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A critical look at space technology and the developing world
jldv. Space Res. Vol.3,No.7.pp.1322,1983 Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved,
0273—1177/83 $0.00 + .50 Copyright © COSPAR
A CRITICAL LOOK AT SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPING WORLD B. J. Bluth Department of Sociology, California State University at Northridge, U.S.A.
AIST1ACT Technology is neutral, its use is not. Its introduction and use take place in social, cultural, political and economic contexts which can be at considerable variance with those of the introducing countries, and which are not homogeneous within countries having wide variations in knowidege, background skills,and interpretations of meaning and opportunity. This paper tries to take a dispassionate look at the social and cultural factors that are involved in the introduction, use, and maintenance of space technology in the developing world. IJT&ODUCTIOI In 1922, Lewis Mumford commented that “It would be so easy, this business of making over the world 1 if it were only a matter of creating machinery.”(l] There is no doubt that space technology can be useful to the peoples of the developing world. Co~unicationssatellites and Landsat imagary have already resulted in important benefits. The possibilities for Lunetta—type light or even Solar Power Satellites have much promise,[2] and there is little doubt that the resources and new materials that can be developed in space will bring significant changes to the peoples of the Earth. (3] Space offers hope throughout the world to everyone, including those of the developing world.
Progress is not inevitable, however. History records that the Chinese had great treasure ships that visited as far away as Africa in the 15th century.[4] However, when the Europeans came into the Pacific, there were no Chinese there to greet then. The Chinese had destroyed the treasure ships in the name of Confucian philosphy and the preservation of ancient traditions.[4] It is net clear now what path Iran will take since it has come under the religious revival of ~homeni, but the message communicated there represents a reaffirmation of the ancient ways and a rejection of “modernism”. What happened in Iran shows that there is another side to the story of modernization. The sword cuts two ways, and what is seen as good for some in one time may be seen as bad by others, or bad at another time. Language deludes us into thinking that we “talk” realistically about the developing world because we do it. What we say is limited by the nature and scope of our language. The reality that our concept, “the developing world,” refers to is enormously complex, constantly changing, and inextricably enmeshed in the affairs of the entire world economic, educational, political, cultural, and communications systems, and the rapid pace of change occurring within and between all of those systems. The countries of the developing world are not a homogeneous entity, anymore than the member nations are individually homogeneous. There are vast divergencies with thriving cities, high technology, and industry, along with the utter poverty of people trying to eke out a living in the midst of barren lands. Yet there is a great need to grasp, to cope, to control this galloping horse rushing into the future. Out of the desire to grasp and control, many fall subject to the temptation to believe in their words. A fish swims confidently in the water, using its speed, agility, and freedom. But the fish forgets the water. It is the water that supports him and it is from the water he gets the oxygen to breathe. Without the water, the fish is dead. With humanity, the water is language. We use jt to communicate, to move through ideas and plans, but we often forget that language is only a human creation and that the words are not the events or phenomena they refer to. Words are puppets on the stage of human interaction; puppets who are paupers in the midst of the richness of the ongoing life of the planet. 13
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Those involved in introducing space technology into the developing world are as forgetful as the fish. There are many statements which say things like, “The potentials of outer space for the improvement of the human condition everywhere are unlimited. Developing countries cannot afford to neglect space technology and space science... .aud such ventures should become international in scope and character so that their benefits can reach all of humanity at the earliest possible time.”(S] I believe that. But I also know that it will not be that simple, and for all the benefits, there will be pain. The choice is probably best thought of by asking if the outcome will be worth the pain. If people working with the developing world read such sentences and only think of the benefits, the pain nay become detrimental because it was not anticipated. Words are taken for granted, and the meaning brings a multitude of hoped for as well as despised consequences. In this paper, I would like to examine the problems that can come from the ideas we use to approach the problems of the introduction of space technology into the Third World on the part of the engineers, the politicians, the social scientists, and the people themselves. The basic premise of this paper is that we cannot understand, predict or control what is happening or will happen in the developing world in any complete way. However, our ideas and the actions that stem from them do have consequences that affect the course of change. We can anticipate the directions of those actions and speculate about their outcomes if we pay strict attention to past experiences. But as we act and speculate, one of the fundamental elements in preventing undesirable surprises is a practical and frank recognition of the character and effect of the medium of language we are using as the context of our action. Let us at least do a bit better than the fish. EDUCATIOI Communications satellites are a fact of life in the developing world, and they have proven very successful[2]. They provide a vehicle for education, entertainment, and information about the weather, market situations, local, national and news events, etc. Over 28 nations of the developing world use satellites in one way or another.(6] Communications satellites are a means of moving ideas and information among the people of the developing world. India has shown that satellites can be uniquely used to educate people in remote villages far from standard communication systems, and they have been so successful with the SITE experiment using tha ATS—6 and STEP that used the German—French satellite, Symphonic, that they have launched their own satellites, INSAT—l and APPLE which will be used for telet.aching among other things.(7,8,9,10] There is a wide range of potential benefits that can come from the use of satellites for education. However, there are issues to be raised about the comtent of the information that pours through those satellites, and how it will affect those exposed to it. The questions do not negate the success, or the need to use
the satellites. One potential use for satellites is education. Illiteracy in the developing world is put at about 63.7% and 83.2% for the poorest countries.(ll] With the rise of modern technology it is assumed that this rate must rise if the nations of the developing world are to take advantage of what space technology as well as other kinds of technology can offer. Since there is a vast shortage of teachers, supplies, equipment, and even roads to get to students, communication satellites seem to be a natural solution. By way of television and radio people can learn reading, writing and other skills that will enhance their efforts in small industry, agriculture, minor engineering projects, and health. There are a number of questions to be asked about this assumption. Do people learn to read, write, and develop simple technical skills over television? Recent studies in the United States raise grave questions about the prospects. In a nation which is considered to have one of the highest literacy rates in the world, almost 20% of the adults are now considered to be functionally illiterate. They cannot interpret a bus schedule, understand a printed explanation of finance charges or address a letter so it would reach its destination,(12] Many things are blamed for this situation, but it is thought that “high rates of television viewing from an early age can make students passive in school and can produce a ‘video literacy’ that does not respond well to printed text.”(121 Good teaching is thought to be the remedy. However, since there is little or no teaching in some of the remote areas where satellites would be used for education, we may wonder how much television coming from satellite would enhance the desire and need to learn to read and write in lieu of teachers and school books. If India were to provide 80% of its rural villages with Village Level Workers, it would need to train over 70,000 new Workers,(131 in addition to the some 70,000 it already has.[14] Another problem here is the vast array of languages and dialects throughout the developing world. In some cases, such as in India, a given language may have up to three different types of written expression, and in Uganda there are over 25 distinct languages.(15] There is also the possibility that some of these languages, because of the cultural foundation upon which they are based, would make a presentation of technical 8kjlls very difficult, especially in a purely auditory mode.[15] Of course it is easy to respond that literacy is
Space Technology and the Developing World
15
not needed anyway, since there is television, advanced computer graphics, etc. This is an empty hops and a short—lived solution. The more society develops, the more its members need to read, write, and possess basic technical skills. There are signs, schedules, instructions, bank accounts, reports, letters, contracts, broken equipment, things that need to be assembled —— a wealth of things to be dealt with, in order to carry out daily activities, and avoid being misled and cheated. In introducing literacy or any other kind of education by means of satellite, it seems to be assumed that people will be willing and able to absorb the ideas that are conveyed. Here we need to take into consideration the extent of poor health and malnutrition that prevails in so many ares of the developing world. Inadequate diet or disease slows people down. They do not have an abundance of energy avaliable for activity or mental effort. Studies show that improper foods have a significant effect on mental faculties resulting in confusion, fatigue, poor attention span, poor memory, depression, and a general lack of vigor.E16] Inadequate diet and poor health are widespread in the developing world, and its effect needs to be taken into account in plans for remote educational progr~ing. There are other reasons why people may resist innovations and mew ideas that can come with space communications. Peasant villages are often quite conservative, perhaps because their society is “based on a land—focused security and a desperate need to maintain mutual support within a tightly—knit and largely closed community.”(14] Any attempt to influence village life from the outside “must rest on an understanding of its values — who has power, who has influence, what is the ranking system, who commands respect.”[14] If some people in the village are thought to be attempting to secure an advantage over others, there may be bitter resentment if not outright opposition or sabotage.(14] In Colombia, many street children do not even want education. In Bogata, it is estimated that there are some 3,000 urchins, some as young as five, who make their living as pickpockets. They are regularly picked up and taken to centers where they are fed, bathed, clothed, and offered a chance to learn a trade. Police say that most take the meals and free clothes and go back to the streets again. Some 60% of Colombia’s 27 million people are under 18, and Juan Munor, director of Colombia’s Family Welfare Institute says that there are are signs that many you these young people are attracted to the guerrilla groups. In spite of gains of 22% literacy and an allocation of 20% of Colombia’s budget for education, Munoz, who was the former minister of education, says that “There is no one solution, like improving education. “(17) Even with interpersonal education, information can be misunderstood, as happened in one case related to the use of oral contraceptives in Bangladesh. A pregnant women explained to an offical that she had followed the instructions religiously with the supply of pills given to her. The official reported that “she took half the pills and her husband took half.(18] Without feedback, or without trained workers on the site, satellite communication may not be accepted, or it may generate many unexpected consequences. Cuurami: VALUES Education is not neutral. What kinds of ideas will be taught? What will the content Of the message be? In both Eastern and Western Europe, for example, from one—third to one-half of the university students study science or engineering, compared to only 23% of those in Asia and 16% in Latin America.(19] In India 58% of the students were recently enrolled in the humanities, fine arts, and law.(19] Here, what is valued in the educational system results in graduates without the skills that have a high priority in terms of the needs of a rapidly growing technical sector. Because of their elite status, (a reflection of the traditional value system of agrarian elites and would—be elites) they are unable or unwilling to accept what they consider “lesser” employment such as going into remote areas to teach, and thus they swell the bureaucracy, leaving the technically skilled jobs to foreigners or they remain unemployed leading to political instability which further hampers economic progress. This problem of the content of education, or the realm of values, is of considerable significance. Many voices, both in the space industry and from the developing world, stress the need to preserve the old cultures, if not completely disengage from foreign influence. Here it assumed that the developing world can proceed into a technically framed future with many traditions and ancient ideas intact. But some of these ideal run in such contradiction with the underpinnings of a technical climate that it is hard to see bow this can be possible. Fate or Control For example, the technical world is based on the assumption that man, through use of reason, intelligence, and skill, can control nature and thus his destiny. If people are sick, we devise ways to make then well. If there is a dearth of seeds, we make new strains of seeds to compensate, or we develop chemical fertilizers, or we wonder how we can alter the
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B.J. Bluth
weather. In many areas of the developing world, however, there is an attitude of passivity toward life, a fatalism, or a reverence that shuns disturbing the forces of the universe. In the Spanish speaking countries we see it in the phrase “Que sera, sera.” For the Muslim “Allah wills it,” and in the Asian countries, many think that it is wrong for mere mortals to interfere with the flow of the life force of the universe. “In Confucian societies, you’re supposed to fit into nature. In the Buddhist societies you’re supposed to be subservient to nature.” Thus it is very hard to master industrial technology if you are not justified in doing so.”(ZO] In the Middl* East, one writer has said, “Education, as far as it is under the control of the ulema (the spiritual leaders of the Muslim community), is still bound up with authoritarianism, rote learning, and a rigid devotion to ancient authorities——providing only already known solutions to already formulated problems.”[21] In effect, many of these people believe that the quest for truth is essentially complete: what people need to do is know what has already been revealed—in the Vedas, in the Koran, or to the Sangha, or the Catholic Church. True wisdom, in their opinion, lies in turning to religious authorities for guidance and following their directions. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, many western intellectuals thought the
older religions would die out as modernization spread. With the growing development of nationalism and resistance to colonialism of every kind, many of the traditional faiths have experienced a remarkable reinvigoration, with the most recent evidence in the Rhoineni led Islamic revolution in Iran. There has also been a movement to reaffirm the importance of the cultural traditions of the peoples of the developing world. “A common attitude is the wish to import technology without importing the attitudes and types of consciousness which accompany it.”(221 Such a position suggests many problems with developing a technically based society. As Alex Inkles has pointed out: We have come, in time, to realize that nation building and institution building are only empty exercises unless the attitudes and capacities of the people keep pace with other forms of development... .Mounting evidence suggests that it is impossible for a state to move into the twentieth century if its people continue to live, in effect, in an earlier era.(23] Thus, recommendations to end the “new waves of cultural messages extolling Western values” and “replace the putdown of indigenous values” in a process of “Third World Disengagement”(241 may not be compatible with a desire to have a culturally indigenous technical and industrial society. Without attitudes and orientations toward the objects in the world that include a desire to control and manipulate, it may not be possible to maintain the work force that is needed to sustain a technically based civilization.
Another attitude of importance is that toward time. The West looks to the future. There is a fetish with taking risks, progress being “our most important product,” and th. need to “put away for a rainy day.” In getting to days and months into blocks of time that are planned for well in advance. In getting to the future, there is an emphasis on schedules —— careful segmentation of the days and months into blocks of time that are planned far in advance. In much of the developing world, however, there is a focus on the past, or on the present. “Being on time” does not mean what it does to a Western businessman (a fact that has led to a lot of cross—cultural misunderstanding). Be that as it may be. it is necessary to think in terms of the future, to carefully segment blocks of time, in order to take care of the new technology that has moved into the family? Maintenance schedules alone require such a perspective. You don’t just “buy” a machine. It must be taken care of—according to a schedule. The whole process of building up a pool of capital for local investment is intermingled with attitudes toward time. Savings are an important source of the domestic accumulation of capital. In the developed countries, about 24.3% of th. gross domestic product is saved, whereas only 14.72 is saved in the developing countries and some 10.3% in the poorest countries.(1lJ
It is true that for many in the developing countries all their meager income
must be used for basic consumption needs such a food and clothing. However, other countries, such as Pakistan, and some parts of India, derive fairly large incomes from its people who work in the oil fields of Arabia,
However, instead of investing the money in instruments
which could be used to fund local development programs, these monies are more frequently spent in nonproductive ways: they are used to purchase land or gold and jewlery for the purpose of enhancing individual wealth; or they are used for some religious or ceremonial purpose (e.g. financing a pilgrimage to Mecca or a lavish funeral),(l1] or to assemble a large dowry to attract a good mate for the daughters and sisters of the family. Some Pakistanis who make exceptional salaries in Saudi Arabia have been reported to spend their money on washing machines that can’t even be used because there is no electricity in the vzllage.[25J
This point of view has wide ranging effects on the credit market in the
Space Technology and the Developing World
17
developing world. With a low savings performance, there is a low rate of investment, and consequently a low rate of economic growth. With no reservoir of savings, there is little money available for development, and hence, loans must come from foreign sources which is not always advantageous since the tremendous amount of interest eats up any profits or the money is not there when and where it is needed.
Attitudes toward stressing the present or the past are intertwined with attitudes about work. In the developed countries, there is often an assumption that people need to work —— they will stave off ismiediate gratification for rewards that come later. Men do hard manual labor, skilled work, and technical jobs. This is not always the case in the developing world. In some sections of Africa, men will not do manual labor, as “man is not meant to burrow in the dirt like an animal.”(ll] The Inter—African Institute characterized the work
traditions of horticultural Africa this way: 1. Work is viewed in its relation to the basic institution of the family or clan; within the family, it is divided on the basis of age and sex. 2. Work is linked with religious rites. 3. Work activities are considered and evaluated in the light of a subsistence economy rather than a profit economy. 4. Work requires neither foresight nor planning. 5. Time is largely irrelevant in work activities; no time limits are set for
most tasks. 6. There is little specialization. 7. For men, work is episodic; when a task has to be done, men often do it without a break, but intervals of inactivity are long and frequent.
8. Men hardly ever work alone; work activities leisure activity in modern industrial society.[26]
These traditions do little to prepare the members
often resemble a collective
0f these societies, especially the men,
for work in a modern industrial society. On. of the biggest problems stems from item number 7. Women do the sustained, tedious chores. Men occasionally clear the fields, however, while the women work, they are free to do more interesting things such as hunting, fighting, politicking, socializing, and participating in ceremonial activities. The disciplined, routinized types of work so common to an industrial society are rarely encountered by these men.
Such views are not always compatible with running factories or the bureaucracies of complex technical societies. Thus, in the United Arab ~irates, 85% of the shiekdom’s inhabitants are foreign workers, mostly Indians, Pakistanis and poor Arabs from other countries like Yemen.[27) In Yanbu, Saudi Arabia, a fresh new city that has risen from scratch out of the sand and marsh, the 150 contractors are American or Amerian—Saudi, and most of the work force is Asian, chiefly Korean, Some foreign experts have wondered if the Saudis “will ever recruit enough of their own people, who tend to shy away from blue-collar work.”(28] This situation will work as long as the foreign labor does the job and there is sufficient money to pay them the extremely high salaries they get now, When and if that changes, the local population will be unable to keep up the amenities they enjoy now.
These attitudes toward work, time, and man’s relationship to and control of nature are not inconsequential, and it may be that “mass media will probably have relatively little influence in changing those traditional attitudes and values that are very strongly held, especially if the traditional values are continually reinforced in day—to—day interactions with one’s friends and relatives.”(ll] They are part of the fabric of many of the “old cultures” and to change them would bring about changes throughout the whole belief system which people are often quick to sense. Culture systems are vastly intricate webs of ideas, many of which are interconnected with each other. The old ways have worked for people for many years because of the context in which they existed — a context of a life of fragile survival. The culture provided ways of thinking that made it possible to cope with factors beyond control and hence life can be endurable in the midst of hardship and great suffering. What people have learned, often from tragic experience, is that the ancient ways work, and not infrequently, they are very reluctant to renounce them for some shiny new idea that comes over an impersonal communications medium. New ideas do not usually remain isolated in the midst of the old culture. They can impact it in subtle and often unexpected ways so that changes in less strongly held beliefs result in the emergence of new norms, aspirations and tastes, and fold back into the fabric of the culture in unanticipated ways. When they do try new things, and when they do learn new skills, they are not always content to stay in their old villages doing what they have always done. In the search for a better life, unfortunatly, there is often a rush to the cities in search of better jobs, better homes, more food, etc., and when they get there, the conditions they find are deplorable.
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B.J. Bluth
According to a recent United Nations survey, these migrants into the city largely comprise the squatter settlements and shantytowns that contain from one—fourth to two—thirds of the populations of most Third World izetropolises, and they are growing at an annual rate of 12% a year which means they will double in size in less then seven yesrs.[29] CO.iami: SXILLS
it is not enough to convey values that make life in a techncially advancing society possible. It is also necessary to develop technical skills to obviate the oppression of living in a society of machines and equipment which are not understood and cannot be fixed, Acquiring technical skills is not a simple matter of learning procedures. There is a whole way of proceeding and thinking that is absorbed gradually over a period of “tinkering” with machines. The first part of this orientation is an attitude about machines which shows more interest in how they work and why, rather than what they are or do. This dimension of technical skill shows an abiding interest in the technology, the ideas that formed the systems, and how all the parts work together. it may be it is impossibl. to really be able to understand machines unless you know how they work already. And to know how they work involves seeing the parts as ideal or concepts all liked together in a system that has been imagined by some other person somewhere. The true system is the systematic thought behind the machine, not so much the machim. itself. The truth of this comes through in the job of repair. It is probably easier to build a machine in a factory than to repair it. There is nothing straight forward about fixing things. Ther. is no clear direction about what has gone wrong, or what needs to be replaced. There is always the accidently ruined part, the piece that is Lost, doesn’t fit, or which needs to be remade. Dissasembly is an art in itself. Things come of f in dimensions of up, down, right, or left, and they return in the opposit, sequence. The right tools are imperative, along with th. knowidege of how to use them, a sense for the nature of th. machine and how it works, and an infinite amount of patience. [30] Technical societies have legions of people, professional and amateur, who fix things. They start early in life by taking apart the engine of an old car and rebuilding it. They disassemble the old lawn mower and make a go—cart out of it. They have chemistry sets, build rockets, and play with a whole range of toys that relate to the skills of building, taking apart, and repairing machines. What causes technological hopelessness is the absence of this perception of the Quality in technology which results in a feeling of oppression.(30] Countries in the developing world arenotoriously lacking in these kinds of people. One buainess man returning from the Middle East commented that if someone wanted to mak. a fortune, all they would need to do would be to set up a fix and repair shop in any large city there. Without this very important infrastructure, the technological revolution comes to a halt as soon as there is a breakdown and not enough money to go out and buy a new replacement. There are many horror tales from the developing world about whole factories closing down because someone didn’t know what to do when the equipment stopped.(221 Such an infrastructure cannot be developed overnight, and it may not be possible to really create it by means of remote education over satellite. It may not even be possible to do much trouble shooting through remote communications. The relevent point here is that the kind of education needed to establish a infrastructure of technically skilled people may not be suited to r~te education systems though it would certainly seem to be a good idea. A realistic appraisal of what types of education can be conveyed over television and radio would be needed to avert unobtainable results and unachievable expectations.
The questions confronting those concerned with education via satellite are not simple matters of either preserving an old culture or recanting it for a shiny new foreign culture. It is an enigmatic process. Some of the effects can be anticipated; some cannot. Some ideas are suitable for the medium, and others are not. Some concepts may be consumed, and others rejected. Some skills cannot be taught without some village worker or teacher as a backup, and some can. Furthermore, the communication is not neutral. Crucial questions about all information processing rest on the content of the message as well as on the effect of the medium. Since education represents the introduction of new ideas, perhaps those involved in the uducating need to be fully prepared for rejection, changes, disruption, imperfection and pain mixed with joy. 1181MG EZPEC~&TIOU8
An important result of educational efforts and the capacity to receive and disseminate information, for the people, the teachers, the politicians, and the business community is the phenomena of rising expectations. Visual and auditory images suggest alternatives that had not been uinagined befor. or even believed possible. But hopes not met can be a bitter
Space Technology and the Developing World
19
pill. if people think that products or life styles are available, but they do not have the means,skill, or opportunity to obtain then, terrific frustration and anger can result that can easily be used by foreign or locally discontented political forces for their own aims; can result in spontaneous eruptions of violence; or can generate apathy and severe disengagement from the job at hand because it is seen to be so far from the ideal. There is evidence that such disproportinate expectations have already developed in areas of the developing world. 122] THE MASSES It Latin America, some 80% of the programming comes from the United States,[31] with reruns of “I Love Lucy,” “F.B.I.,” “Mission Iapossible,”Julia,” etc., complete with advertising
also made in America, or Europe. People don’t like everything they see. But what becomes an ideal or an aspiration, for changed in how they think about the world,
do not believe everything they see on TV, and they they do see affects them. For some, what they see others a hated symbol. All of them are somehow and consequently technology.
One of the unanticipated consequences then, is that “aspirations that are encouraged but unnet will lead to increased frustration, could cause modernization efforts to founder, and might even be an incentive for revolution.”(ll] One apparent solution to this problem would be to develop local programming suited to the culture and needs of the country. Here ideas could be developed slowly so they could be digested at a steady rate. What is unrealistic about this notion is the fact of production. Production of television programs involves large numbers of skilled personnel, expensive equipment, and money. It is easier to permit programming done in foreign countries to be imported into the country along with the advertising which helps pay the large costs. Furthermore, the tremendous diversity of languages and dialects throughout the developing world makes it impossible to develop standard programs that can be sent out to everyone. In India there are some three languages and three types of writing. Uganda has over 25 distinctive languages. As was noted in one recent survey of the world literacy problem: •..a permanent dilemma confronts those responsible for literacy campaigns: to teach the minority group how to write their rich spoken language, respecting their logical patterns and their oral Lexical patrimony, thereby giving them a written code that they will rarely be called upon to utilize — or to teach them a useful “lingua franca,” which is not spoken by the group, and the teaching of which will create many technical and didactic ccmplications.[33] Another course could be followed by placing a lot of emphasis on the use of of satellite transmitted radio which can reach remote areas not capable of being serviced by present transmission techniques. Here people can Learn of their culture and heritage; it can be used to inform people of national development policies and goals; it can be used to pass on information to acquaint people with new agricultural techniques and practices, new public health programs, the availability and location of various employment opportunites; and a weakening of taboos and embarassment attached to sexual behavior. However, even radio requires a force of technicians and multi—lingual broadcasters as well as program development specialists who are capable of working in the practical areas that are required for agricultural and simple engineering projects. In lieu of the latter force, the messages may tend to focus on politial education which may or nay not be of use in improving the lot of the poor. Whatever is the case, expectations that are inconsistent with opportunities, whether they are raised by television or radio, can have unanticipated consequences. TEE THEORISTS
All of this gigantic structure of industrialization is being imported into the developing world whole, without the complex infrastructures and values that support it in the industrialized world. Some of those in the developing world think things will come to resemble the industrialized world, while others want to have the fruits of industrialization while preserving the charm and character of the old. Both expectations are probably unrealistic, For instance, Bochner points out that an Indonesian technocrat will tend to view a development problem and its solution in terms of his academic training which probably took place abroad. “The evidence indicates that only too often overseas trained graduates become uncritical, imitative, and passive consumers of kuowldege that was generated in other cultural contexts and for other purposes. Apparently, the analogue of ‘Black is Beautiful’ has not penetrated the field of science and technology.”134] No doubt there is a balance to be hoped for of the Indonesian technocrat. But the outcome can hardly be expected to be a pure reflection of the Indonesian culture or of the industrialized country where he studied. He will be a mixture of both, and probably suffering because he is truly neither. Nehru illustrated this point so clearly in his autobiography: I have become a queer mixture of the East and the West, out of place everywhere, at hone nowhere. Perhaps my thought and approach to life are more akin to what is
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B.J. Bluth
called Western than Eastern, but India clings to me, as she does to all her children, in innumerable ways; and behind me lie, somewhere in the subconscious, racial memories of a hundred, or whatever the number nay be, generations of
Brahamans. I cannot get rid of either that past inheritance or my recent acquisitions. They are both part of me, and though they help me in both the East and the West, they also create in me a feeling of spiritual loneliness not only in public activities, but in life itself. I am a stranger and alien in the West. I cannot be of it. But in my own country, also, sometimes, I have an exile’s feeling.(35] Bochner, the theorist, views the technocrat from the perspective of the old culture. If the technocrat applies the concepts of the West, he is considered suffering from a “captive mind” and if he adheres to the traditions of his country, he will not be able to utilize his training which would be seen as resulting in a “homogenizing effect in those areas where their graduates are occupying positions of influence.”(34] “Homogenizing” here is an unfortunate metaphor which traps everyone.
The term “homogenize” deals with fluids and
brings to mind a world of chocolate milk, neither plain and wholesome, nor rich and sharp to the taste. The world is not a glass of milk, and ideas do not become “homogenized” or equally distributed throughout a country erasing all of the edges of the two elements being mixed. The United States is a lucid example of this fact. For many years social scientists liked to refer to it as the great “melting pot.” After many years of experience, the term had to
be dropped, for it has been found that America is still composed of many pockets of distinctive sub—cultures that vary in significant degrees from each other. As cultures assimilate, parts of both are carried on in the process. Some are changed, and some remain. Assimilation does not sentence a society to “homogenization.” Yet the use of this metaphor generates a whole set of expectations for the technocrat and the evaluator of development that do not bring about any constructive perspective. The idea misses the practical realities of Nehru’s experience. The problems associated with the word “homogenized” are rampant in the literature of
development. Words like “Dependencia,” “imperialism,” “colonialism,” “disengagement,” “liberation,” “multinational,” “modernization,” “industrialization,” “Western,” “Eastern,” etc., all tend to evoke a great deal of emotion interspersed with academic—sounding evaluation. Each term sets up a whole range of expectations that are either hated or touted as a matter of personal identity, national heritage, or freedom. The future is expected to conform to the concepts, and the work of development seems to get lost in the debate. The fish has forgotten the water. Change brings about new situations that should not be expected to conform completely to the concepts of the past or the present. That is what is to be expected. That is what is inevitable. New situations require new standards of evaluation. To expect otherwise results in an impossibility. DISRUPTICU
An idea that seems to be lost in the noise of all these discussions is the fact that change comes accompanied by great amounts of disruption and strain, another factor that does not seem to be consistently included in the discussion of development. The revolution of consciousness occurring in the developing world world can not be expected to come about without some desperation and severe displacement, but that does not mean the future is bleak. Hising expectations are an important influencing factor for the masses, the politicians, the engineers, as well as the academics and bureaucrats who are trying to grapple with the use of spac. technology in the developing world, It would seem that the degree to which these people focus their energies on the confined meanings of the words they are using as opposed to attempts to report and assimilate the experiences that have been encountered in the field — that will represent the degree of success or failure they will have in dealing with the misery, poverty, suffering, and aspirations of the people of the developing world. TIM IIFOZM&TICU VZ*POU Finally, communication systems can be used as weapons of information given or witheld, distorted or changed, for the ends of many different people. For instance, Bruce Currey who works for the Food Crisis Management Group, Center for Development Studies at the Flinders University of South Australia, makes the point that “Food information as much as food itself can become a propaganda weapon,” and as a result, starvation can become a “weapon of war.” Re points out that recent famines in the Sahel, Ethiopia and Kampuchea have “demonstrated clearly that the ability to respond is not dependent on the evidence of an acute situation, More important than the accuracy of the information is the politics of the information in terms of its ability to stmamlate the appropriate response by the appropriate
Space Technology and the Developing World
21
people. “136] Communication satellites may be impartial vehicles, but the messages that are sent over them can be passionate and biased. Rapid communication can tie revolutionaries together or bind
a government to its people through truth or falsehood.
The new “world information order”
advocated by the developing world at the UNESCO conference in Belgrade shows that this is a
highly sensitive issue. COMCLUSIOI The abiding difficulty that runs through this whole issue of introducing space technology by way of satellites into the developing world is the relativity of values and what is good or bad information. It depends on a wide range of factors that include politics, economics,
bureaucracies, traditions, religion, self—interest, health, timing, and many views of the meaning and character of the future. Ultimately, a sound ethic of development assistance is not enough. New visdo.s of development are also needed: unifying visions, respectful of cultural and ideological diversity, about the meaning of historical change processes. Indeed, no new rules for resource transfers, no crash program in technological modernization, and no new international economic orders can dispense with the arduous task of creating new developmental wisdoms....The establishment of workable ground rules cannot come from a mere intellectual experience; it must result from diverse practical experimental policy efforts. • .tested in the fires of institutional and programmatic prazis.[37]
All of the social, cultural, economic, political, and intellectual worlds that humans live in, then are humanly constructed canopies of meaning that are constantly maintained in a dialectic interchange of co—production with other people.
When the human part of that
process is forgotten, lost to consciousness, there is misunderstanding, confusion, and the actors of the world are only seen as acted upon, and the producer only seen as a product. The social world then ceases to be a complex, varied open arena in which people expand through meaningful activity and becomes a closed aggregate of absolute reifications divorced from the flux of human life. Assumptions are deeply lodged in the way language is used and understood, and the content of the message is transformed by the assumptions. When people from many cultures, with many different assumptions areengaged in the life of the developing world, if the character of those differences is lost, the enterprise will suffer, and much potential may be lost. Successful use of space technology in the developing world requires a better understanding of the medium and ideas and languages than the fish has of his water.
REFIRUCES 1.
2.
Lewis Mumford. The Story of Utonias, New York: Viking Press, 1922. B.J. Bluth. “Social Benefits of Space to Developing Countries”. IAA—235. Paper presented at the XXXII Congress of the International Astronautical Federation. Rome,
Italy, September 6—12, 1981. Charles Gould. Stace Industrialization; Executive St~arv. D—78—AP—0055—l. Rockwell International, Space Division, Los Angeles, 1978. 4. Joseph Needham. Science and Civilization in China. Vol 4. Physics and Physical 3.
5. 6.
7. 8. 9.
Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1971. David Criswel]., et alia. “The Role of Space Technology in the Developing Countries”. Snace Solar Power Review. Vol 1 (1980). pp. 97—107. Theo Pirard. “Space Programs of Developing Countries”. Snace Aze Review. Vol 4, No. (September—October, 1980). pp. 7—8. United Nations, Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses Outer Space. BP/6. Feasibility and Planning of Instructional Satellites. United Nations, Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses Outer Space. BP/9. Training and Education of Users of Space Technology. United Nations, Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses
Outer Space. NP/6.
National Paper: India.
10. U.k. Lao, and R.M. Vasagam. “APPLE — Indian Experimental Geostationary Communication Satellite.”Paper presented at the XXXII Congress of the International Astronautical Federation. Rome, Italy, September 6—12, 1981.
4. of
of of
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B.J. Bluth
11, Edward G. Stockwell and Karen A. Laidlaw.
Third World Deyeloument: Problems and
Prospects. Chicago: Nelson—Hall. 1981. 12. “Ahead: A Nation of Illiterates?” U.S. News and World Renort. Vol. 92. No. 19. (May 17,
1982) pp. 53—57. 13. Lawrence Minard.
“A Computer in Every Rut”. Forbes Magazine. (June 22, 1981) pp. 38 and
42. 14. Guy Bunter.
Modernizina Peasant Societies: A Comuarative Study in Asia and Africa. London: Oxford University Press. 1969. 15. “Languages”. Encyclonedia Brittanj.ca. 15th Ed. Vol 10. Chicago: William Benton, Publisher, 1978. pp. 664—672.
16. Jeffrey Bland. Biochemical Asoects of Mental Illness. Seattle: The Schizophrenia Assocation of Seattle. 1979. 17. Tom Wells. “Colombia’s Hungry Street Urchins Bode Ill for Future”. Los Annele. Times. Part I—A (December 28, 1980) pp.5—6. 18. Tyler Marshall. “Mass Sterilization Program Planned by Overpopulated Bangladesh”. ~ Angeles Times. Part I—A. (March 18. 1981) 00. 1—2. 19. Gedhard Lenski and Jean Lenski. Human Societies. 4th Edition. New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company. 1982. 20. Pradeep Rohatgi. “On Technology, Change, and the Future of Asia”. Lisa 2000. Vol 1, No. 1 (1981). pp. 28—34. 21. Manfred Halpern. The Politics of China. in the Middle East and North Africa. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1963. 22. Charles Ronald Benge. Cultural Crisis and Libraries in the Third World. Hsmden, CT: Linnet Books. 1969. 23. A. Inkles. “Becoming Modern: Individual Change in Six Developing Countries.” Ethos. Vol 3 (1975) pp. 323—342.
24. Robert 3. Stauffer. “Western Values and the Case for Third World Cultural Disengagement”. Krishna Kumar, Editor • Bonds Without Bondage: Exulorations in Transcultural Int.racations. Hawaii; East—West Culture Learning Center. 1979. pp. 257—281. 25. Tyler Marshall. “Pakistanis Find Jobs, New Life Styles in Middle East”. Los Anneles Times. Part I—A. (May 14. 1982) no. 1—2. 26 • Inter—African Labor Institute. The Factors of Productivity in Africa. s~~arized in William H. Lewis, Editor, French—Soeakina Africa; The Search for Identity. New York:
Walker. 1965. 27. Doyle McManus. “Oil Shiekdoms: Big Money Brings Fresh Headaches”. Los Anaeles Tines. 1. I (January 1981) p.Cities Sprout in the Desert as Saudis Act to Ease Oil 28. Part Don A. Schanche.2,“Instant
Dependence”. Los Angeles Tines. Part IV. (February 17, 1981) p. 1. 29. Gladvin Hill. “View of the World’s Shantytowns Less Grin”. New York Times” (June 9. 1976) p. 4. 30. Robert M. Priaig. Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. New York: Bantam Books. 1974.
31. Krishna Lunar, Editor. Bonds Without Bondage: Exolorations in Transcultural Interacations. Hawaii: East—West Culture Learninz Center. 1979, 32. I. de Sola Pool. “Communication and Development.” H. Weiner, Editor. Modernization: The Dynamics of Growth. New York: Basic Books. 1966. no. 98—109. 33. Population Reference Bureau. “Literacy and World Population.” Ponulation Bulletin . 30 (1976). pp. 3—29. 34. Stephen Nochner. “Cultural Diversity: Implications for Modernization and International Education”. Krishna Lunar, Editor. Bonds Without Bondane: Exulorations in Transcultural Interacations. Hawaii: East—West Culture Leanring Culture Learning Center. 1979. pp. 232—256. 35. J. Nehru, An Autobiozraohv. London: The Dobley Head. 1936 (reprinted 1958). 36. Bruce Currsy. “14 Fallacies About Famine”. Ceres. Vol 14, No.2 (March—April 1981) pp. 20—25.
37. Denis Goulet. “Notes on the Ethics of Developmental Assistance”. Krishna Lunar, Editor. Bonds Without londaze: Exo lorations in Transcultural Interactions. Hawaii: East—West Culture Learning Center.
1979. pp. 177—206.
0273—1177/83 $0.00 + .50 Copyright © COSPAR
A CRITICAL LOOK AT SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND THE DEVELOPING WORLD B. J. Bluth Department of Sociology, California State University at Northridge, U.S.A.
AIST1ACT Technology is neutral, its use is not. Its introduction and use take place in social, cultural, political and economic contexts which can be at considerable variance with those of the introducing countries, and which are not homogeneous within countries having wide variations in knowidege, background skills,and interpretations of meaning and opportunity. This paper tries to take a dispassionate look at the social and cultural factors that are involved in the introduction, use, and maintenance of space technology in the developing world. IJT&ODUCTIOI In 1922, Lewis Mumford commented that “It would be so easy, this business of making over the world 1 if it were only a matter of creating machinery.”(l] There is no doubt that space technology can be useful to the peoples of the developing world. Co~unicationssatellites and Landsat imagary have already resulted in important benefits. The possibilities for Lunetta—type light or even Solar Power Satellites have much promise,[2] and there is little doubt that the resources and new materials that can be developed in space will bring significant changes to the peoples of the Earth. (3] Space offers hope throughout the world to everyone, including those of the developing world.
Progress is not inevitable, however. History records that the Chinese had great treasure ships that visited as far away as Africa in the 15th century.[4] However, when the Europeans came into the Pacific, there were no Chinese there to greet then. The Chinese had destroyed the treasure ships in the name of Confucian philosphy and the preservation of ancient traditions.[4] It is net clear now what path Iran will take since it has come under the religious revival of ~homeni, but the message communicated there represents a reaffirmation of the ancient ways and a rejection of “modernism”. What happened in Iran shows that there is another side to the story of modernization. The sword cuts two ways, and what is seen as good for some in one time may be seen as bad by others, or bad at another time. Language deludes us into thinking that we “talk” realistically about the developing world because we do it. What we say is limited by the nature and scope of our language. The reality that our concept, “the developing world,” refers to is enormously complex, constantly changing, and inextricably enmeshed in the affairs of the entire world economic, educational, political, cultural, and communications systems, and the rapid pace of change occurring within and between all of those systems. The countries of the developing world are not a homogeneous entity, anymore than the member nations are individually homogeneous. There are vast divergencies with thriving cities, high technology, and industry, along with the utter poverty of people trying to eke out a living in the midst of barren lands. Yet there is a great need to grasp, to cope, to control this galloping horse rushing into the future. Out of the desire to grasp and control, many fall subject to the temptation to believe in their words. A fish swims confidently in the water, using its speed, agility, and freedom. But the fish forgets the water. It is the water that supports him and it is from the water he gets the oxygen to breathe. Without the water, the fish is dead. With humanity, the water is language. We use jt to communicate, to move through ideas and plans, but we often forget that language is only a human creation and that the words are not the events or phenomena they refer to. Words are puppets on the stage of human interaction; puppets who are paupers in the midst of the richness of the ongoing life of the planet. 13
14
B.J. Bluth
Those involved in introducing space technology into the developing world are as forgetful as the fish. There are many statements which say things like, “The potentials of outer space for the improvement of the human condition everywhere are unlimited. Developing countries cannot afford to neglect space technology and space science... .aud such ventures should become international in scope and character so that their benefits can reach all of humanity at the earliest possible time.”(S] I believe that. But I also know that it will not be that simple, and for all the benefits, there will be pain. The choice is probably best thought of by asking if the outcome will be worth the pain. If people working with the developing world read such sentences and only think of the benefits, the pain nay become detrimental because it was not anticipated. Words are taken for granted, and the meaning brings a multitude of hoped for as well as despised consequences. In this paper, I would like to examine the problems that can come from the ideas we use to approach the problems of the introduction of space technology into the Third World on the part of the engineers, the politicians, the social scientists, and the people themselves. The basic premise of this paper is that we cannot understand, predict or control what is happening or will happen in the developing world in any complete way. However, our ideas and the actions that stem from them do have consequences that affect the course of change. We can anticipate the directions of those actions and speculate about their outcomes if we pay strict attention to past experiences. But as we act and speculate, one of the fundamental elements in preventing undesirable surprises is a practical and frank recognition of the character and effect of the medium of language we are using as the context of our action. Let us at least do a bit better than the fish. EDUCATIOI Communications satellites are a fact of life in the developing world, and they have proven very successful[2]. They provide a vehicle for education, entertainment, and information about the weather, market situations, local, national and news events, etc. Over 28 nations of the developing world use satellites in one way or another.(6] Communications satellites are a means of moving ideas and information among the people of the developing world. India has shown that satellites can be uniquely used to educate people in remote villages far from standard communication systems, and they have been so successful with the SITE experiment using tha ATS—6 and STEP that used the German—French satellite, Symphonic, that they have launched their own satellites, INSAT—l and APPLE which will be used for telet.aching among other things.(7,8,9,10] There is a wide range of potential benefits that can come from the use of satellites for education. However, there are issues to be raised about the comtent of the information that pours through those satellites, and how it will affect those exposed to it. The questions do not negate the success, or the need to use
the satellites. One potential use for satellites is education. Illiteracy in the developing world is put at about 63.7% and 83.2% for the poorest countries.(ll] With the rise of modern technology it is assumed that this rate must rise if the nations of the developing world are to take advantage of what space technology as well as other kinds of technology can offer. Since there is a vast shortage of teachers, supplies, equipment, and even roads to get to students, communication satellites seem to be a natural solution. By way of television and radio people can learn reading, writing and other skills that will enhance their efforts in small industry, agriculture, minor engineering projects, and health. There are a number of questions to be asked about this assumption. Do people learn to read, write, and develop simple technical skills over television? Recent studies in the United States raise grave questions about the prospects. In a nation which is considered to have one of the highest literacy rates in the world, almost 20% of the adults are now considered to be functionally illiterate. They cannot interpret a bus schedule, understand a printed explanation of finance charges or address a letter so it would reach its destination,(12] Many things are blamed for this situation, but it is thought that “high rates of television viewing from an early age can make students passive in school and can produce a ‘video literacy’ that does not respond well to printed text.”(121 Good teaching is thought to be the remedy. However, since there is little or no teaching in some of the remote areas where satellites would be used for education, we may wonder how much television coming from satellite would enhance the desire and need to learn to read and write in lieu of teachers and school books. If India were to provide 80% of its rural villages with Village Level Workers, it would need to train over 70,000 new Workers,(131 in addition to the some 70,000 it already has.[14] Another problem here is the vast array of languages and dialects throughout the developing world. In some cases, such as in India, a given language may have up to three different types of written expression, and in Uganda there are over 25 distinct languages.(15] There is also the possibility that some of these languages, because of the cultural foundation upon which they are based, would make a presentation of technical 8kjlls very difficult, especially in a purely auditory mode.[15] Of course it is easy to respond that literacy is
Space Technology and the Developing World
15
not needed anyway, since there is television, advanced computer graphics, etc. This is an empty hops and a short—lived solution. The more society develops, the more its members need to read, write, and possess basic technical skills. There are signs, schedules, instructions, bank accounts, reports, letters, contracts, broken equipment, things that need to be assembled —— a wealth of things to be dealt with, in order to carry out daily activities, and avoid being misled and cheated. In introducing literacy or any other kind of education by means of satellite, it seems to be assumed that people will be willing and able to absorb the ideas that are conveyed. Here we need to take into consideration the extent of poor health and malnutrition that prevails in so many ares of the developing world. Inadequate diet or disease slows people down. They do not have an abundance of energy avaliable for activity or mental effort. Studies show that improper foods have a significant effect on mental faculties resulting in confusion, fatigue, poor attention span, poor memory, depression, and a general lack of vigor.E16] Inadequate diet and poor health are widespread in the developing world, and its effect needs to be taken into account in plans for remote educational progr~ing. There are other reasons why people may resist innovations and mew ideas that can come with space communications. Peasant villages are often quite conservative, perhaps because their society is “based on a land—focused security and a desperate need to maintain mutual support within a tightly—knit and largely closed community.”(14] Any attempt to influence village life from the outside “must rest on an understanding of its values — who has power, who has influence, what is the ranking system, who commands respect.”[14] If some people in the village are thought to be attempting to secure an advantage over others, there may be bitter resentment if not outright opposition or sabotage.(14] In Colombia, many street children do not even want education. In Bogata, it is estimated that there are some 3,000 urchins, some as young as five, who make their living as pickpockets. They are regularly picked up and taken to centers where they are fed, bathed, clothed, and offered a chance to learn a trade. Police say that most take the meals and free clothes and go back to the streets again. Some 60% of Colombia’s 27 million people are under 18, and Juan Munor, director of Colombia’s Family Welfare Institute says that there are are signs that many you these young people are attracted to the guerrilla groups. In spite of gains of 22% literacy and an allocation of 20% of Colombia’s budget for education, Munoz, who was the former minister of education, says that “There is no one solution, like improving education. “(17) Even with interpersonal education, information can be misunderstood, as happened in one case related to the use of oral contraceptives in Bangladesh. A pregnant women explained to an offical that she had followed the instructions religiously with the supply of pills given to her. The official reported that “she took half the pills and her husband took half.(18] Without feedback, or without trained workers on the site, satellite communication may not be accepted, or it may generate many unexpected consequences. Cuurami: VALUES Education is not neutral. What kinds of ideas will be taught? What will the content Of the message be? In both Eastern and Western Europe, for example, from one—third to one-half of the university students study science or engineering, compared to only 23% of those in Asia and 16% in Latin America.(19] In India 58% of the students were recently enrolled in the humanities, fine arts, and law.(19] Here, what is valued in the educational system results in graduates without the skills that have a high priority in terms of the needs of a rapidly growing technical sector. Because of their elite status, (a reflection of the traditional value system of agrarian elites and would—be elites) they are unable or unwilling to accept what they consider “lesser” employment such as going into remote areas to teach, and thus they swell the bureaucracy, leaving the technically skilled jobs to foreigners or they remain unemployed leading to political instability which further hampers economic progress. This problem of the content of education, or the realm of values, is of considerable significance. Many voices, both in the space industry and from the developing world, stress the need to preserve the old cultures, if not completely disengage from foreign influence. Here it assumed that the developing world can proceed into a technically framed future with many traditions and ancient ideas intact. But some of these ideal run in such contradiction with the underpinnings of a technical climate that it is hard to see bow this can be possible. Fate or Control For example, the technical world is based on the assumption that man, through use of reason, intelligence, and skill, can control nature and thus his destiny. If people are sick, we devise ways to make then well. If there is a dearth of seeds, we make new strains of seeds to compensate, or we develop chemical fertilizers, or we wonder how we can alter the
16
B.J. Bluth
weather. In many areas of the developing world, however, there is an attitude of passivity toward life, a fatalism, or a reverence that shuns disturbing the forces of the universe. In the Spanish speaking countries we see it in the phrase “Que sera, sera.” For the Muslim “Allah wills it,” and in the Asian countries, many think that it is wrong for mere mortals to interfere with the flow of the life force of the universe. “In Confucian societies, you’re supposed to fit into nature. In the Buddhist societies you’re supposed to be subservient to nature.” Thus it is very hard to master industrial technology if you are not justified in doing so.”(ZO] In the Middl* East, one writer has said, “Education, as far as it is under the control of the ulema (the spiritual leaders of the Muslim community), is still bound up with authoritarianism, rote learning, and a rigid devotion to ancient authorities——providing only already known solutions to already formulated problems.”[21] In effect, many of these people believe that the quest for truth is essentially complete: what people need to do is know what has already been revealed—in the Vedas, in the Koran, or to the Sangha, or the Catholic Church. True wisdom, in their opinion, lies in turning to religious authorities for guidance and following their directions. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, many western intellectuals thought the
older religions would die out as modernization spread. With the growing development of nationalism and resistance to colonialism of every kind, many of the traditional faiths have experienced a remarkable reinvigoration, with the most recent evidence in the Rhoineni led Islamic revolution in Iran. There has also been a movement to reaffirm the importance of the cultural traditions of the peoples of the developing world. “A common attitude is the wish to import technology without importing the attitudes and types of consciousness which accompany it.”(221 Such a position suggests many problems with developing a technically based society. As Alex Inkles has pointed out: We have come, in time, to realize that nation building and institution building are only empty exercises unless the attitudes and capacities of the people keep pace with other forms of development... .Mounting evidence suggests that it is impossible for a state to move into the twentieth century if its people continue to live, in effect, in an earlier era.(23] Thus, recommendations to end the “new waves of cultural messages extolling Western values” and “replace the putdown of indigenous values” in a process of “Third World Disengagement”(241 may not be compatible with a desire to have a culturally indigenous technical and industrial society. Without attitudes and orientations toward the objects in the world that include a desire to control and manipulate, it may not be possible to maintain the work force that is needed to sustain a technically based civilization.
Another attitude of importance is that toward time. The West looks to the future. There is a fetish with taking risks, progress being “our most important product,” and th. need to “put away for a rainy day.” In getting to days and months into blocks of time that are planned for well in advance. In getting to the future, there is an emphasis on schedules —— careful segmentation of the days and months into blocks of time that are planned far in advance. In much of the developing world, however, there is a focus on the past, or on the present. “Being on time” does not mean what it does to a Western businessman (a fact that has led to a lot of cross—cultural misunderstanding). Be that as it may be. it is necessary to think in terms of the future, to carefully segment blocks of time, in order to take care of the new technology that has moved into the family? Maintenance schedules alone require such a perspective. You don’t just “buy” a machine. It must be taken care of—according to a schedule. The whole process of building up a pool of capital for local investment is intermingled with attitudes toward time. Savings are an important source of the domestic accumulation of capital. In the developed countries, about 24.3% of th. gross domestic product is saved, whereas only 14.72 is saved in the developing countries and some 10.3% in the poorest countries.(1lJ
It is true that for many in the developing countries all their meager income
must be used for basic consumption needs such a food and clothing. However, other countries, such as Pakistan, and some parts of India, derive fairly large incomes from its people who work in the oil fields of Arabia,
However, instead of investing the money in instruments
which could be used to fund local development programs, these monies are more frequently spent in nonproductive ways: they are used to purchase land or gold and jewlery for the purpose of enhancing individual wealth; or they are used for some religious or ceremonial purpose (e.g. financing a pilgrimage to Mecca or a lavish funeral),(l1] or to assemble a large dowry to attract a good mate for the daughters and sisters of the family. Some Pakistanis who make exceptional salaries in Saudi Arabia have been reported to spend their money on washing machines that can’t even be used because there is no electricity in the vzllage.[25J
This point of view has wide ranging effects on the credit market in the
Space Technology and the Developing World
17
developing world. With a low savings performance, there is a low rate of investment, and consequently a low rate of economic growth. With no reservoir of savings, there is little money available for development, and hence, loans must come from foreign sources which is not always advantageous since the tremendous amount of interest eats up any profits or the money is not there when and where it is needed.
Attitudes toward stressing the present or the past are intertwined with attitudes about work. In the developed countries, there is often an assumption that people need to work —— they will stave off ismiediate gratification for rewards that come later. Men do hard manual labor, skilled work, and technical jobs. This is not always the case in the developing world. In some sections of Africa, men will not do manual labor, as “man is not meant to burrow in the dirt like an animal.”(ll] The Inter—African Institute characterized the work
traditions of horticultural Africa this way: 1. Work is viewed in its relation to the basic institution of the family or clan; within the family, it is divided on the basis of age and sex. 2. Work is linked with religious rites. 3. Work activities are considered and evaluated in the light of a subsistence economy rather than a profit economy. 4. Work requires neither foresight nor planning. 5. Time is largely irrelevant in work activities; no time limits are set for
most tasks. 6. There is little specialization. 7. For men, work is episodic; when a task has to be done, men often do it without a break, but intervals of inactivity are long and frequent.
8. Men hardly ever work alone; work activities leisure activity in modern industrial society.[26]
These traditions do little to prepare the members
often resemble a collective
0f these societies, especially the men,
for work in a modern industrial society. On. of the biggest problems stems from item number 7. Women do the sustained, tedious chores. Men occasionally clear the fields, however, while the women work, they are free to do more interesting things such as hunting, fighting, politicking, socializing, and participating in ceremonial activities. The disciplined, routinized types of work so common to an industrial society are rarely encountered by these men.
Such views are not always compatible with running factories or the bureaucracies of complex technical societies. Thus, in the United Arab ~irates, 85% of the shiekdom’s inhabitants are foreign workers, mostly Indians, Pakistanis and poor Arabs from other countries like Yemen.[27) In Yanbu, Saudi Arabia, a fresh new city that has risen from scratch out of the sand and marsh, the 150 contractors are American or Amerian—Saudi, and most of the work force is Asian, chiefly Korean, Some foreign experts have wondered if the Saudis “will ever recruit enough of their own people, who tend to shy away from blue-collar work.”(28] This situation will work as long as the foreign labor does the job and there is sufficient money to pay them the extremely high salaries they get now, When and if that changes, the local population will be unable to keep up the amenities they enjoy now.
These attitudes toward work, time, and man’s relationship to and control of nature are not inconsequential, and it may be that “mass media will probably have relatively little influence in changing those traditional attitudes and values that are very strongly held, especially if the traditional values are continually reinforced in day—to—day interactions with one’s friends and relatives.”(ll] They are part of the fabric of many of the “old cultures” and to change them would bring about changes throughout the whole belief system which people are often quick to sense. Culture systems are vastly intricate webs of ideas, many of which are interconnected with each other. The old ways have worked for people for many years because of the context in which they existed — a context of a life of fragile survival. The culture provided ways of thinking that made it possible to cope with factors beyond control and hence life can be endurable in the midst of hardship and great suffering. What people have learned, often from tragic experience, is that the ancient ways work, and not infrequently, they are very reluctant to renounce them for some shiny new idea that comes over an impersonal communications medium. New ideas do not usually remain isolated in the midst of the old culture. They can impact it in subtle and often unexpected ways so that changes in less strongly held beliefs result in the emergence of new norms, aspirations and tastes, and fold back into the fabric of the culture in unanticipated ways. When they do try new things, and when they do learn new skills, they are not always content to stay in their old villages doing what they have always done. In the search for a better life, unfortunatly, there is often a rush to the cities in search of better jobs, better homes, more food, etc., and when they get there, the conditions they find are deplorable.
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B.J. Bluth
According to a recent United Nations survey, these migrants into the city largely comprise the squatter settlements and shantytowns that contain from one—fourth to two—thirds of the populations of most Third World izetropolises, and they are growing at an annual rate of 12% a year which means they will double in size in less then seven yesrs.[29] CO.iami: SXILLS
it is not enough to convey values that make life in a techncially advancing society possible. It is also necessary to develop technical skills to obviate the oppression of living in a society of machines and equipment which are not understood and cannot be fixed, Acquiring technical skills is not a simple matter of learning procedures. There is a whole way of proceeding and thinking that is absorbed gradually over a period of “tinkering” with machines. The first part of this orientation is an attitude about machines which shows more interest in how they work and why, rather than what they are or do. This dimension of technical skill shows an abiding interest in the technology, the ideas that formed the systems, and how all the parts work together. it may be it is impossibl. to really be able to understand machines unless you know how they work already. And to know how they work involves seeing the parts as ideal or concepts all liked together in a system that has been imagined by some other person somewhere. The true system is the systematic thought behind the machine, not so much the machim. itself. The truth of this comes through in the job of repair. It is probably easier to build a machine in a factory than to repair it. There is nothing straight forward about fixing things. Ther. is no clear direction about what has gone wrong, or what needs to be replaced. There is always the accidently ruined part, the piece that is Lost, doesn’t fit, or which needs to be remade. Dissasembly is an art in itself. Things come of f in dimensions of up, down, right, or left, and they return in the opposit, sequence. The right tools are imperative, along with th. knowidege of how to use them, a sense for the nature of th. machine and how it works, and an infinite amount of patience. [30] Technical societies have legions of people, professional and amateur, who fix things. They start early in life by taking apart the engine of an old car and rebuilding it. They disassemble the old lawn mower and make a go—cart out of it. They have chemistry sets, build rockets, and play with a whole range of toys that relate to the skills of building, taking apart, and repairing machines. What causes technological hopelessness is the absence of this perception of the Quality in technology which results in a feeling of oppression.(30] Countries in the developing world arenotoriously lacking in these kinds of people. One buainess man returning from the Middle East commented that if someone wanted to mak. a fortune, all they would need to do would be to set up a fix and repair shop in any large city there. Without this very important infrastructure, the technological revolution comes to a halt as soon as there is a breakdown and not enough money to go out and buy a new replacement. There are many horror tales from the developing world about whole factories closing down because someone didn’t know what to do when the equipment stopped.(221 Such an infrastructure cannot be developed overnight, and it may not be possible to really create it by means of remote education over satellite. It may not even be possible to do much trouble shooting through remote communications. The relevent point here is that the kind of education needed to establish a infrastructure of technically skilled people may not be suited to r~te education systems though it would certainly seem to be a good idea. A realistic appraisal of what types of education can be conveyed over television and radio would be needed to avert unobtainable results and unachievable expectations.
The questions confronting those concerned with education via satellite are not simple matters of either preserving an old culture or recanting it for a shiny new foreign culture. It is an enigmatic process. Some of the effects can be anticipated; some cannot. Some ideas are suitable for the medium, and others are not. Some concepts may be consumed, and others rejected. Some skills cannot be taught without some village worker or teacher as a backup, and some can. Furthermore, the communication is not neutral. Crucial questions about all information processing rest on the content of the message as well as on the effect of the medium. Since education represents the introduction of new ideas, perhaps those involved in the uducating need to be fully prepared for rejection, changes, disruption, imperfection and pain mixed with joy. 1181MG EZPEC~&TIOU8
An important result of educational efforts and the capacity to receive and disseminate information, for the people, the teachers, the politicians, and the business community is the phenomena of rising expectations. Visual and auditory images suggest alternatives that had not been uinagined befor. or even believed possible. But hopes not met can be a bitter
Space Technology and the Developing World
19
pill. if people think that products or life styles are available, but they do not have the means,skill, or opportunity to obtain then, terrific frustration and anger can result that can easily be used by foreign or locally discontented political forces for their own aims; can result in spontaneous eruptions of violence; or can generate apathy and severe disengagement from the job at hand because it is seen to be so far from the ideal. There is evidence that such disproportinate expectations have already developed in areas of the developing world. 122] THE MASSES It Latin America, some 80% of the programming comes from the United States,[31] with reruns of “I Love Lucy,” “F.B.I.,” “Mission Iapossible,”Julia,” etc., complete with advertising
also made in America, or Europe. People don’t like everything they see. But what becomes an ideal or an aspiration, for changed in how they think about the world,
do not believe everything they see on TV, and they they do see affects them. For some, what they see others a hated symbol. All of them are somehow and consequently technology.
One of the unanticipated consequences then, is that “aspirations that are encouraged but unnet will lead to increased frustration, could cause modernization efforts to founder, and might even be an incentive for revolution.”(ll] One apparent solution to this problem would be to develop local programming suited to the culture and needs of the country. Here ideas could be developed slowly so they could be digested at a steady rate. What is unrealistic about this notion is the fact of production. Production of television programs involves large numbers of skilled personnel, expensive equipment, and money. It is easier to permit programming done in foreign countries to be imported into the country along with the advertising which helps pay the large costs. Furthermore, the tremendous diversity of languages and dialects throughout the developing world makes it impossible to develop standard programs that can be sent out to everyone. In India there are some three languages and three types of writing. Uganda has over 25 distinctive languages. As was noted in one recent survey of the world literacy problem: •..a permanent dilemma confronts those responsible for literacy campaigns: to teach the minority group how to write their rich spoken language, respecting their logical patterns and their oral Lexical patrimony, thereby giving them a written code that they will rarely be called upon to utilize — or to teach them a useful “lingua franca,” which is not spoken by the group, and the teaching of which will create many technical and didactic ccmplications.[33] Another course could be followed by placing a lot of emphasis on the use of of satellite transmitted radio which can reach remote areas not capable of being serviced by present transmission techniques. Here people can Learn of their culture and heritage; it can be used to inform people of national development policies and goals; it can be used to pass on information to acquaint people with new agricultural techniques and practices, new public health programs, the availability and location of various employment opportunites; and a weakening of taboos and embarassment attached to sexual behavior. However, even radio requires a force of technicians and multi—lingual broadcasters as well as program development specialists who are capable of working in the practical areas that are required for agricultural and simple engineering projects. In lieu of the latter force, the messages may tend to focus on politial education which may or nay not be of use in improving the lot of the poor. Whatever is the case, expectations that are inconsistent with opportunities, whether they are raised by television or radio, can have unanticipated consequences. TEE THEORISTS
All of this gigantic structure of industrialization is being imported into the developing world whole, without the complex infrastructures and values that support it in the industrialized world. Some of those in the developing world think things will come to resemble the industrialized world, while others want to have the fruits of industrialization while preserving the charm and character of the old. Both expectations are probably unrealistic, For instance, Bochner points out that an Indonesian technocrat will tend to view a development problem and its solution in terms of his academic training which probably took place abroad. “The evidence indicates that only too often overseas trained graduates become uncritical, imitative, and passive consumers of kuowldege that was generated in other cultural contexts and for other purposes. Apparently, the analogue of ‘Black is Beautiful’ has not penetrated the field of science and technology.”134] No doubt there is a balance to be hoped for of the Indonesian technocrat. But the outcome can hardly be expected to be a pure reflection of the Indonesian culture or of the industrialized country where he studied. He will be a mixture of both, and probably suffering because he is truly neither. Nehru illustrated this point so clearly in his autobiography: I have become a queer mixture of the East and the West, out of place everywhere, at hone nowhere. Perhaps my thought and approach to life are more akin to what is
20
B.J. Bluth
called Western than Eastern, but India clings to me, as she does to all her children, in innumerable ways; and behind me lie, somewhere in the subconscious, racial memories of a hundred, or whatever the number nay be, generations of
Brahamans. I cannot get rid of either that past inheritance or my recent acquisitions. They are both part of me, and though they help me in both the East and the West, they also create in me a feeling of spiritual loneliness not only in public activities, but in life itself. I am a stranger and alien in the West. I cannot be of it. But in my own country, also, sometimes, I have an exile’s feeling.(35] Bochner, the theorist, views the technocrat from the perspective of the old culture. If the technocrat applies the concepts of the West, he is considered suffering from a “captive mind” and if he adheres to the traditions of his country, he will not be able to utilize his training which would be seen as resulting in a “homogenizing effect in those areas where their graduates are occupying positions of influence.”(34] “Homogenizing” here is an unfortunate metaphor which traps everyone.
The term “homogenize” deals with fluids and
brings to mind a world of chocolate milk, neither plain and wholesome, nor rich and sharp to the taste. The world is not a glass of milk, and ideas do not become “homogenized” or equally distributed throughout a country erasing all of the edges of the two elements being mixed. The United States is a lucid example of this fact. For many years social scientists liked to refer to it as the great “melting pot.” After many years of experience, the term had to
be dropped, for it has been found that America is still composed of many pockets of distinctive sub—cultures that vary in significant degrees from each other. As cultures assimilate, parts of both are carried on in the process. Some are changed, and some remain. Assimilation does not sentence a society to “homogenization.” Yet the use of this metaphor generates a whole set of expectations for the technocrat and the evaluator of development that do not bring about any constructive perspective. The idea misses the practical realities of Nehru’s experience. The problems associated with the word “homogenized” are rampant in the literature of
development. Words like “Dependencia,” “imperialism,” “colonialism,” “disengagement,” “liberation,” “multinational,” “modernization,” “industrialization,” “Western,” “Eastern,” etc., all tend to evoke a great deal of emotion interspersed with academic—sounding evaluation. Each term sets up a whole range of expectations that are either hated or touted as a matter of personal identity, national heritage, or freedom. The future is expected to conform to the concepts, and the work of development seems to get lost in the debate. The fish has forgotten the water. Change brings about new situations that should not be expected to conform completely to the concepts of the past or the present. That is what is to be expected. That is what is inevitable. New situations require new standards of evaluation. To expect otherwise results in an impossibility. DISRUPTICU
An idea that seems to be lost in the noise of all these discussions is the fact that change comes accompanied by great amounts of disruption and strain, another factor that does not seem to be consistently included in the discussion of development. The revolution of consciousness occurring in the developing world world can not be expected to come about without some desperation and severe displacement, but that does not mean the future is bleak. Hising expectations are an important influencing factor for the masses, the politicians, the engineers, as well as the academics and bureaucrats who are trying to grapple with the use of spac. technology in the developing world, It would seem that the degree to which these people focus their energies on the confined meanings of the words they are using as opposed to attempts to report and assimilate the experiences that have been encountered in the field — that will represent the degree of success or failure they will have in dealing with the misery, poverty, suffering, and aspirations of the people of the developing world. TIM IIFOZM&TICU VZ*POU Finally, communication systems can be used as weapons of information given or witheld, distorted or changed, for the ends of many different people. For instance, Bruce Currey who works for the Food Crisis Management Group, Center for Development Studies at the Flinders University of South Australia, makes the point that “Food information as much as food itself can become a propaganda weapon,” and as a result, starvation can become a “weapon of war.” Re points out that recent famines in the Sahel, Ethiopia and Kampuchea have “demonstrated clearly that the ability to respond is not dependent on the evidence of an acute situation, More important than the accuracy of the information is the politics of the information in terms of its ability to stmamlate the appropriate response by the appropriate
Space Technology and the Developing World
21
people. “136] Communication satellites may be impartial vehicles, but the messages that are sent over them can be passionate and biased. Rapid communication can tie revolutionaries together or bind
a government to its people through truth or falsehood.
The new “world information order”
advocated by the developing world at the UNESCO conference in Belgrade shows that this is a
highly sensitive issue. COMCLUSIOI The abiding difficulty that runs through this whole issue of introducing space technology by way of satellites into the developing world is the relativity of values and what is good or bad information. It depends on a wide range of factors that include politics, economics,
bureaucracies, traditions, religion, self—interest, health, timing, and many views of the meaning and character of the future. Ultimately, a sound ethic of development assistance is not enough. New visdo.s of development are also needed: unifying visions, respectful of cultural and ideological diversity, about the meaning of historical change processes. Indeed, no new rules for resource transfers, no crash program in technological modernization, and no new international economic orders can dispense with the arduous task of creating new developmental wisdoms....The establishment of workable ground rules cannot come from a mere intellectual experience; it must result from diverse practical experimental policy efforts. • .tested in the fires of institutional and programmatic prazis.[37]
All of the social, cultural, economic, political, and intellectual worlds that humans live in, then are humanly constructed canopies of meaning that are constantly maintained in a dialectic interchange of co—production with other people.
When the human part of that
process is forgotten, lost to consciousness, there is misunderstanding, confusion, and the actors of the world are only seen as acted upon, and the producer only seen as a product. The social world then ceases to be a complex, varied open arena in which people expand through meaningful activity and becomes a closed aggregate of absolute reifications divorced from the flux of human life. Assumptions are deeply lodged in the way language is used and understood, and the content of the message is transformed by the assumptions. When people from many cultures, with many different assumptions areengaged in the life of the developing world, if the character of those differences is lost, the enterprise will suffer, and much potential may be lost. Successful use of space technology in the developing world requires a better understanding of the medium and ideas and languages than the fish has of his water.
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