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A Comparison of Several Treatments on Terminating Broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze Turkeys
INTESTINAL ABSORPTION OF OXYTETRACYCLINE
1960). This suggests that in vitro techniques may not serve as a reliable substitute for in vivo ligation methods in the study of intestinal absorption. The ligation procedure described is not difficult and has yielded highly consistent results. REFERENCES Cover, M. S., W. J. Benton, L. M. Greene and F. D'Armi, 1959. Potentiation of tetracycline antibiotics with terephthalic acid and low dietary calcium. Avian Diseases, 3: 353-361. Price, K. E., Z. Zolli, Jr. and J. H. Hare, 1959a. Effect of dietary calcium-phosphorus adjustment and/or supplementation with terephthalic acid upon serum antibiotic levels of chickens. Poultry Sci. 38: 233-235. Price, K. E., Z. Zolli, Jr., J. C. Atkinson, A. P. Collins and H. G. Luther, 1959b. Antibiotic inhibitors. III. Reversal of calcium inhibition of intestinal absorption of oxytetracycline in chickens by certain acids and acid salts. Antibiotics Annual, 1958-59: 1020-1032. Medical Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, N. Y. Price, K. E., 1960. Unpublished data. Stokstad, E. L. R., C. N. Huhtanen, W. L. Williams and T. H. Jukes, 1959. The effect of calcium levels on Aureomycin absorption. Poultry Sci. 38: 1251. Sturkie, P. D., 1954. Avian Physiology. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N. Y. Wilson, T. H., and G. Wiseman, 1954. The use of sacs of everted small intestine for study of the transference of substances from the mucosal to the serosal surface. J. Physiol. 123: 116-125.
A Comparison of Several Treatments on Terminating Broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze Turkeys R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, JR. Department of Poultry Husbandry, University of Wisconsin, Madison (Received for publication April 8, 1960)
D
UE to the relatively short egg producing season of Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens, a condition such as broodiness which tends to decrease egg Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin.
production is a serious problem to breeder flock owners. A treatment which would both rapidly and economically return broody hens to production would therefore be of great value to the turkey breeder. For many years, workers have been at-
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did not differ appreciably in the two sampling periods. In some instances, by the end of the trial, a large amount of fluid had accumulated within the "sac" formed by ligation. This phenomenon occurred with the duodenum in 4 of 6 cases, the jejunum and the ileum in 2 of 6, and was not observed in the cecum. Gross examination of specimen levels for the fluid-filled segments did not indicate that the increased volume of fluid affected absorption. The marked variability of different intestinal tract segments in absorptive capacity for oxytetracycline shown in this study was somewhat unexpected. It could not have been predicted from histological considerations, as the structure of the avian small intestine appears to be rather similar for all segments. Likewise, the pH of the small intestine, although tending to be slightly more alkaline in the lower end (Sturkie, 1954), probably does not vary sufficiently from segment to segment to account for the observed differences in absorption. Conflicting data have been obtained in vitro where the everted sac technique of Wilson and Wiseman (1954) was applied to these same segments. The ileum appeared to be most active in these in vitro experiments (Price,
155
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R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, J R .
for menformon. It has been reported by the Zootechnical Experiment Station of Japan (1937) that urine from pregnant cows, puberogen, and gynandol injections will shorten the broody period in chickens. Riddle, Bates and Lahr (1935) found that FSH did not interrupt broodiness in chickens. The research described in this paper was conducted over a three year period to study the effectiveness of several different management and hormone treatments on interrupting broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. Broodiness is interpreted as the amount of time hens spend on the nest, however, the subsequent return to egg production is of extreme economic importance and is considered in this research. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Animals for these experiments were the University of Wisconsin's breeding flock of trapnested Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. All hens received the Station's standard 15% protein turkey breeder mash. These birds were housed in a two story converted dairy barn containing 28 individual male pens. All pens were equipped with a set of trapnests either 21"X25"X26" or 20"X20"X22" in size All birds were hatched in March and April, then reared on range from about 12 to 24 weeks of age. Birds selected as breeders were lighted so as to bring the hens into production on December 1. Treatments were begun as soon thereafter as broodiness was detected and continued until the end of the production period (June 1). In order to determine when a hen was broody a rather simple scheme was devised. The trapnests were routinely checked at two-hour intervals beginning at 8 a.m. and continuing through to 6 p.m. Each time a hen was found in the
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tempting to terminate broodiness in both chickens and turkeys by what might be considered as shock hormone treatments. Blakley, Anderson and MacGregor (1951) reported that at least 200 mg. of diethylstilbestrol were necessary to bring broody turkeys back into production in a time comparable with the broody coop. Whereas, Carson, Eaton and Bacon (1956) found that in chickens, 25 mg. of diethylstilbestrol were equally effective as the broody coop in terminating broodiness, but that birds thus treated returned to production at a significantly slower rate than those in the broody coop. Godfrey and Jaap (1950) reported 75.7% success in terminating broodiness in chicken hens with a 15 mg. injection of diethylstilbestrol and 98% effectiveness when the dose level was doubled to 30 mg. In comparing these results with chicken hens placed in the broody coop, they reported that the number of days before return to production as well as the rate of lay after return appeared to be about the same for both methods. Fraps and Dury (1943), Rothchild and Fraps (1949), Nalbandov (1953), and van Tienhoven, Nalvandov and Norton (1954) have reported an ovulation inducing action on the pituitary by progesterone. However, Bates, Lahr and Riddle (1935), Reece and Bivans (1942), and Lehrman and Brody (1957) found that progesterone induces the release of prolactin. Further work by van Tienhoven (1958) suggests that not only does progesterone appear to stimulate lay but also that it tends to interrupt broodiness in turkeys. The action of pituitary or pituitarylike substances on broodiness has been tested by a few workers. Wodzicki (1934) found that prolan A was ineffective in interrupting broodiness and Hertwig and Schwarz (1934) reported similar results
157
TERMINATION OF BROODINESS
TABLE 1.—A list of treatments and the levels of
treatments administered in each year of the experimental period Year
Treatment and levels
1957 Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) "No Brood" (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol in paste Litter Pen (7 consecutive days) Wire Pen (7 consecutive days) 1958 Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.), Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.), DCA (5 mg.) Wire Pen (7 consecutive days) Light (24 consecutive hours) 1959 Progesterone (20 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.), Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), Progesterone (5 mg.), DCA (5 mg.) Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Light (24 consecutive hours) Control
volume. Each ml. of the gonadotropin injection contained the equivalent of 1 gm. of dry pituitary powder. The litter pen used in 1957 was a pen similar to the regular laying pens but contained no nests. When a broody hen was to go on this treatment she was removed from her pen and placed in this pen for 7 consecutive days after which time she was put back into her original pen. The wire pen had a floor construction of 1"X2" welded wire on 2"X4" wooden frames which rested on concrete blocks. This pen also had no nests and broody birds were placed in it for 7 consecutive days. The pen used for the light treatment was a completely enclosed 5 ' X 5 | ' X 7 ' pen of canvas equipped with a hanging feeder and a waterer. A clear glass 150-watt light bulb with a white enameled reflector was hung at a height of approximately 48 inches from the litter in such a manner that the broody hen would be under the direct light rays at all times. The light intensity 18" below the bulb was about 300 foot candles. When a hen was given this treatment she remained in the pen for 24 hours. The pen used for the control treatment in 1959 was identical to the
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nest a notation to that effect was made on her daily egg record, whether she laid or not. When a bird was found on the nest for an average of at least three times a day for three consecutive days without laying an egg, she was palpated on the fourth morning and if no egg could be detected in the uterus, the bird was called broody and placed on one of the treatments. A list of treatments used over the three year period is shown in Table 1. All treatments to be tested within each year were listed in a random manner. When the first hen went broody in a given year she was placed on the first treatment on the random list. Then as other birds became broody they merely received the next treatment. When enough birds had become broody to finish one series of treatments the same sequence was followed for the next round and all succeeding rounds of treatments. The hormone carrier for diethylstilbestrol and progesterone was propylene glycol in 1957 and corn oil in 1958 and 1959. Since it is possible that a portion of the effectiveness of the hormones in terminating broodiness is due to shock type action, it was decided to change to the corn oil carrier because it is absorbed more rapidly than propylene glycol. All liquid hormone injections were 1 ml. in volume except for the 2 ml. injection of gonadotropin when given at the 2 gm. level and were administered intramuscularly in the breast by means of a 2 cc. tuberculin syringe and a number 18 needle. A paste preparation of diethylstilbestrol was given subcutaneously in the back of the head by means of a guntype paste implanter in 1957. The gonadotropin administered in 1959 was of sheep pituitary origin and was dissolved in distilled water. The levels of these injections were 1 ml. and 2 ml. in
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R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, J R .
TABLE 2. Effect of broodiness on egg production
for 1957-1959 combined Number of broody days
Number of hens
Number of eggs/hen
0
179 26 24 22 32
97.8 90.5 86.0 69.2 52.9
1-14 15-28 29-42 over 43
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Egg Production. To determine the effect of broodiness on annual egg production, the production of hens that did not go broody during the 3 year period was compared with that of hens that were out of production due to broodiness for various lengths of time. As shown by the combined data of the 3 years (Table 2), the number of eggs produced is inversely proportional to the number of days the hens are out of production due to broodiness. Inspection of the egg production data of treated hens indicated that most of the hens treated after April 1 of both 1957 and 1958 did not respond to any treatment. Because of this possible period or time of treatment effect, the breeding seasons within each of these two years was divided into two periods for purposes of statistical analysis with one period consisting of birds treated before April 1 and the other period those treated after April 1. In 1959, most of the hens gradually went out of production during the April to June period without displaying broody behavior and, therefore, no time of treatment effect was noted. Analysis of variance for both the 1957 and 1958 data that is shown in Table 2, gave a highly significant period effect and a significant treatment within the first period effect. Duncan's New Multiple
TABLE 3.—Number of days to first egg after treatment
by periods for 1957 and 1958 and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for the first period
Treatment
First period (Dec. 1 to Mar. 31)
Second period (Apr. 1 to May 30)
Days to Duncan s first egg test*
Days to first egg
1957 12.1 12.3 14.9 22.3 23.0 1958 Light 11.8 Wire 17.8 Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.) and DCA 18.3 Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) 25.0 Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) 25.8 Progesterone (20 mg.) 32.2 Progesterone (20 mg.) Wire Litter Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) "No Brood" (25 mg.)
* .05% level of significance.
1
32.0 26.5 20.7 28.5 17.3 35.0 30.0 35.0 29.0 35.0 29.0
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other laying pens where hens were allowed free access to the nests and the normal trapping procedure was followed.
Range Test (Table 3) for the treatment differences within the first period of 1957 showed that both progesterone in propylene glycol at the 20 mg. level and the wire treatment returned the hens to egg production in a significantly shorter time than did the diethylstilbestrol at the 25 mg. level in either the propylene glycol or the paste carrier. When applied to the data of the first period of 1958, Duncan's New Multiple Range Test indicated that not only were the combination of diethylstilbestrol, progesterone and DC A, the wire, and the light treatments all significantly more effective than progesterone at the 20 mg. level in returning the hens to egg production, but also that the light treatment was significantly more effective than diethylstilbestrol and the diethylstilbestrol-progesterone combination as well. Although the analysis of variance for 1959 data did not indicate a significant treatment effect, Duncan's New Multiple Range Test (Table 4) indicated that gonadotropin injections at both levels and 24 hours of light returned treated hens to egg production significantly earlier that year than did the progesterone at the 20
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TERMINATION OF BROODINESS
TABLE S.—Number of days to first egg after treatment and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for combined data of treatments tested- in both 1958 and 1959 Treatment Light Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.)
Days to first egg 17.5 22.4
Duncan's test*
27.5 29.6
* .05% level of significance.
to third days. Although not shown in Figure 1, the sitting pattern for broodys continues rising from the time of last egg until the day of treatment. I n this period of three days, the number of times on the nest was 4.4 for each hen over the 3 year period. In order to determine the effectiveness Sitting Patterns. Figure 1 shows the sitting of each treatment in breaking up the sitpattern, by years, of all broody hens for ting behavior, the period of 10 to 13 days the 21-day period prior to the start of prior to last egg was selected as the normal broodiness. The sitting pattern, as meas- sitting pattern for each hen. When a hen ured by the number of times spent on the had returned to her normal pattern after nest, remained relatively constant until treatment, broodiness was considered to approximately the ninth day before the have been terminated. These data are last egg, at which point the curve rises shown in Table 6 and it can be seen that sharply until the date of the last egg. The both the wire and the light treatments highest number of times that a bird could were effective in returning hens to their be recorded as being on the nest was six, normal sitting pattern by 3 days after as this was the number of times the birds treatment in repeated trials. Several other were trapped during the day. During the treatments were also as effective, indi10th to 12th day, the birds averaged 2.1 cating that it is apparently not too diftimes on the nest for all three years and ficult to check the high sitting pattern of this increases to 3.5 times during the first the broody hen. TABLE 4.—Number of days to first egg after treatment and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for treatments tested in 1959 Treatment Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Light Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Control Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.). Progesterone (5 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.)
Days to first egg 12.3 12.7 13.0 16.3 18.2 18.2 19.2 23.7 27.8 27.8
Duncan's test
DISCUSSION
In a general and practical sense, broodiness consists of at least 2 phases. There is not only a cessation of egg production for a period of time, but there is also a change in the hen's sitting pattern in that she spends more time on the nest. Therefore, for a treatment to be effective, it should not only return a hen to her normal sitting rate, but also should bring her back into production as soon as possible.
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mg. level or the combination of diethylstilbestrol, progesterone and DC A. In 1959, four of the treatments that had been tested in 1958 were again repeated and these data were combined (Table 5) and again analyzed by the analysis of variance technique. This analysis showed a highly significant year effect and also a highly significant difference between treatments. Duncan's New Multiple Range Test was applied to these data (Table 5) and showed that the light treatment returned the hens to production at a more highly significant rate than did progesterone at the 20 mg. level or the diethylstilbestrol and progesterone combination.
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R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHEEMS, J R .
The effectiveness of the raised wire floor in comparison to the litter pen in terminating broodiness may be due to several factors. It has been demonstrated by Schjelderup-Ebbe (1924) and Marshall (1942) that such factors as warm
temperature, semi-darkness, and the act of sitting on eggs induce broodiness in turkeys. The better air circulation at the breast region may help maintain the environmental temperature. Also, in this pen there is not the chance for a hen to nest as there is in the litter floor pen. These two facts may help in terminating broodiness. The hormonal relationships in egg production and broodiness has been aptly demonstrated, but the effect of gonadal and pituitary hormones on this physiological state is not definitely known. From the results of 3 years' testing with diethylstilbestrol, it appears that this hormone is quite effective in breaking up the sitting behavior of broody hens when given at 25 mg. However, this hormone has little effect in returning birds to production. These results tend to substantiate the work of Brietenbach and Meyer (1959) that estrogen may inhibit the production or release of prolactin. It
AT. number 3.0 of times on nest/day - g
Number of days prior to l a s t egg FIG. 1. Average number of times on the nest per day for all broody hens for 21 days before going broody for each year of the experiment.
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At the present time, the most commonly practiced commercial method of terminating broodiness in turkeys is to confine them for varying lengths of time in a separate pen with no nests. Another traditional practical treatment is the broody coop which has been simulated by the wire pen treatment in this study. The litter pen used in this study yielded only fair results both in returning the hens to egg production and to their normal sitting patterns. It should be noted that since the effectiveness of all treatments was measured from the date of completion of treatment, the hens on the wire and litter pen treatments actually were out of production for the additional time of the 7 day treatment period.
161
TERMINATION OF BROODINESS T A B L E 6.—The number of days, by two day periods, after the completion of a treatment required to return hens to their normal sitting behavior for each year Year 1957
1958
1959
Days after completion of treatment
Treatment
11 13 15 17 19 21 Over
"No Brood" (25 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.) Litter Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Wire Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) Wire Light
also indicates that simply suppressing prolactin does not mean that birds will begin to lay again. Work by van Tienhoven (1958) indicated that 10 mg. of progesterone was as effective as the broody coop in returning broody hens to production. In our work, 10 mg. of progesterone was not compared to the broody coop but birds receiving this level did not return to production any sooner than untreated controls. The 20 mg. level of progesterone was not effective when used in corn oil but appeared to be when used in propylene glycol, indicating that the rate of absorption may be important with this hormone. Possible conflicting results obtained when corn oil was used as the carrier may be due to the prolactin-like activity of this hormone in suppressing ovarian activity as has been demonstrated by Riddle, Bates and Lahr (1935) and Lehrman and Brody (1957). When the 12 mg. level of diethylstilbestrol and the 10 mg. level of progesterone were given in combination, the effect on production was similar to when each hormone was given separately at the same levels. This treatment was as effective as the 10 mg. level of progesterone alone on
the sitting pattern indicating that the 12 mg. level of diethylstilbestrol does not interfere with the action of progesterone at the 10 mg. level. When the levels of both of these hormones were further lowered and given in combination with DCA, there again was no effective response on production. The sitting pattern response was similar to the 10 mg. and 12 mg. levels of the two hormones and 10 mg. of progesterone alone. This indicates (1) that either DCA has a direct role on the sitting pattern, (2) that DCA has progesterone-like action or is converted to progesterone, as demonstrated by LazoWasem and Zarrow (1955) in the rat and the rabbit, or (3) simply that 5 mg. of progesterone is as effective as 10 mg. on this phase of broodiness. The fact that, generally, high levels of diethylstilbestrol and low levels of progesterone break up the sitting pattern but do not bring birds back to production as quickly as birds given conventional broodiness treatments suggests that some other mechanism is involved in this phase of broodiness. It has been demonstrated by Riley and Fraps (1942) and Nakajo and Imai (1958) that the pituitaries of
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Control Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Progesterone (20 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), Progesterone (5 mg.) and D"CA (5 mg.) Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Light
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R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, JR.
SUMMARY
Various hormone and management treatments have been tested over a three year period to determine their effectiveness in terminating broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. Results were measured in terms of length of time after treatment required to return the hens to egg production and to their sitting rates. Duncan's New Multiple Range Test of the average number of days to first egg indicated that the most effective treatments were 1) in 1957, progesterone (20 mg.) and seven consecutive days in the wire floor pen, 2) in 1958, 24 hours exposure to intense light, and 3) in 1959, this same light treatment as well as injections of 1 gm. and 2 gm. of gonadotropin.
The treatments which returned broody hens to their normal sitting patterns in the shortest time were the wire floor pen in 1957 and 1958, the light in 1958 and 1959 as well as gonadotropin (1 gm.), the combination of diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and progesterone (10 mg.) and the mixture of diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), progesterone (5 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) in 1959. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their thanks to Dr. W. H. McShan, Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin, for the supply of sheep pituitary powder. REFERENCES Bates, R. W., E. L. Lahr and 0 . Riddle, 1935. The gross action of prolactin and follicle stimulating hormone on the mature ovary and sex accessories of the fowl. Am. J. Physiol. I l l : 361-368. Blakely, R. M., R. W. Anderson and H. I. MacGregor, 1951. The estrogen interruption of broodiness in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 30: 907. Breitenbach, R. P., and R. K. Meyer, 1959. Pituitary prolactin levels in laying, incubating and brooding pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 101: 16-19. Carson, J. R., R. D. Eaton and B. F. Bacon, 1956. Termination of broodiness in the chicken. Storrs (Connecticut) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 323: 1-10. Collias, N. E., 1950. Hormones and behavior with special reference to birds and the mechanisms of hormone action. A Symposium on Steroid Hormones. Univ. of Wis. Press 277-329. Fraps, R. M., and A. Dury, 1943. Occurrence of premature ovulation in the domestic fowl following administration of progesterone. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 52:346-349. Godfrey, E. F., and R. G. Jaap, 1950. Estrogenic interruption of broodiness in the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 29: 356-361. Hertwig, P., and E. Schwarz, 1934. Brutigkeit und Ovarhormon. Archiv Fur Geflugelkunde, 8: 7 3 75. Lazo-Wasem, E. A., and M. X. Zarrow, 1955. The conversion of desoxycorticosterone acetate to a progesterone-like substance. Endocrinology, 56: 511-515. Lehrman, D. S., and P. Brody, 1957. Oviduct response to estrogen and progesterone in the Ring dove (Streptopelia risoria). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 95:373-375.
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broody hens are low in gonadotropin possibly due to the inhibitory action of prolactin. Therefore, pituitary stimulation by light might be expected to overcome this action of prolactin as well as exogenous injections of gonadotropin as seems to be demonstrated by this work. Both treatments were quite effective not only in interrupting the sitting pattern but also in bringing birds back into production. It seems quite unlikely that further study on this problem will lower the shortest time for return to production as obtained in this work using the method described for determining when a bird is broody. Unpublished data by one of us (F.L.C.) indicates that when a turkey hen is laying at a rate of about 50% it takes 12-13 days of growth for an ovum to mature. In waiting for 3 days of non-laying before determining broodiness, the ova of the broody bird has probably become atretic. Therefore, treatments that are effective on production will presumably only show their effectiveness after this 12-13 days of ova growth.
TERMINATION OF BEOODINESS
Marshall, F. H. A., 1942. Exteroceptive factors in sexual periodicity. Biol. Rev. 17: 68-90. Nakajo, S., 1952. Effect of electrical stimulation of the head on broodiness of chickens. Poultry Sci. 31:337-342. Nakajo, S., and K. Imai, 1958. Gonadotropin content of the cephalic and the caudal lobe of the anterior pituitary in laying, non-laying and broody hen. Proc. 11th World's Poultry Cong, and Expos., Mexico City, D.F. Nalbandov, A. V., 1953. Endocrine control of physiological functions. Poultry Sci. 32: 88-103.
Riddle, O., E. L. Lahr and R. W. Bates, 1935. Prolactin induces broodiness in fowl. Am. J. Physiol., 111:352-360. Riley, G. M., and R. M. Fraps, 1942. Relationship of gonad-stimulating activity of female domestic
fowl anterior pituitaries to reproductive condition. Endocrinology, 30: 537-541. Rothchild, I., and R. M. Fraps, 1949. The induction of ovulating hormone release from the pituitary of the domestic hen by means of progesterone. Endocrinology, 44: 141-149. Schjelderup-Ebbe, Th., 1924. Fortgesetze Biologische Beobachtungen des Gallus domesticus. Psychol. Forsch. 5: 343-355. van Tienhoven, A., 1958. Effect of progesterone on broodiness and egg production of turkeys. Poultry Sci. 37: 428-133. van Tienhoven, A., A. V. Nalbandov and H. W. Norton, 1954. Effect of debenamine on progesterone-induced and "spontaneous" ovulation in the hen. Endocrinology, 54: 605-611. Wodzicki, K., 1934. Hormonal interruption of broodiness in hens. Nature, 134: 383. Zootechnical Experiment Station of Japan, 1937. Studies on broodiness in dual purpose breed of chicks. Annual Report of Zoo-technical Expt. Station Japan 3: 24.
Crossbreeding Turkeys. 1. Effect of Mating System on Reproductive Performance 1 M . G. M C C A R T N E Y AND V. D . C H A M B E R L I N
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Poultry Science, Wooster, Ohio (Received for publication April 8, 1960)
C
R O S S B R E E D I N G for the improve-
T h e future of t u r k e y breeding programs
m e n t of economic characters, such as
involving crossing to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of
growth and vigor, has been recognized as
hybrid
vigor
or
a breeding practice of considerable merit
largely
upon
the
in broilers for m a n y years. Since turkeys,
strains a n d varieties t h a t will combine well
like broilers, are grown primarily for m e a t
for
production, it seems t h a t similar a d v a n -
formance
tages
growth a n d vigor of their progeny.
might
be
obtained
by
crossing
strains or varieties of t u r k e y s . Until quite
improvement of
the
heterosis
will
availability in
depend of
reproductive
breeders
and
pure perbetter
Therefore, a s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n to
recently, however, crossing was the excep-
determine the reproductive
tion r a t h e r t h a n t h e rule in the commer-
of t u r k e y breeders used in purebred m a t -
performance
cial production of turkeys. Consequently,
ings and several different systems of m a t -
a t t h e present time very little is known
ings involving crossing a n d to compare
a b o u t the real value of crossing for the
t h e growth, conformation a n d vigor of the
economic i m p r o v e m e n t of t u r k e y s .
progeny produced b y these matings. T h e
1
Approved for publication 4/1/60, as Journal Article No. 27-60, by the Associate Director of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
results r e p o r t e d herein summarizes four y e a r s ' d a t a on the reproductive performance of t h e strains a n d varieties of t u r -
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Reece, R. P., and J. A. Bivans, 1942. Progesterone effect on pituitary lactogenic content and on mammary glands of ovarectomized rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 49: 582-584.
163
1960). This suggests that in vitro techniques may not serve as a reliable substitute for in vivo ligation methods in the study of intestinal absorption. The ligation procedure described is not difficult and has yielded highly consistent results. REFERENCES Cover, M. S., W. J. Benton, L. M. Greene and F. D'Armi, 1959. Potentiation of tetracycline antibiotics with terephthalic acid and low dietary calcium. Avian Diseases, 3: 353-361. Price, K. E., Z. Zolli, Jr. and J. H. Hare, 1959a. Effect of dietary calcium-phosphorus adjustment and/or supplementation with terephthalic acid upon serum antibiotic levels of chickens. Poultry Sci. 38: 233-235. Price, K. E., Z. Zolli, Jr., J. C. Atkinson, A. P. Collins and H. G. Luther, 1959b. Antibiotic inhibitors. III. Reversal of calcium inhibition of intestinal absorption of oxytetracycline in chickens by certain acids and acid salts. Antibiotics Annual, 1958-59: 1020-1032. Medical Encyclopedia, Inc., New York, N. Y. Price, K. E., 1960. Unpublished data. Stokstad, E. L. R., C. N. Huhtanen, W. L. Williams and T. H. Jukes, 1959. The effect of calcium levels on Aureomycin absorption. Poultry Sci. 38: 1251. Sturkie, P. D., 1954. Avian Physiology. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N. Y. Wilson, T. H., and G. Wiseman, 1954. The use of sacs of everted small intestine for study of the transference of substances from the mucosal to the serosal surface. J. Physiol. 123: 116-125.
A Comparison of Several Treatments on Terminating Broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze Turkeys R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, JR. Department of Poultry Husbandry, University of Wisconsin, Madison (Received for publication April 8, 1960)
D
UE to the relatively short egg producing season of Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens, a condition such as broodiness which tends to decrease egg Published with the approval of the Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin.
production is a serious problem to breeder flock owners. A treatment which would both rapidly and economically return broody hens to production would therefore be of great value to the turkey breeder. For many years, workers have been at-
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did not differ appreciably in the two sampling periods. In some instances, by the end of the trial, a large amount of fluid had accumulated within the "sac" formed by ligation. This phenomenon occurred with the duodenum in 4 of 6 cases, the jejunum and the ileum in 2 of 6, and was not observed in the cecum. Gross examination of specimen levels for the fluid-filled segments did not indicate that the increased volume of fluid affected absorption. The marked variability of different intestinal tract segments in absorptive capacity for oxytetracycline shown in this study was somewhat unexpected. It could not have been predicted from histological considerations, as the structure of the avian small intestine appears to be rather similar for all segments. Likewise, the pH of the small intestine, although tending to be slightly more alkaline in the lower end (Sturkie, 1954), probably does not vary sufficiently from segment to segment to account for the observed differences in absorption. Conflicting data have been obtained in vitro where the everted sac technique of Wilson and Wiseman (1954) was applied to these same segments. The ileum appeared to be most active in these in vitro experiments (Price,
155
156
R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, J R .
for menformon. It has been reported by the Zootechnical Experiment Station of Japan (1937) that urine from pregnant cows, puberogen, and gynandol injections will shorten the broody period in chickens. Riddle, Bates and Lahr (1935) found that FSH did not interrupt broodiness in chickens. The research described in this paper was conducted over a three year period to study the effectiveness of several different management and hormone treatments on interrupting broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. Broodiness is interpreted as the amount of time hens spend on the nest, however, the subsequent return to egg production is of extreme economic importance and is considered in this research. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Animals for these experiments were the University of Wisconsin's breeding flock of trapnested Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. All hens received the Station's standard 15% protein turkey breeder mash. These birds were housed in a two story converted dairy barn containing 28 individual male pens. All pens were equipped with a set of trapnests either 21"X25"X26" or 20"X20"X22" in size All birds were hatched in March and April, then reared on range from about 12 to 24 weeks of age. Birds selected as breeders were lighted so as to bring the hens into production on December 1. Treatments were begun as soon thereafter as broodiness was detected and continued until the end of the production period (June 1). In order to determine when a hen was broody a rather simple scheme was devised. The trapnests were routinely checked at two-hour intervals beginning at 8 a.m. and continuing through to 6 p.m. Each time a hen was found in the
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tempting to terminate broodiness in both chickens and turkeys by what might be considered as shock hormone treatments. Blakley, Anderson and MacGregor (1951) reported that at least 200 mg. of diethylstilbestrol were necessary to bring broody turkeys back into production in a time comparable with the broody coop. Whereas, Carson, Eaton and Bacon (1956) found that in chickens, 25 mg. of diethylstilbestrol were equally effective as the broody coop in terminating broodiness, but that birds thus treated returned to production at a significantly slower rate than those in the broody coop. Godfrey and Jaap (1950) reported 75.7% success in terminating broodiness in chicken hens with a 15 mg. injection of diethylstilbestrol and 98% effectiveness when the dose level was doubled to 30 mg. In comparing these results with chicken hens placed in the broody coop, they reported that the number of days before return to production as well as the rate of lay after return appeared to be about the same for both methods. Fraps and Dury (1943), Rothchild and Fraps (1949), Nalbandov (1953), and van Tienhoven, Nalvandov and Norton (1954) have reported an ovulation inducing action on the pituitary by progesterone. However, Bates, Lahr and Riddle (1935), Reece and Bivans (1942), and Lehrman and Brody (1957) found that progesterone induces the release of prolactin. Further work by van Tienhoven (1958) suggests that not only does progesterone appear to stimulate lay but also that it tends to interrupt broodiness in turkeys. The action of pituitary or pituitarylike substances on broodiness has been tested by a few workers. Wodzicki (1934) found that prolan A was ineffective in interrupting broodiness and Hertwig and Schwarz (1934) reported similar results
157
TERMINATION OF BROODINESS
TABLE 1.—A list of treatments and the levels of
treatments administered in each year of the experimental period Year
Treatment and levels
1957 Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) "No Brood" (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol in paste Litter Pen (7 consecutive days) Wire Pen (7 consecutive days) 1958 Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.), Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.), DCA (5 mg.) Wire Pen (7 consecutive days) Light (24 consecutive hours) 1959 Progesterone (20 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.), Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), Progesterone (5 mg.), DCA (5 mg.) Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Light (24 consecutive hours) Control
volume. Each ml. of the gonadotropin injection contained the equivalent of 1 gm. of dry pituitary powder. The litter pen used in 1957 was a pen similar to the regular laying pens but contained no nests. When a broody hen was to go on this treatment she was removed from her pen and placed in this pen for 7 consecutive days after which time she was put back into her original pen. The wire pen had a floor construction of 1"X2" welded wire on 2"X4" wooden frames which rested on concrete blocks. This pen also had no nests and broody birds were placed in it for 7 consecutive days. The pen used for the light treatment was a completely enclosed 5 ' X 5 | ' X 7 ' pen of canvas equipped with a hanging feeder and a waterer. A clear glass 150-watt light bulb with a white enameled reflector was hung at a height of approximately 48 inches from the litter in such a manner that the broody hen would be under the direct light rays at all times. The light intensity 18" below the bulb was about 300 foot candles. When a hen was given this treatment she remained in the pen for 24 hours. The pen used for the control treatment in 1959 was identical to the
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nest a notation to that effect was made on her daily egg record, whether she laid or not. When a bird was found on the nest for an average of at least three times a day for three consecutive days without laying an egg, she was palpated on the fourth morning and if no egg could be detected in the uterus, the bird was called broody and placed on one of the treatments. A list of treatments used over the three year period is shown in Table 1. All treatments to be tested within each year were listed in a random manner. When the first hen went broody in a given year she was placed on the first treatment on the random list. Then as other birds became broody they merely received the next treatment. When enough birds had become broody to finish one series of treatments the same sequence was followed for the next round and all succeeding rounds of treatments. The hormone carrier for diethylstilbestrol and progesterone was propylene glycol in 1957 and corn oil in 1958 and 1959. Since it is possible that a portion of the effectiveness of the hormones in terminating broodiness is due to shock type action, it was decided to change to the corn oil carrier because it is absorbed more rapidly than propylene glycol. All liquid hormone injections were 1 ml. in volume except for the 2 ml. injection of gonadotropin when given at the 2 gm. level and were administered intramuscularly in the breast by means of a 2 cc. tuberculin syringe and a number 18 needle. A paste preparation of diethylstilbestrol was given subcutaneously in the back of the head by means of a guntype paste implanter in 1957. The gonadotropin administered in 1959 was of sheep pituitary origin and was dissolved in distilled water. The levels of these injections were 1 ml. and 2 ml. in
158
R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, J R .
TABLE 2. Effect of broodiness on egg production
for 1957-1959 combined Number of broody days
Number of hens
Number of eggs/hen
0
179 26 24 22 32
97.8 90.5 86.0 69.2 52.9
1-14 15-28 29-42 over 43
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS Egg Production. To determine the effect of broodiness on annual egg production, the production of hens that did not go broody during the 3 year period was compared with that of hens that were out of production due to broodiness for various lengths of time. As shown by the combined data of the 3 years (Table 2), the number of eggs produced is inversely proportional to the number of days the hens are out of production due to broodiness. Inspection of the egg production data of treated hens indicated that most of the hens treated after April 1 of both 1957 and 1958 did not respond to any treatment. Because of this possible period or time of treatment effect, the breeding seasons within each of these two years was divided into two periods for purposes of statistical analysis with one period consisting of birds treated before April 1 and the other period those treated after April 1. In 1959, most of the hens gradually went out of production during the April to June period without displaying broody behavior and, therefore, no time of treatment effect was noted. Analysis of variance for both the 1957 and 1958 data that is shown in Table 2, gave a highly significant period effect and a significant treatment within the first period effect. Duncan's New Multiple
TABLE 3.—Number of days to first egg after treatment
by periods for 1957 and 1958 and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for the first period
Treatment
First period (Dec. 1 to Mar. 31)
Second period (Apr. 1 to May 30)
Days to Duncan s first egg test*
Days to first egg
1957 12.1 12.3 14.9 22.3 23.0 1958 Light 11.8 Wire 17.8 Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.) and DCA 18.3 Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) 25.0 Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) 25.8 Progesterone (20 mg.) 32.2 Progesterone (20 mg.) Wire Litter Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) "No Brood" (25 mg.)
* .05% level of significance.
1
32.0 26.5 20.7 28.5 17.3 35.0 30.0 35.0 29.0 35.0 29.0
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other laying pens where hens were allowed free access to the nests and the normal trapping procedure was followed.
Range Test (Table 3) for the treatment differences within the first period of 1957 showed that both progesterone in propylene glycol at the 20 mg. level and the wire treatment returned the hens to egg production in a significantly shorter time than did the diethylstilbestrol at the 25 mg. level in either the propylene glycol or the paste carrier. When applied to the data of the first period of 1958, Duncan's New Multiple Range Test indicated that not only were the combination of diethylstilbestrol, progesterone and DC A, the wire, and the light treatments all significantly more effective than progesterone at the 20 mg. level in returning the hens to egg production, but also that the light treatment was significantly more effective than diethylstilbestrol and the diethylstilbestrol-progesterone combination as well. Although the analysis of variance for 1959 data did not indicate a significant treatment effect, Duncan's New Multiple Range Test (Table 4) indicated that gonadotropin injections at both levels and 24 hours of light returned treated hens to egg production significantly earlier that year than did the progesterone at the 20
159
TERMINATION OF BROODINESS
TABLE S.—Number of days to first egg after treatment and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for combined data of treatments tested- in both 1958 and 1959 Treatment Light Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.)
Days to first egg 17.5 22.4
Duncan's test*
27.5 29.6
* .05% level of significance.
to third days. Although not shown in Figure 1, the sitting pattern for broodys continues rising from the time of last egg until the day of treatment. I n this period of three days, the number of times on the nest was 4.4 for each hen over the 3 year period. In order to determine the effectiveness Sitting Patterns. Figure 1 shows the sitting of each treatment in breaking up the sitpattern, by years, of all broody hens for ting behavior, the period of 10 to 13 days the 21-day period prior to the start of prior to last egg was selected as the normal broodiness. The sitting pattern, as meas- sitting pattern for each hen. When a hen ured by the number of times spent on the had returned to her normal pattern after nest, remained relatively constant until treatment, broodiness was considered to approximately the ninth day before the have been terminated. These data are last egg, at which point the curve rises shown in Table 6 and it can be seen that sharply until the date of the last egg. The both the wire and the light treatments highest number of times that a bird could were effective in returning hens to their be recorded as being on the nest was six, normal sitting pattern by 3 days after as this was the number of times the birds treatment in repeated trials. Several other were trapped during the day. During the treatments were also as effective, indi10th to 12th day, the birds averaged 2.1 cating that it is apparently not too diftimes on the nest for all three years and ficult to check the high sitting pattern of this increases to 3.5 times during the first the broody hen. TABLE 4.—Number of days to first egg after treatment and Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for treatments tested in 1959 Treatment Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Light Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Control Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.). Progesterone (5 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.)
Days to first egg 12.3 12.7 13.0 16.3 18.2 18.2 19.2 23.7 27.8 27.8
Duncan's test
DISCUSSION
In a general and practical sense, broodiness consists of at least 2 phases. There is not only a cessation of egg production for a period of time, but there is also a change in the hen's sitting pattern in that she spends more time on the nest. Therefore, for a treatment to be effective, it should not only return a hen to her normal sitting rate, but also should bring her back into production as soon as possible.
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mg. level or the combination of diethylstilbestrol, progesterone and DC A. In 1959, four of the treatments that had been tested in 1958 were again repeated and these data were combined (Table 5) and again analyzed by the analysis of variance technique. This analysis showed a highly significant year effect and also a highly significant difference between treatments. Duncan's New Multiple Range Test was applied to these data (Table 5) and showed that the light treatment returned the hens to production at a more highly significant rate than did progesterone at the 20 mg. level or the diethylstilbestrol and progesterone combination.
160
R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHEEMS, J R .
The effectiveness of the raised wire floor in comparison to the litter pen in terminating broodiness may be due to several factors. It has been demonstrated by Schjelderup-Ebbe (1924) and Marshall (1942) that such factors as warm
temperature, semi-darkness, and the act of sitting on eggs induce broodiness in turkeys. The better air circulation at the breast region may help maintain the environmental temperature. Also, in this pen there is not the chance for a hen to nest as there is in the litter floor pen. These two facts may help in terminating broodiness. The hormonal relationships in egg production and broodiness has been aptly demonstrated, but the effect of gonadal and pituitary hormones on this physiological state is not definitely known. From the results of 3 years' testing with diethylstilbestrol, it appears that this hormone is quite effective in breaking up the sitting behavior of broody hens when given at 25 mg. However, this hormone has little effect in returning birds to production. These results tend to substantiate the work of Brietenbach and Meyer (1959) that estrogen may inhibit the production or release of prolactin. It
AT. number 3.0 of times on nest/day - g
Number of days prior to l a s t egg FIG. 1. Average number of times on the nest per day for all broody hens for 21 days before going broody for each year of the experiment.
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At the present time, the most commonly practiced commercial method of terminating broodiness in turkeys is to confine them for varying lengths of time in a separate pen with no nests. Another traditional practical treatment is the broody coop which has been simulated by the wire pen treatment in this study. The litter pen used in this study yielded only fair results both in returning the hens to egg production and to their normal sitting patterns. It should be noted that since the effectiveness of all treatments was measured from the date of completion of treatment, the hens on the wire and litter pen treatments actually were out of production for the additional time of the 7 day treatment period.
161
TERMINATION OF BROODINESS T A B L E 6.—The number of days, by two day periods, after the completion of a treatment required to return hens to their normal sitting behavior for each year Year 1957
1958
1959
Days after completion of treatment
Treatment
11 13 15 17 19 21 Over
"No Brood" (25 mg.) Progesterone (20 mg.) Litter Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Wire Progesterone (20 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (8 mg.), Progesterone (7 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) Wire Light
also indicates that simply suppressing prolactin does not mean that birds will begin to lay again. Work by van Tienhoven (1958) indicated that 10 mg. of progesterone was as effective as the broody coop in returning broody hens to production. In our work, 10 mg. of progesterone was not compared to the broody coop but birds receiving this level did not return to production any sooner than untreated controls. The 20 mg. level of progesterone was not effective when used in corn oil but appeared to be when used in propylene glycol, indicating that the rate of absorption may be important with this hormone. Possible conflicting results obtained when corn oil was used as the carrier may be due to the prolactin-like activity of this hormone in suppressing ovarian activity as has been demonstrated by Riddle, Bates and Lahr (1935) and Lehrman and Brody (1957). When the 12 mg. level of diethylstilbestrol and the 10 mg. level of progesterone were given in combination, the effect on production was similar to when each hormone was given separately at the same levels. This treatment was as effective as the 10 mg. level of progesterone alone on
the sitting pattern indicating that the 12 mg. level of diethylstilbestrol does not interfere with the action of progesterone at the 10 mg. level. When the levels of both of these hormones were further lowered and given in combination with DCA, there again was no effective response on production. The sitting pattern response was similar to the 10 mg. and 12 mg. levels of the two hormones and 10 mg. of progesterone alone. This indicates (1) that either DCA has a direct role on the sitting pattern, (2) that DCA has progesterone-like action or is converted to progesterone, as demonstrated by LazoWasem and Zarrow (1955) in the rat and the rabbit, or (3) simply that 5 mg. of progesterone is as effective as 10 mg. on this phase of broodiness. The fact that, generally, high levels of diethylstilbestrol and low levels of progesterone break up the sitting pattern but do not bring birds back to production as quickly as birds given conventional broodiness treatments suggests that some other mechanism is involved in this phase of broodiness. It has been demonstrated by Riley and Fraps (1942) and Nakajo and Imai (1958) that the pituitaries of
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Control Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) Gonadotropin (2 gm. equivalent) Progesterone (20 mg.) Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (25 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and Progesterone (10 mg.) Diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), Progesterone (5 mg.) and D"CA (5 mg.) Gonadotropin (1 gm. equivalent) Light
162
R. W. HALLER AND F. L. CHERMS, JR.
SUMMARY
Various hormone and management treatments have been tested over a three year period to determine their effectiveness in terminating broodiness in Broad Breasted Bronze turkey hens. Results were measured in terms of length of time after treatment required to return the hens to egg production and to their sitting rates. Duncan's New Multiple Range Test of the average number of days to first egg indicated that the most effective treatments were 1) in 1957, progesterone (20 mg.) and seven consecutive days in the wire floor pen, 2) in 1958, 24 hours exposure to intense light, and 3) in 1959, this same light treatment as well as injections of 1 gm. and 2 gm. of gonadotropin.
The treatments which returned broody hens to their normal sitting patterns in the shortest time were the wire floor pen in 1957 and 1958, the light in 1958 and 1959 as well as gonadotropin (1 gm.), the combination of diethylstilbestrol (12 mg.) and progesterone (10 mg.) and the mixture of diethylstilbestrol (6 mg.), progesterone (5 mg.) and DCA (5 mg.) in 1959. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors express their thanks to Dr. W. H. McShan, Department of Zoology, University of Wisconsin, for the supply of sheep pituitary powder. REFERENCES Bates, R. W., E. L. Lahr and 0 . Riddle, 1935. The gross action of prolactin and follicle stimulating hormone on the mature ovary and sex accessories of the fowl. Am. J. Physiol. I l l : 361-368. Blakely, R. M., R. W. Anderson and H. I. MacGregor, 1951. The estrogen interruption of broodiness in turkeys. Poultry Sci. 30: 907. Breitenbach, R. P., and R. K. Meyer, 1959. Pituitary prolactin levels in laying, incubating and brooding pheasants (Phasianus colchicus). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 101: 16-19. Carson, J. R., R. D. Eaton and B. F. Bacon, 1956. Termination of broodiness in the chicken. Storrs (Connecticut) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 323: 1-10. Collias, N. E., 1950. Hormones and behavior with special reference to birds and the mechanisms of hormone action. A Symposium on Steroid Hormones. Univ. of Wis. Press 277-329. Fraps, R. M., and A. Dury, 1943. Occurrence of premature ovulation in the domestic fowl following administration of progesterone. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 52:346-349. Godfrey, E. F., and R. G. Jaap, 1950. Estrogenic interruption of broodiness in the domestic fowl. Poultry Sci. 29: 356-361. Hertwig, P., and E. Schwarz, 1934. Brutigkeit und Ovarhormon. Archiv Fur Geflugelkunde, 8: 7 3 75. Lazo-Wasem, E. A., and M. X. Zarrow, 1955. The conversion of desoxycorticosterone acetate to a progesterone-like substance. Endocrinology, 56: 511-515. Lehrman, D. S., and P. Brody, 1957. Oviduct response to estrogen and progesterone in the Ring dove (Streptopelia risoria). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 95:373-375.
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broody hens are low in gonadotropin possibly due to the inhibitory action of prolactin. Therefore, pituitary stimulation by light might be expected to overcome this action of prolactin as well as exogenous injections of gonadotropin as seems to be demonstrated by this work. Both treatments were quite effective not only in interrupting the sitting pattern but also in bringing birds back into production. It seems quite unlikely that further study on this problem will lower the shortest time for return to production as obtained in this work using the method described for determining when a bird is broody. Unpublished data by one of us (F.L.C.) indicates that when a turkey hen is laying at a rate of about 50% it takes 12-13 days of growth for an ovum to mature. In waiting for 3 days of non-laying before determining broodiness, the ova of the broody bird has probably become atretic. Therefore, treatments that are effective on production will presumably only show their effectiveness after this 12-13 days of ova growth.
TERMINATION OF BEOODINESS
Marshall, F. H. A., 1942. Exteroceptive factors in sexual periodicity. Biol. Rev. 17: 68-90. Nakajo, S., 1952. Effect of electrical stimulation of the head on broodiness of chickens. Poultry Sci. 31:337-342. Nakajo, S., and K. Imai, 1958. Gonadotropin content of the cephalic and the caudal lobe of the anterior pituitary in laying, non-laying and broody hen. Proc. 11th World's Poultry Cong, and Expos., Mexico City, D.F. Nalbandov, A. V., 1953. Endocrine control of physiological functions. Poultry Sci. 32: 88-103.
Riddle, O., E. L. Lahr and R. W. Bates, 1935. Prolactin induces broodiness in fowl. Am. J. Physiol., 111:352-360. Riley, G. M., and R. M. Fraps, 1942. Relationship of gonad-stimulating activity of female domestic
fowl anterior pituitaries to reproductive condition. Endocrinology, 30: 537-541. Rothchild, I., and R. M. Fraps, 1949. The induction of ovulating hormone release from the pituitary of the domestic hen by means of progesterone. Endocrinology, 44: 141-149. Schjelderup-Ebbe, Th., 1924. Fortgesetze Biologische Beobachtungen des Gallus domesticus. Psychol. Forsch. 5: 343-355. van Tienhoven, A., 1958. Effect of progesterone on broodiness and egg production of turkeys. Poultry Sci. 37: 428-133. van Tienhoven, A., A. V. Nalbandov and H. W. Norton, 1954. Effect of debenamine on progesterone-induced and "spontaneous" ovulation in the hen. Endocrinology, 54: 605-611. Wodzicki, K., 1934. Hormonal interruption of broodiness in hens. Nature, 134: 383. Zootechnical Experiment Station of Japan, 1937. Studies on broodiness in dual purpose breed of chicks. Annual Report of Zoo-technical Expt. Station Japan 3: 24.
Crossbreeding Turkeys. 1. Effect of Mating System on Reproductive Performance 1 M . G. M C C A R T N E Y AND V. D . C H A M B E R L I N
Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Poultry Science, Wooster, Ohio (Received for publication April 8, 1960)
C
R O S S B R E E D I N G for the improve-
T h e future of t u r k e y breeding programs
m e n t of economic characters, such as
involving crossing to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of
growth and vigor, has been recognized as
hybrid
vigor
or
a breeding practice of considerable merit
largely
upon
the
in broilers for m a n y years. Since turkeys,
strains a n d varieties t h a t will combine well
like broilers, are grown primarily for m e a t
for
production, it seems t h a t similar a d v a n -
formance
tages
growth a n d vigor of their progeny.
might
be
obtained
by
crossing
strains or varieties of t u r k e y s . Until quite
improvement of
the
heterosis
will
availability in
depend of
reproductive
breeders
and
pure perbetter
Therefore, a s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n to
recently, however, crossing was the excep-
determine the reproductive
tion r a t h e r t h a n t h e rule in the commer-
of t u r k e y breeders used in purebred m a t -
performance
cial production of turkeys. Consequently,
ings and several different systems of m a t -
a t t h e present time very little is known
ings involving crossing a n d to compare
a b o u t the real value of crossing for the
t h e growth, conformation a n d vigor of the
economic i m p r o v e m e n t of t u r k e y s .
progeny produced b y these matings. T h e
1
Approved for publication 4/1/60, as Journal Article No. 27-60, by the Associate Director of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station.
results r e p o r t e d herein summarizes four y e a r s ' d a t a on the reproductive performance of t h e strains a n d varieties of t u r -
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Reece, R. P., and J. A. Bivans, 1942. Progesterone effect on pituitary lactogenic content and on mammary glands of ovarectomized rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 49: 582-584.
163