISSUES
VOL.
7, NO.
1 JANUARY/FEBRUARY
1997
TREATMENT Using pretest scores as determine differences in analyses was .05. Focus groups were recorded content of the themes in the discussions theme group.
DESCRIPTIVE
1
OF THE DATA
covariates, analysis of covariance was calculated to posttest means. The level of significance used for all held at the end of the treatment phase. The tapefocus groups was analyzed by discerning prevailing and counting the frequency of statements made per
CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE SAMPLE
The age of the participants in this study ranged from 18 to 51 years with a mean age of 22.2 years, a mode of 18 years, and a standard deviation of 5.89. The 31 participants who were assigned to the conventional aerobics class had a mean age of 23.2 years with a standard deviation of 6.9, and the 37 participants assigned to the experimental treatment group had a mean age of 21.32 years with a standard deviation of 4.72.
TESTS
OF THE HYPOTHESES
Analyses of covariance were conducted to compare the posttest scores of the two treatment groups using the pretest scores as covariates. The results showed no significant difference between group scores on physical self-esteem, general self-esteem, or state anxiety. However, there was a statistically significant difference between group scores on trait anxiety. In an analysis of variance, it was determined that the pretest score means for trait anxiety of 46.13 for the conventional aerobics class and 45.95 for the experimental treatment group were not significantly different, P > .05. However, an analysis of covariance found that the posttest score means of 47.29 for the conventional aerobics classand 45.05 for the treatment group were significantly different, P < .05.
FOCUS
GROUP
ANALYSIS
Following Krueger’s” suggested format, a focus group was conducted at the end of the last class for each of the four classes.The control focus groups had 14 and 15 volunteers, respectively, representing 78% of the total group. There were 13 and 14 volunteers, respectively, in the experimental treatment focus groups, representing 67% of the total group. In response to the question, “How did you feel right after this class?” 71% of the conventional aerobics class responses referred to physical conditions, such as being out of breath, tired, or hungry. Eighty-seven percent of the experimental treatment group responses dealt with emotional conditions, such as feeling awake, less stressed, relaxed, calm, uplifted, and light. They also said they felt like they had more energy and strength and felt more energized. All of the mind/body aerobics class responses to the question, “How did you feel right after class?” were positive in nature. In response to the question, “How did participation in this class affect other areas of your life ?” the majority of answers from the conventional aerobics class, 75%, had a physical condition theme and were positive in nature. The responses included: “I slept better,” “I ate better,” “I lost weight.” Of the responses that were emotional in nature, half were positive, such as, “I felt
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& BAKER:
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DANCE
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good about myself for working out,” and half were negative, such as, “I felt guilty if I ate bad food because I had worked out.” The experimental treatment group responses were divided evenly between positive physical statements and positive emotional statements. Group members’ responses included, “During stressful times, it has helped me to lengthen my body and breathe,” “I stretch when I feel stressed while working on the computer,” “I am able to concentrate in class better,” ” I use the breathing when I get mad, and it helps calm me down.” In response to the question, “What feelings did you experience during this class?” the majority of answers from the conventional aerobics class, 75%, dealt with emotional issues. Forty-four percent of the responses mentioned frustration. For instance, words and phrases participants used to express feelings included, “Confusion,” ” Frustrated because I couldn’t keep up,” “Stressed to keep up with everyone else,” “Incompetent,” “Uncoordinated,” and “Struggling.” There were a few, however, who said they felt accomplished when they finally “learned the steps and thought” the class was “a release of frustration and aggression.” Conversely, 77% of the experimental treatment group’s answers focused on comments such as, “Joy,” “Hope,” “Appreciation for my body,” “Moving freely,” “Rejuvenation,” “Power,” and “Grace.” Aerobics instructors can learn from this study that when participants are encouraged to listen to their own mind and body signals, the movement in class can accomplish more than the physical goals of increasing aerobic capacity and burning body fat. Hopefully, aerobics instructors and health educators alike will be encouraged to learn teaching techniques that enable the participants in their classes to find direction from within themselves rather than from external sources.
FINDINGS Although studies have shown the positive effects of aerobic activity on psychological well-being, the literature fails to provide documentation of the effect of different styles of teaching aerobic activity on psychological variables. The analysis of the data in this study uncovered information regarding the effect of a mind/body teaching approach as compared with a conventional teaching approach on selected psychological variables.
General
Self-Esteem
There were no significant changes in general self-esteem as a result of the 7-week exercise sessions. However, several studies have shown improvements in general self-esteem following exercise programs ranging from 12 weeks to 1 year.20 This indicates that a 7-week treatment period may not be sufficient to result in changes in self-esteem.
Physical
Self-Esteem
The analysis of physical self-esteem posttest scores indicated no significant difference between the treatment and conventional aerobics class. Considering the enormous social pressures for women to achieve unrealistic beauty standards, a 14-session intervention was probably not long enough to impact physical self-esteem attitudes, and perhaps only heightened body awareness.
State Anxiety State anxiety is the anxiety an individual feels at a particular moment in time. A review of the literature shows that aerobic exercise ranging in duration from 34
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8 weeks to 1 year positively affects state anxiety.21 In these studies, tests were administered immediately following the exercise session to determine mood at that moment. In this present study, however, the researchers were more interested in the long-term effect on participants. Therefore, tests were administered prior to an exercise session. Because the participants in this study were college students, state anxiety may have been impacted by the pressures of school. Many of the students had mid-term examinations on the day of the posttest administration. This could be the reason that there were no significant differences in posttest state anxiety scores.
Trait
Anxiety
Trait anxiety is the anxiety an individual feels in terms of frequency of occurrence. It describes an individual’s overall level of anxiety in life. In this study, the trait anxiety posttest scores were significantly different, (P < .05) between the treatment and conventional aerobics classes. Moreover, the conventional aerobics class score increased, whereas the treatment group score decreased. Results from the focus groups support the findings in this analysis. Whereas members of the conventional aerobics class stated that they often felt “rushed,” ” guilty” if they ate fattening foods, and “stressed to keep up with everyone else,” the members of the treatment group stated that they felt “less stressed,” “ relaxed,” and “calm,” and that they had learned to use the breathing techniques whenever they felt angry or stressed outside of class, and that they had learned to “let go” while participating in this class.
DISCUSSION Berger and Owen22 compared the relative mood benefits of swimming and Hatha yoga and found that yoga participants focus inward to physical sensations in order to stretch their muscles as far as possible and yet avoid reaching a point of painfulness. Although yoga is not an aerobic activity, Berger and Owen= found that both swimming and yoga were effective in reducing stress. They theorized that facilitated abdominal breathing was the mechanism that helped lower stress in the groups. The mind/body teaching approach used in this study also used abdominal breathing and emphasized tuning inward and moving in comfort. The focus group responses from the mind/body groups support the theory that abdominal breathing and noticing internal stress cues is helpful in reducing trait anxiety. Based on the results in this study, recommendations can be made for health educators and aerobics instructors. Health educators should be aware that, when they are teaching people to increase physical activity, some activities may be more conducive to helping people cope with stress more effectively in their lives and other activities may actually add stress to their lives.
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FURTHER
On the basis of the data and findings presented recommendations for future study are made:
STUDY
in this study,
the following
1. Replicate the study using a larger and randomly selected sample in order to increase the power of the study. 2. Replicate the study with a treatment duration of at least 6 months in order to increase the effect of the treatment.
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3. Replicate the study using other aerobic activities that are led by an instructor determine if the results of this study can be generalized to other activities.
IMPLICATIONS
FOR HEALTH EDUCATORS AEROBICS INSTRUCTORS
to
AND
This study has several implications for health education in general and fitness education in particular. Based on the results of this study, a fitness professional may wish to learn how to deliver mind/body aerobic dance programs, and health education professionals may wish to act as a resource in directing clients to these programs. This study is the first quasi-experimental design research to compare a mind/body teaching approach in aerobic dance with a conventional approach. In this way, the results contribute to the literature that examines the relationship between aerobic activity and psychological variables. Furthermore, this study provides qualitative insight into the assumptions that aerobic activity improves psychological well-being by showing that the positive psychological effects may differ depending on the teaching approach that is used in the aerobic activity.
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18. Speilberger CD, Gorsuch RL, Lushene RE. STAI manual. Palo Alto (CA): Consulting Psychologists Press Inc., 1970. 19. Krueger RA. Designing and conducting focus group interviews, Social Marketing in Public Health Conference, Tampa, FL, 1992. 20. Sonstroem RJ. Exercise and self-esteem. In: Tregung RL, editor. Exercise and sport sciences reviews. Lexington (MA): Collmore Press, 123-55, 1984. 21. Berger BG, Owen DR. Anxiety reductions with swimming: relationships between exercise and state, trait, and somatic anxiety. Int J Sport Psychology 1987;18:286-302. 22. Berger BG, Owen DR. Mood alteration with yoga and swimming: aerobic exercise may not be necessary. Perceptual Motor Skill 1992;75:1331-43. 23. Berger BG, Owen DR. Preliminary analysis of a causal relationship between swimming and stress reduction: intense exercise may negate the effects. Int J Sport Psychol 1992;23:7C-85.
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