A detrital heavy mineral viewpoint on sediment provenance and tropical weathering in SE Asia

Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

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A detrital heavy mineral viewpoint on sediment provenance and tropical weathering in SE Asia Inga Sevastjanova ⁎, Robert Hall, David Alderton SE Asia Research Group, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 15 July 2011 Received in revised form 9 February 2012 Accepted 8 March 2012 Available online 24 March 2012 Keywords: Heavy minerals Detrital Provenance Weathering SE Asia

a b s t r a c t Understanding heavy mineral preservation is important for interpreting generation, pathways, provenance and geochemistry of sediments. Despite this, many assumptions about heavy mineral stability are based on ancient strata and few studies consider modern sediments, particularly those in tectonically active tropical areas such as SE Asia. We report new heavy mineral data on 69 river sand samples from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, in which one aim was to find provenance indicators specific to these areas. Identifications were performed using optical microscopy and confirmed with SEM-EDS. In the Malay Peninsula heavy minerals record granitic and contact metamorphic provenance. Variable amounts of zircon, tourmaline, hornblende, andalusite, epidote, monazite, rutile and titanite, and minor amounts of pyroxene, apatite, anatase, garnet, diaspore, colourless spinel, cassiterite and allanite are typical of this source area. The composition of assemblages from Sumatra indicates contributions from two major sources: the modern volcanic arc (I) and the basement (II). Abundant pyroxene, particularly hypersthene (up to 70%), is diagnostic of the volcanic arc source. Vesuvianite, garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, chrome spinel, rutile, anatase and corundum, are present only in small amounts (b 3%), and are interpreted as recycled from the basement. Zircon, apatite, hornblende, epidote, and olivine are also common in Sumatra and are likely to have a mixed provenance. Abundance of ferromagnesian silicate minerals suggests mild weathering, possibly reflecting several processes: dilution of natural etching fluids by heavy rainfall, high erosion rates, rapid transport and short grain residence time in the river. The heavy mineral assemblages of modern rivers are very different from those recorded by the few previous studies of Cenozoic sediments of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Assemblages in the Cenozoic basins are significantly more mature than those of modern rivers. The differences cannot be explained simply by dissolution of susceptible minerals during one sedimentary cycle and instead imply rapid source area unroofing. © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Heavy mineral analysis has a wide range of applications, e.g. studying provenance of siliciclastic rocks, reconstructing ancient sedimentary routes, subdividing and correlating unfossiliferous siliciclastic strata, mining and exploration and forensic science (e.g. Mange and Wright, 2007 and references therein). Most heavy minerals are restricted to specific source rocks and are sensitive indicators of provenance, provided that there are statistically distinguishable differences between sediment source areas. It is a holistic approach, which gives insights into all types of rocks that contribute detritus to siliciclastic sediments. Other techniques such as single-mineral geochemistry are valuable for advanced interpretations when potential source areas have already been identified. For instance, detrital zircon U–Pb dating, Hf isotope analyses or trace element patterns are rewarding for studying provenance of sediments derived from crustal rocks (e.g. Belousova et al., ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: + 44 1784 443896; fax: + 44 1784 434716. E-mail address: [email protected] (I. Sevastjanova). 0037-0738/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2012.03.007

2002; Dickinson and Gehrels, 2003; Griffin et al., 2006; Howard et al., 2009; Bahlburg et al., 2010; Clements and Hall, 2011). However, zircon studies alone are not likely to detect contributions from mafic and ultramafic source rocks, in which zircon is rare or absent. Rutile geochemistry is valuable for differentiating between various metamorphic source rocks (e.g. Zack et al., 2004; Triebold et al., 2007; Meinhold, 2010) and this mineral may also be present in quartz veins and granites, pegmatites, carbonatites, kimberlites, xenoliths of metasomatised peridotite (Meinhold, 2010 and references therein). However, detrital rutile is derived predominantly from metamorphic rocks in which it is most abundant (e.g. Force, 1980; Zack et al., 2004; Triebold et al., 2007). Detrital garnet (Morton et al., 1994; Takeuchi, 1994; Sabeen et al., 2002; Morton et al., 2005; Takeuchi et al., 2008), tourmaline (Henry, 1985), amphibole (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1981), pyroxene (e.g. Cawood, 1990; Cawood, 1991), Fe–Ti oxides (Basu and Molinaroli, 1991) and many other minerals (e.g. von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999; Mange and Morton, 2007) have been successfully used in provenance studies. Therefore, single-mineral geochemistry and geochronology supplement, but do not substitute for, the heavy mineral analysis.

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Initial heavy mineral assemblages undergo modifications during the sedimentary cycle (Morton and Hallsworth, 1999; van Loon and Mange, 2007). Heavy minerals (e.g. zircon, monazite, xenotime, allanite, rutile, apatite, etc.) contain trace elements. Therefore, understanding heavy mineral transport and preservation is significant not only for provenance studies, but also for interpreting the geochemistry of sediments (e.g. van Loon and Mange, 2007). However, despite decades of intensive studies (e.g. Bramlette, 1941; Blatt and Sutherland, 1969; Grimm, 1973; Nickel, 1973; Morton, 1985; Pettijohn et al., 1987; Morton and Hallsworth, 1999; Milliken, 2007; Morton and Hallsworth, 2007), these modifications are still poorly understood. SE Asia is important because it is estimated to yield 20–25% of the global sediment supplied to the world's oceans (Milliman et al., 1999). Being situated in a tropical climate, SE Asia is a particularly rewarding area for studying heavy mineral provenance, weathering and postdepositional dissolution. SE Asian landmasses are surrounded by offshore Cenozoic hydrocarbon-bearing basins that are filled with thick (up to 14 km in the Malay Basin, e.g. Petronas, 1999) deltaic and shallow-marine detrital strata. Provenance studies suggest that this detrital material has been derived from local SE Asian sources (e.g. van Hattum et al., 2006; Smyth et al., 2007; 2008; Hall et al., 2008; Witts et al., 2011). Thus, areas which are devoid of the Cenozoic sedimentary cover, such as the Malay Peninsula, provide a unique opportunity for studying heavy mineral assemblages of the source rocks. The Cenozoic basins, where these assemblages were deposited, give insights into the processes that have affected heavy minerals during transport and after deposition. SE Asia also hosts a range of granitic, (contact) metamorphic, metasomatic and placer mineral deposits (e.g. Hutchison and Tan, 2009) that contain rare minerals of restricted paragenesis (Table 2). When found in detrital sediments, many of these minerals can be used as sensitive indicators of provenance. Studying heavy minerals in river sands has proven an effective way of characterising heavy mineral assemblages at the source areas in other regions of the world (e.g. Griffin et al., 2006). However, almost no such studies have been undertaken in SE Asia. In the present study, we discuss heavy mineral data from 69 river sand samples in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra and 103 microprobe analyses of detrital garnets from six samples in the Malay Peninsula. New data reveal abundance of ferromagnesian silicate minerals that suggests only a mild effect of tropical weathering on heavy mineral assemblages and emphasise the need to consider tectonic controls on heavy mineral weathering and postdepositional dissolution. Data presented here also add new details to a previous provenance model for the North Sumatra Basin (Morton et al., 1994). The heavy mineral assemblages of modern rivers are more diverse than those recorded from the North Sumatra Basin (e.g. Morton et al., 1994). These differences cannot be explained simply by dissolution of susceptible minerals during one sedimentary cycle and require significant provenance changes to have occurred within a short time-span—most likely due to rapid source area unroofing, although the role of paleo-climate cannot be completely isolated. 2. Heavy mineral stability revisited Heavy mineral assemblages in siliciclastic rocks and sediments are not identical to those in their source rocks. Initial heavy mineral assemblages are changed throughout the sedimentary cycle (i.e. during sediment release and transport, and after deposition) by hydraulic sorting (different behaviour of minerals during transport that is influenced by their specific gravity and shape), dissolution, growth of authigenic minerals and mechanical abrasion (e.g. Morton and Hallsworth, 1999; van Loon and Mange, 2007; Garzanti et al., 2011). Some authors (Morton and Hallsworth, 1999; 2007) argue that in all geological settings, minerals dissolve in a similar order. Ferromagnesian silicate minerals (e.g. olivine, pyroxene, and amphibole) are most liable to dissolution, whereas Ti-minerals (rutile and anatase), tourmaline, and zircon are most stable. It is also argued that apatite is susceptible

to weathering but resistant to diagenetic dissolution because weathering takes place at acidic pH conditions, while diagenetic dissolution occurs under saline and alkaline pH conditions (e.g. Morton, 1985). Early experimental studies (Nickel, 1973) supported these suggestions. However, recent studies show that for most minerals, and not only for apatite, dissolution rates increase at lower pH and higher temperatures (Grandstaff, 1977; Rimstidt and Dove, 1986; Zhang, 1990; Knauss et al., 1993; Zhang et al., 1993; Franke and Teschner-Steinhardt, 1994; Zhang et al., 1996; Chen and Brantley, 1998; Frogner and Schweda, 1998; Valsami-Jones et al., 1998; Pokrovsky and Schott, 2000; Oelkers and Schott, 2001a, b; Oelkers and Poitrasson, 2002; Guidry and Mackenzie, 2003; Golubev et al., 2005; Chaïrat et al., 2007; Harouiya et al., 2007). Natural weathering rates are several orders of magnitude lower than those measured in the laboratory (White and Brantley, 2003). This may be due to the depletion of reaction surface, accumulation of leached layers and secondary precipitates (Murakami et al., 2003; White and Brantley, 2003). Dissolution rates may also vary because of heterogeneities in overall chemical composition of the mineral, the presence of defects and dislocations in the crystal structure, inherited exsolution features, Eh values the presence of bacteria and other factors (e.g. Santelli et al., 2001; Wilson, 2004; Duro et al., 2005). In the subsurface, dissolution is also influenced by pore stress, fluid pressure and pore fluid saturation. A combination of these processes may result not only in dissolution along the grain boundaries, but also in secondary precipitation from oversaturated pore fluids (e.g. Sheldon and Wheeler, 2003). It is difficult to predict the time or depth of burial required for completely dissolving a certain mineral species from an assemblage. For instance, in Paleocene–Eocene sandstones of the Central North Sea, calcic amphibole disappears from heavy mineral assemblage at a depth of 600 m. Depth-induced decrease of diversity of heavy mineral assemblages and advancing corrosion marks on mineral grains suggest that this disappearance is due to diagenetic dissolution (e.g. Morton and Hallsworth, 2007). However, in other basins, calcic amphiboles are common at greater depths, e.g. up to 2 km in the Miocene Bengal Basin and up to 4 km in the Pliocene Kura Basin (Uddin and Lundberg, 1998; Morton and Hallsworth, 2007). Heavy minerals that are regarded as susceptible to dissolution (e.g. Morton and Hallsworth, 1999) are also common in sandstones of quite different ages. Unsurprisingly, hornblende, pyroxene, and locally olivine, are abundant in recent coast and shelf sediments in the Mediterranean (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1983) and in volcanic arcderived sediments offshore eastern Korea (Chough, 1984) and in the Pacific Oceania (Dickinson, 2007). However, amphiboles and pyroxenes together with other “unstable” minerals are found in much older deposits. They are preserved in Plio-Pleistocene siliciclastic sediments of the southern Apennines, Italy (Acquafredda et al., 1997), Upper Miocene–Pliocene back-arc sandstones of Halmahera, eastern Indonesia (Nichols et al., 1991), Lower Miocene intra-arc Waitemata Basin sediments, New Zealand (Hayward and Smale, 1992), Oligocene Barrême thrust-top Basin, France (Evans and Mange-Rajetzky, 1991; Evans et al., 2004), Middle Eocene to Lower Miocene forearc sandstones of the Azuero-Soná Complex, NW Panama (Krawinkel et al., 1999), Cretaceous to Paleogene volcaniclastic complexes of Sikhote-Alin and Kamchatka (Malinovsky and Markevich, 2007), Middle to Upper Jurassic volcaniclastic conglomerates and sandstones in New Zealand (Noda et al., 2004), and in Ordovician oceanic arc-derived sedimentary rocks in Southern Uplands, Scotland (Mange et al., 2005) and western Irish Caledonides (Dewey and Mange, 1999; Mange et al., 2003). Abundant hornblendes are preserved in Lower Cretaceous sandstones in the Eastern Alps (von Eynatten and Gaupp, 1999) and even in Neoproterozoic–Lower Cambrian conglomerates and arkose sandstones of Arabia (Weissbrod and Nachmias, 1986; Weissbrod and Bogoch, 2007). These examples indicate that our understanding of heavy mineral stability versus dissolution during weathering and diagenesis is still

fragmentary and it is difficult to distinguish between ‘true’ provenance and dissolution effects in ancient heavy mineral assemblages. With this in mind, a study of heavy minerals from river sands in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra was initiated with the aim (i) to characterise present day heavy mineral assemblages shed from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra, (ii) to identify provenance indicators specific to each source area and (iii) to give insights into alterations of heavy mineral assemblages that occur during transport in tropical rivers.

0.5 0.5 0.5

0.5

0.5 0.5

0.5

0.5

2.0 3.0 3.8 1.9 2.4 3.8 8.5 4.5 4.0 1.0 1.5 2.4

202 207 7 200 200 210 206 206 208 200 200 200 202 206 208 1.0 1.0 4.0 20.0 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.9 1.0

0.5

2.0 0.5

2.0 1.5

40.3 70.4 57.2 33.0 48.0 39.0 66.3 85.0 76.4

11.2 5.8 4.8 13.5 12.5 13.5 10.4 5.3 4.3

12.5 16.0 3.3 14.1 14.1 19.2 21.5 21.0 20.0 5.0 5.3 15.9 1.0

11.4 0.5 0.5 LKS7-72

LKS7-28

LKS7-13

IS37B

26.7 2.4 1.0 13.5 3.0

42.1 5.8

63–125 μm 125–250 μm 250–500 μm 63–125 μm 125–250 μm 250–500 μm 63–125 μm 125–250 μm 250–500 μm 63–125 μm 125–250 μm 250–500 μm 63–125 μm 125–250 μm 250–500 μm IS31

51.0 1.0

Zircon Size

Numbers in bold show abundances of mineral species that are present in the analysed samples, but not in all analysed grain-size fractions. a Green-brown hornblende. b Reddish-brown hornblende. c Other.

2.9

0.5 0.5 2.4 0.5 0.5 0.5

1.0

0.5 1.9 4.8 2.0 1.5 0.5 2.5

1.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5 3.5

1.0 0.5 20.8 31.4

1.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

N Alterites

1.0 3.4

Monazite

1.0 0.5

Cassiterite

0.5 0.5 1.0

Anatase Rutile

2.5

Olivine Chlorite

0.5 3.9 0.5 2.9

Epidote Titanite

5.0 0.5

Garnet Tourmaline

22.8 2.4 42.0 Insufficient grains 19.0 8.0 54.5 19.5 85.2 6.7 0.5 0.5 1.9 1.5 0.5 2.0 1.5

Andalusite Apatite

1.0 1.0 2.0 3.9

Amphibolec Amphiboleb Amphibolea CPX OPX

181

3. Geological background

Sample

Table 1 Abundances of detrital heavy minerals in different sand grain-size fractions of five samples that were selected from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra for a ‘pilot-test’ in order to identify the optimal grain-size interval for further heavy mineral analyses.

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The Malay Peninsula and Sumatra form western Sundaland in SE Asia. Sundaland includes Indochina, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo and the shallow Sunda Shelf (Hamilton, 1979; Hall and Morley, 2004). This region is underlain by fragments of continental crust and volcanic arcs of Gondwanan origin (Audley-Charles, 1988; Metcalfe, 1988; Sengör et al., 1988; Metcalfe, 1996, 2011) (Fig. 3) that amalgamated during the Permian and Triassic. Sundaland is intruded by Permian–Triassic, locally Jurassic and Cretaceous granitoids. Granitoids that stretch in a narrow belt across Thailand, the Malay Peninsula and Indonesian Tin islands are cassiterite-bearing (e.g. Cobbing et al., 1992). Sedimentary rocks in Western Sundaland range in age from the Cambrian to recent. However, the oldest strata, the Upper Cambrian shallow marine-deltaic siliciclastic rocks, are common only on the Langkawi Islands and in the NE Malay Peninsula (e.g. Hutchison and Tan, 2009). Lower Palaeozoic marine siliciclastic and calcareous rocks are common on the Sibumasu Block, but are not exposed on the East Malaya and the Sukhothai Arc Blocks. There are also the Carboniferous–Permian glacial-marine ‘pebbly mudstones’ present on Sibumasu, both in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (e.g. Metcalfe, 1996; Barber and Crow, 2009). They indicate that this block was attached to Gondwana during glaciation. The Middle-Upper Palaeozoic strata on the East Malaya and Sukhotai Arc contain warm-water Tethyan/Cathaysian biotas that indicate that these fragments separated from Gondwana earlier than Sibumasu (e.g. Metcalfe, 2011). From the Late Mesozoic onwards, the Malay Peninsula became subaerially exposed. Upper Jurassic– Lower Cretaceous alluvial and fluvial strata of the Malay Peninsula (Rishworth, 1974; Harbury et al., 1990; Racey, 2009) can be correlated with the regionally extensive, laterally continuous Khorat Group ‘redbeds’ in Indochina (Racey, 2009). In the Malay Peninsula, most of the Mesozoic succession has been subsequently eroded. In Sumatra, the Mesozoic is represented by the Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous Woyla Group, composed of an east-facing accretionary complex of ophiolites, pelagic and volcaniclastic sediments, mélanges, and basaltic–andesitic volcanic rocks (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005; Barber and Crow, 2009). The Woyla Nappe is interpreted as an intra-oceanic volcanic arc with carbonate fringing reefs that developed in the Meso-Tethys Ocean and collided with West Sumatra Block in the mid Cretaceous (at about 90 Ma) (Barber, 2000; Barber et al., 2005; Barber and Crow, 2009; Hall et al., 2009). After the mid Cretaceous (90 Ma) Sundaland experienced prolonged Late Cretaceous–Paleogene emergence (Hall and Morley, 2004; Hall, 2009; Clements et al., 2011; Hall, 2011). On land, in the Malay Peninsula, Cenozoic sediments are of limited distribution. These are continental coal-bearing lacustrine and alluvial sediments and minor basalts (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Hutchison and Tan, 2009) (Fig. 1). In Sumatra, there are deep sedimentary basins filled with siliciclastic and calcareous Cenozoic strata, as well as minor Paleocene–Early Eocene and Early Miocene–recent volcanic and plutonic rocks (McCourt et al., 1996; Bellon et al., 2004; Barber et al., 2005). Throughout Western Sundaland sedimentary rocks are metamorphosed at low to moderate grades, while high grade metamorphic rocks are of limited distribution (Figs. 1 and 2).

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4. Present day topography and drainage Sundaland is a relatively low-lying region with maximum elevations rarely exceeding 2000 m. In the Malay Peninsula, mountains form predominantly north–south trending features and the most prominent of these are the Main Range, the Kledang Range, and the Eastern Belt. There is also a group of isolated small mountains forming the north– south trending Central Belt. There are ten major drainage basins in peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 1). The main watershed follows the Main Range. Rivers west of the Main Range drain into the Sunda Shelf and the Singapore Strait. As there are two major mountain ranges on the eastern coast, the Eastern Belt and Tahan Range, some rivers also drain towards the lower inland area. The Pahang River collects streams from central peninsular Malaysia and flows through Lake Bera (Tasik Bera) onto the Sunda Shelf. It has been suggested that in the recent past the Pahang River flew into Lake Bera and then became the present Muar River to flow into the Melaka Strait (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973) on the opposite side of the peninsula. Geologically the Malay Peninsula can be divided into three zones, Eastern, Central and Western (e.g. Hutchison, 1975, 1977; Khoo and Tan, 1983) that are bounded by major fault zones and lie on the East Malaya, Sukhothai Arc and Sibumasu basement blocks respectively (Fig. 1). At present, the most widely exposed lithologies are granitoids, contact metamorphic metapelites, limestones and locally (in the Central Zone) Mesozoic red-bed and volcaniclastic turbidites (Fig. 1). These lithologies are sources of detritus in modern rivers. The Barisan Mountains are the most prominent topographic feature of Sumatra and are 1,650 km long and 100 km wide. They form the major drainage divide in Sumatra and modern rivers split the island into 15 drainage basins (Fig. 2). Modern Sumatran rivers are underlain by Cenozoic volcanic rocks and siliciclastic sedimentary basins.

A

0

50

International border The Main Range Province granitoids The Eastern Province granitoids Modern sediments Cenozoic, continental siliciclastic and volcanic JurassicCretaceous, continental siliciclastic Triassic, siliciclastic, volcaniclastic, and minor limestone

100

kilometres

6° N

5° N

PermianTriassic, siliciclastic, limestone

4° N

Permian, limest one, siliciclastic and volcanic Carbonifer ous, mostly metapelites

3° N

SilurianDe vonian, limest one and siliciclastic Cambrian, siliciclastic

Eastern Zone (East Malaya)

Western Zone (Sibumasu)

2° N

Central Zone (Sukhothai Arc)

101° E

102° E

103° E

104° E

B

Heavy mineral sample Heavy mineral and garnet sample Peninsular drainage divide River basin outlines

da Mu

Terengganu The Belt

Main

tern

Eas

G. Tahan The Ran

4° N

ge

Detrital heavy mineral abundances and zircon morphological types were studied in 69 river sand samples collected from 11 drainage basins in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra (Figs. 1 and 2). Samples were chosen to cover a range of lithologies exposed in each basin. River basin outlines were determined from the HYDRO1K database that is based on the USGS GTOPO30 DEM (Suggate and Hall, 2003). Source lithologies were characterised from published literature, SRTM-derived digital elevation models (DEM) and published geological and river maps (Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Senathi Rajah et al., 1976; Hutchison and Tan, 2009) that were digitised using MapInfo Professional GIS software.

The Kedang Range

Ijok

5.1. Samples

Pe rl

is

Kelantan 5. Samples and methods

Per ak Pahang Selangor

Lake Bera

3° N

5.2. Heavy mineral analysis Heavy minerals were separated in sodium polytungstate (SPT) solution (2.89 g/cm3) using the funnel technique (e.g. Mange and Maurer, 1992). A ‘pilot-test’ was performed on five samples in order to choose the grain-size fraction in which all significant heavy mineral species are present in sufficient amounts (Table. 1) (e.g. Mange and Otvos, 2005). The 63–250 μm fraction was selected based on the results of this test. The SPT heavy fraction was split in halves, using a quartering approach (Mange and Maurer, 1992). One half was used for heavy mineral analysis. Heavy minerals were mounted on glass slides and identified using Nikon and Zeiss Axiolab microscopes. Optical identifications were verified with semi-quantitative SEM analysis of grains that were hand-picked from the same samples. Identifications of hypersthene were confirmed using X-ray powder diffraction on one sample (LKS7-72).

Endau

2° N

Muar 101° E

102° E

103° E

104° E

Fig. 1. A. Simplified geological map of the Malay Peninsula (modified from Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973). Dashed lines show approximate boundaries of the Eastern, Central and Western Zones in the Malay Peninsula. These zones lie on the East Malaya, Sukhothai Arc and Sibumasu basement fragments respectively. B. Modern river drainage patterns of the Malay Peninsula modified from Hydro1K database. Base map—STRM-derived digital elevation model (DEM).

I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

183

Granitoids

Fault

CENOZOIC Holocene-Pleistocene siliciclastic sediments Recent volcanic basic and acid rocks

4° N

PRE-CENOZOIC BASEMENT Pliocene-Eocene siliciclastic sediments

A

TIN ISLANDS TriassicCretaceous Devonian-Permian Bentong-Belitung Accretionary Complex

Pliocene-Eocene basic volcanic rocks

Lower JurassicUpper Cretaceous Woyla Accretionary Complex

2° N

Carboniferous(?)-Triassic Basement

Nias

nI Ti

0°

a s gk nd an B sla

Su nd aF

nd

arc ore

Su

2° S

ren aT ch

4° S 0

200

100

kilometres

98°E

96°E

100°E

102°E

104°E

106°E

108°E

Sample (”LKS7-” omitted)

Banda Aceh

Major drainage divide

a

ip Tr

4° N

B

Sim

River basin outline

Tamiang

on o

gg

River eB

Th

Barumum

nM

isa

ar

2° N

ts.

Rokan

al

Nat

Siak Kampar

Sin ar

gk

0°

ak

Indragir

2° S

aa

m ra

ua

M

Hari 105 107 108 103 111 101 110 100 Musi 96 75 94 88 87 72 92 71 90 69 50 53 67 n

47

4° S

96 96 96 19

45 40 38 35

15

33

96°E

98°E

100°E

102°E

17

104°E

Mesuji 13

05

01

106°E

108°E

Fig. 2. A. Simplified geological map of Sumatra (modified from Barber et al., 2005). B. Modern river drainage basins of Sumatra (based on from Hydro1K database) overlain on the SRTM-derived DEM.

5.3. Zircon typological studies Half of the SPT heavy fraction was run through a Franz Magnetic separator at 20° tilt angle, and 0.1, 0.4, and 1.7 μA voltages. The nonmagnetic (>1.7 μA) fraction from Sumatran samples was mounted on glass slides for zircon typological studies (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1995). In the Malay Peninsula samples, zircon typological studies were carried out using heavy mineral grain mounts. In all cases, detrital grains were mounted in Canada balsam, which was then hardened by heating to 105 °C. Zircons were classified based on their colour, length to width

ratio (l:w), rounding and zoning, and the following categories were recognised: (1) Colourless: (1.a) elongate (l:w>3:1), (1.b) euhedral, (1.c) subhedral/subrounded, (1.d) rounded, (1.e) anhedral and (1.d) surrounded by volcanic glass; (2) Zoned; (3) Purple: (3.a) rounded and (3.b) other; (4) Brown (5) Red.

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6. Results 6.1. Heavy minerals

Bentong-Raub Sukhoth ai Ar c

6.1.1. The Malay Peninsula 34 river sand samples from seven river drainage basins have been analysed from the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 1). Heavy mineral assemblages contain variable amounts of tourmaline (0–85%), amphibole (0–76%), zircon (0–76%), monazite and xenotime (0–62%), andalusite (0–61%), rutile (0–23%), titanite (0–18%), chlorite (0–18%) and epidote (0–16%). Cassiterite, apatite, anatase, garnet, colourless spinel, allanite, diaspore and kyanite occur locally in minor amounts (b3.5%). Distribution of these heavy mineral species within the Malay Peninsula is not uniform. Zircon, tourmaline, amphibole and andalusite are the most common minerals that are present throughout the Malay Peninsula, but in variable amounts. The chiastolite variety of andalusite is common only in the Eastern and Central Zones. Monazite (and xenotime) concentrations are found only in the Western Zone and near Kuantan in the Eastern Zone. Titanite is abundant in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 4).

Tarutao Langkawi The Malay The Sunda Peninsula Shelf

Ni

Singapor e

as

Sumatr a

? Borneo ka

eS

ng

Ba

Th da

un Tr en ch Java

Fig. 3. Principal features and model ages of continental basement beneath western Sundaland (modified from Lan et al., 2003; Hall, 2008; Sone and Metcalfe, 2008; Metcalfe, 2009; Sevastjanova et al., 2011). Black dashed line separated basement fragments that were part of Sundaland by the Mesozoic.

5.4. Point counting Point counting was performed using a Petrog automated stepping stage and software. The line point-counting method (e.g. Mange and Maurer, 1992) with step sizes between 300 and 500 μm was used in the present study. Whenever possible, at least 200 heavy minerals were identified and counted from each slide, which is a sufficient number for characterising abundances of common species (e.g. Mange and Maurer, 1992). Heavy mineral slides were also examined for the presence of other species that were not detected during counting. When present, such species were identified as traces (tr. b0.5%). Whenever possible, 100 counts per sample were made for zircon typological studies (e.g. Mange-Rajetzky, 1995; Lihou and Mange-Rajetzky, 1996).

6.1.2. Sumatra 35 samples were analysed from four drainage basins in Sumatra (Fig. 2). Heavy mineral assemblages of modern river basins in South Sumatra are dominated by orthopyroxene (23–70%), clinopyroxene (15–52%), amphibole (0 25%), locally with zircon (0–24%), chlorite (0–12%), olivine (0–9%), apatite (0–5.5%), epidote (0–4%), garnet (0–4%), and andalusite (0–3%). Vesuvianite, tourmaline, Cr-spinel, rutile, anatase, and corundum are also present locally in smaller amounts (less than 3.5%). These minerals are evenly distributed in the study area (Fig. 4). Orthopyroxene (mostly hypersthene) is strongly pleochroic, suggesting volcanic provenance. Pyroxene habits vary from fresh euhedral to corroded with ‘hacksaw-terminations’ and rarely skeletal shapes. Clinopyroxene (mostly augite) appears more corroded than orthopyroxene. Pyroxene (both ortho- and clino-) is often surrounded by fresh brown volcanic glass. Amphibole is predominantly green-brown hornblende, but rare reddish-brown amphibole (oxyhornblende) is also present. Olivine is fresh or rounded and rarely hacksaw terminations are developed on the rounded grains (Fig. 6). Some olivine is altered to iddingsite. 6.2. Zircon types Detrital zircons in the Malay Peninsula are predominantly colourless euhedral and subhedral, while rounded zircon grains are rare (Fig. 4). A striking feature of detrital zircon assemblages from the Malay Peninsula is the abundance of brown zircons. Sumatran detrital zircons are predominantly colourless euhedral, colourless subhedral and purple. Zircons that are surrounded by volcanic glass are common in all river basins, but are particularly abundant in the Musi Basin (Fig. 4). Such zircons are predominantly stubby (width:length less than 3:1). Volcanic glass that surrounds zircons is colourless, unlike that surrounding pyroxenes (brown) (Fig. 5).

5.5. Detrital garnet microprobe analyses 6.3. Detrital garnet microprobe analyses Detrital garnets were hand-picked, mounted in araldite resin, polished and analysed with a Jeol733 Superprobe and an attached Oxford Instrument ISIS/INCA microanalytical energy-dispersive technique. Analyses were performed at the Research School of Earth Sciences at UCL-Birkbeck using 15 kV accelerating voltage, 0.1 nA beam current, 2 μm spot size and 60 s counting time. Data were calibrated against silicate, pure metal and oxide standards. Almandine, andradite, grossular, pyrope, spessartine and uvarovite end-members were calculated using in-house MINPREP and FORMULA programs (R. Hall, pers. comm., 2007).

103 garnets were analysed from six samples in the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 7). Three garnet groups were identified. Group I (n= 54) includes ugrandite garnets that are predominantly grossular (68–92%) and andradite (2–27%) in composition. Group I garnets also contain almandine (1–9%), spessartine (0–3%) and minor (b1%) uvarovite (0–0.2%). Group II (n= 33) includes spessartine-rich pyralspite garnets that are mainly almandine (14–85%) and spessartine (11–84%) in composition. Group II garnets also contain grossular (0–23%), pyrope (0–18%), andradite (0–4%) and minor uvarovite (0–0.2%).

I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

The Malay Peninsula

Sumatr a

90%

100%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

B

0%

Heavy minerals "Alterites" Other Monazite (and x enotime) Anatase

Per ak Muar Selangor

Rutile Chlorite Epidote

Kelantan

Titanite Garnet Tourmaline Andalusite Apatite Zircon b Hornblende Oxyhorn blend e a Hornblende Diaspore CPX

b

green - brown, blue-green and colourless, other: cassiterite, vesuvianite, kyanite, chloritoid, spinel, chrome spinel, and allanite

Ijok Per ak Muar Selangor

Western Zone

IS6 IS23 IS24 IS46

Red

IS43

Brow n Purp le Other Purp le Round ed

IS2 IS11 IS12 IS16 IS18

Pahang

IS19 IS25 IS26 IS28 IS31

Zoned With glass Anhedral Rounded Subhedral/ Subrounded Euhedral Elongate

Colourless

Centr al Zone

Kelantan

Musi

Zircon types

IS5

IS3

Hari

90%

100%

80%

70%

50%

60%

40%

30%

IS9

20%

IS8

10%

D

0%

90%

100%

70%

80%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

Mesuji

Olivine OPX

a

C

Terengganu

Muaramaan

Eastern Zone

Hari

Pahang

Central Zone

Musi

West ern Zone

Mesuji

Ijok

90%

100%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

10%

20%

0%

A

185

Ter engganu

Eastern Zone

Muaram aan

IS34 IS36 IS37 IS37B IS39 IS40

Fig. 4. Distribution of detrital heavy minerals and zircon types in river sands from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Grey boxes on the left of each diagram show the names of the basins, from which the analysed samples were collected (see Figs. 1 and 2). For the Malay Peninsula diagrams (B and D), black boxes on the left show which zones these river basins are draining.

Group III (n=16) includes all other garnets that are not included into Groups I and II. Group III garnets are predominantly almandine (54–87%) in composition and they also contain pyrope (1–30%), grossular (2–26%), spessartine (0–14%) and minor andradite (0–0.5%) and uvarovite (0–0.2%). Group I garnets are common in all analysed samples. Group II garnets are present in all samples, with the exception of IS18 (Central Zone) and IS36 (Eastern Zone). Group III garnets are present in IS37B (Eastern Zone), IS18 (Central Zone) and IS6 (western Zone). 7. Discussion 7.1. Provenance 7.1.1. The Malay Peninsula Heavy minerals in river sands from the Malay Peninsula indicate two important assemblages, (I) granitic and (II) contact metamorphic/

contact metasomatic. (I) The granitic heavy mineral assemblage includes zircon, brown tourmaline, green-brown amphibole, andalusite (but not the chiastolite variety), monazite (and xenotime), titanite, epidote (secondary) and minor cassiterite, apatite and allanite. Of these minerals zircon is ubiquitous. Euhedral/subhedral habit, colour and abundant Permian–Triassic and locally Cretaceous U–Pb ages of detrital zircons (Sevastjanova et al., 2011) suggest a first-cycle granitic provenance for this mineral. Green-brown hornblende is most common in the Eastern Zone, while in the Western Zone it is only present in its north-western part; and brown tourmaline is most common in the Western Zone. Titanite (Fig. 5) and andalusite (Fig. 5) are common only in the northern and north-western part of the Malay Peninsula. Andalusite is typically considered as a contact metamorphic mineral (e.g. Deer et al., 1992; Mange and Maurer, 1992). However, the common andalusite in this area is interpreted to be of magmatic origin because it is inclusion-free (e.g. Clarke et al., 2004) (Fig. 6). A granitic provenance for andalusite is supported by the observation of Azman

186 Table 2 Distribution of potentially provenance-diagnostic heavy minerals in SE Asia. Based on Fitch (1952; Ingham and Bradford, 1960; MacDonald, 1967; Alexander, 1968; Leong, 1968; MacDonald, 1971; Bradford, 1972; Gobbett and Hutchison, 1973; Jones, 1978; Heng, 1982; Manning, 1982; wan Hassan, 1989; Krähenbuhl, 1991; Cobbing et al., 1992; wan Hassan, 1994; Azman et al., 1999; Khoo, 2002a, 2002b; Azman, 2003, 2005; Azman and Singh, 2005; Barber et al., 2005; Mitchell et al., 2007; Hutchison and Tan, 2009). Source rocks

Allanite Anatase Andalusite Apatite Cassiterite Clinozoisite Corundum Clinopyroxene Chrome spinel Detrital chlorite Diamond Diaspore Diopside Epidote Fluorite Garnet Glaucophane Hornblende, actinolitic Hornblende, blue-green Hornblende, green-brown Kyanite Malayaite Monazite Olivine Orthopyroxene Rutile Silimanite Staurolite Titanite Topaz Tourmaline Tremolite Vesuvianite (Idiocrase) Xenotime Zircon Zoisite

The tin belt granitoids, and Toba tuffs Secondary in granitoids and authigenic The Eastern Province contact metamorphic schists, rarely the Main Range Province granitoids Acid-intermediate igneous and volcanic, and metamorphic The Main Range Province granitoid, pegmatite veins, skarns, and Cenozoic placers Locally common in metamorphic rocks The Main Range contact aureole (with carbonates) Volcanic and rarely in metamorphic rocks Ophiolites Low grade metamorphic rocks Unknown sedimentary source The Main Range Province granitoid contact aureole (with carbonates) and possibly in Cenozoic volcanics (?) Locally common in metamorphic rocks Secondary in granitoids and volcanic rocks Very rare in the Main Range Province granitoids Contact aureoles and schists Not known from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra The Main Range Province granitoids; rarely contact metamorphic aureoles The tin belt granitoids The Eastern Province granitoids, Cenozoic volcanic rocks, and tin belt contact metamorphic aureoles Rare high grade metamorphic, e.g. the Taku Schist Discovered from the Perak State in the Malay Peninsula; very rare elsewhere in the world; occurs in skarns The Main Range Province granitoids, Kuantan area in the Eastern Province, and placers Basic volcanic rocks Volcanic rocks Metapelites, Cenozoic placers, and rarely in granitoids Rare high grade metamorphic, e.g. the Taku Schist and contact aureoles Very rare in metamorphic rocks The tin belt granitoids, particularly in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula Aluminium-rich contac metamorphic rocks, e.g. tourmaline−corundum rocks in the Kinta Valley The Main Range Province: evolved leucogranites, pegmatite veins, contact aureoles, greisens, and metasedimentary rocks Rare in metamorphic rocks The Main Range contact aureole (with carbonates) The Main Range Province granitoids, Kuantan area in the Eastern Province, and placers Acid igneous and volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary Locally common in metamorphic rocks

+++, very common; ++, common; +, present; +/−, locally present; −, not found; ?, no data; CPX, clinopyroxene; OPX, orthopyroxene.

Malay Peninsula

Sumatra

Other SE Asia

+ +/− +++ ++ + + + +/− +/− + + +/− + + +/− +/− − ++ +/− +++ +/− +/− ++ +/− + +/− +/− +/− ++ + ++ +/− + ++ +++ +

+ +/− ++ ++ + ? +/− +++ +/− + − ? + + +/− +/− − ? +/− ++ ? − + +/−

+ +/− ? ++ + ? + + + + + ? + + ? ++ + ? +/− ++ + − + +/− ? +/− + ? + + ++ + ? ? +++ ?

+++ +/− +/− +/− + + + +/− + + +++ ?

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Mineral

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Ti

Ti

Chst

Chst

Cas

Cas

And

Mon

Mon

Aug

Hy

187

Ves

g Hy

Zir g Hb

g

Zir

Aug

g

Ol

g

0

50

100 µm

And: andalusite, Aug: augite, Cas: cassiterite, Chst: chiastolite, Hb: hornblende, Hy: hypersthene, Mon: monazite, Ol: olivine; Ti: titatnite, Ves: Vesuvianite, g: volcanic glass Fig. 5. Selected examples of detrital heavy minerals from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Images with the light backgrounds are in plane polarised light, whereas images with the black backgrounds are in crossed polars. Note that hypersthene and augite are surrounded by brown volcanic glass, suggesting derivation from the ash-borne tuffs. Also note that zircons which are surrounded by colourless volcanic glass are not elongate.

(2005) that the Malay Peninsula's Main Range Province S-type granitoids contain andalusite but not cordierite. Monazite forms local concentrations in river sediments of the Western Zone and around Kuantan in the Eastern Zone. (II) The contact metamorphic/contact metasomatic heavy mineral assemblage includes abundant inclusion-rich andalusite and rare garnet, diaspore and vesuvianite. Andalusite characteristic of this assemblage is common in the Eastern Zone and is interpreted as derived from the contact metamorphic Carboniferous metapelites which are abundant in this area. Common inclusions and the presence of the chiastolite (Fig. 5) variety support a contact metamorphic origin for this mineral (e.g. Clarke et al., 2004). Based on the systematic compilation and analysis of the garnet compositional database, Suggate (2011) concluded that extreme protolith types, such as skarns, calc-silicates, peridotites, eclogites, blue schists and granitoids yield garnets of source-specific compositions, which can be used as provenance indicators. However, it is impossible to

identify with confidence garnet that is derived from pelitic, basic and intermediate volcanic and ultrabasic protoliths (Suggate, 2011). It is also impossible to identify metamorphic conditions based on garnet compositional data (Suggate, 2011). The comparison of new garnet data from the present study with the database of Suggate (2011) shows unequivocally that grossular-rich garnet that is diagnostic of the Malay Peninsula (Group 1) is derived from a calc-silicate and skarn protolith (Fig. 7). This interpretation is consistent with previously published work of Deer et al. (1992) and Mange and Maurer (1992), who suggested that grossular garnet is common in skarns and other contact metamorphic calc-silicates, as well as rodingites. Spessartinerich garnet has a granitoid protolith (Deer et al., 1992; Suggate, 2011). We, therefore, interpret spessartine-rich garnet from the Malay Peninsula (Group II) to be derived from the contact aureoles of the granitoid intrusions. It is difficult to interpret provenance of other Malay Peninsula's garnet (Group III), which is of non-extreme composition, but this group is not abundant (15% of all garnet analyses). Garnet contact

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chiastolite

monazite

hornblende

andalusite

olivine

0

50 100µm

olivine

olivine

Fig. 6. Selected examples of backscattered electron microphotographs of heavy minerals from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

metamorphic provenance is also supported by association of grossular with vesuvianite, which is a typical mineral of skarns or regionally metamorphosed impure limestones (Deer et al., 1992; Mange and Maurer, 1992). Furthermore, andradite garnet and vesuvianite are found in skarns around the Main Range Province granitoids in other areas of the Tin Belt, in southern Thailand (e.g. Schwartz et al., 1995). Spessartine-rich garnet was also described from the Tin Belt aplites and pegmatites of Peninsular Thailand and Phuket (Manning, 1983). Garnet of contact metamorphic provenance is also consistent with the abundance of chiastolite variety of andalusite, a common contact metamorphic mineral, in heavy mineral assemblages of the Eastern Zone. The medium and high-grade metamorphic minerals, colourless spinel and kyanite, are sporadically present in the Central and Eastern Zone of the Malay Peninsula. These indicate a minor contribution from rare, poorly studied and isotopically undated schists, e.g. the Taku Schist (Hutchison and Tan, 2009). Several provenance-diagnostic heavy minerals were identified for the Malay Peninsula Tin Belt granites. These include Permian–Triassic brown zircons, monazite (and xenotime), chiastolite and, if present, cassiterite, diaspore, colourless spinel and allanite. However, the distribution of these minerals within the peninsula is not uniform. Cassiterite (Fig. 5), which is common in the peninsula's Tin Belt granitoids is uncommon (max. 3.5%) in river sands, possibly due to its high specific gravity (~7.15 g/cm3) and high settling velocity (Fletcher, 1994; Fletcher and Loh, 1996). Studies of tin-bearing placers in SE Asia (e.g. Aleva, 1985) and elsewhere in the world (e.g. Yim, 1994) suggest that under normal flow conditions most of detrital cassiterite is trapped in placers close (0.5–1 km) to its source (Aleva, 1985; Yim, 1994). Fine cassiterite grains recycled from pre-existing placer deposits can occasionally travel for distances greater than 0.5 km in the river valleys (Aleva, 1985). Fletcher and Loh (1996) noted that cassiterite is unevenly distributed in river sands from the Malay Peninsula. Therefore, when present in SE Asian sedimentary basins, cassiterite can be a sensitive indicator of the Tin Belt provenance (e.g. van Hattum et al., 2006) but the absence of cassiterite offshore does not necessitate a different provenance. 7.1.2. Sumatra Heavy minerals from river sands in Sumatra suggest contributions from two major sources: (I) the Cenozoic volcanic arc and (II) the

basement. The Cenozoic volcanic arc assemblage includes strongly pleochroic hypersthene (Fig. 5), augite and oxyhornblende. Some pyroxenes are surrounded by fragile volcanic glass and this suggests a contribution directly from air-borne tuffs. Minerals recycled from the unexposed basement are present only in small amounts. These are garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, chrome spinel, rutile, anatase, and corundum. Zircon, apatite, green-brown amphibole, epidote, olivine and vesuvianite (Fig. 5) are also common in Sumatra and are likely to have a mixed provenance. Vesuvianite is present locally, indicating a contribution from contact metamorphosed impure limestones (e.g. Deer et al., 1992; Mange and Maurer, 1992) either from the pre-Cenozoic basement or from the xenoliths in young volcanic rocks. The presence of rounded olivine along with fresh angular olivine suggests derivation from multiple sources and rounded grains show that olivine can survive transport. Some detrital zircons in Sumatra are surrounded by colourless volcanic glass (Fig. 5) and this indicates a contribution from acid volcanic rocks. Zircon elongation is considered as a factor reflecting grain crystallization velocity (e.g. Corfu et al., 2003). ‘Stubby’ and equant forms are associated with slowly cooled intrusions, whereas elongate acicular shapes occur as a result of rapid crystallization and are traditionally interpreted as of volcanic origin (e.g. Corfu et al., 2003). However, in Sumatra, zircons that are surrounded by volcanic glass (an unequivocal sign of volcanic provenance) are mostly stubby (w:l b 3:1). An abundance of volcanic hypersthene is a unique signature of Sunda Arc provenance. In volcanic arcs rocks elsewhere in the world, hypersthene is subordinate to associated clinopyroxene (usually augite) (e.g. Camus et al., 2000; Carn and Pyle, 2001; Handley, 2006). Detrital orthopyroxene is more abundant than detrital clinopyroxene in sands derived from the pyroxene-andesites of the Inner Kuril volcanic arc (e.g. Noda, 2005). However, in most other sands of andesitic provenance, clinopyroxene is the most common transparent heavy mineral (e.g. Dickinson, 2007; Markevich et al., 2007). In contrast to those from the Malay Peninsula, compositions of heavy mineral assemblages in Sumatran river sands are uniform (Fig. 4). However, several episodes of volcanic activity have been recognised throughout the Cenozoic in this area and the composition of erupted rocks has changed through time. Paleogene volcanic rocks consist of basalts and variable pyroxene-rich mafic lavas and agglomerates (e.g. Rock et al.,

I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Blue-schist protolith

CENTRAL ZONE

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Spessartine

Almandine

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

Grossular and Andradite

Other garnets

Pyrope

Grossular and Andradite

IS7 n=15 Peridotite protolith

Other garnets (Group 3)

Other garnets

Spessartine

Almandine

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

Other garnets

Blue-schist protolith

Spessartine IS6 n=24

Peridotite protolith

Peridotite protolith Other garnets

Other garnets

Blue-schist protolith

WESTERN ZONE

Blue-schist protolith

Almandine

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

Grossular and Andradite

Other garnets

Pyrope

Grossular and Andradite

IS18 n=18

Peridotite protolith

Other garnets

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Spessartine

Almandine

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

Other garnets

Blue-schist protolith

Spessartine IS12 n=12

Other garnets

Pyrope

Blue-schist protolith

Peridotite protolith

Pyrope

Other garnets

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

EASTERN ZONE

Other garnets

Almandine

Pyrope

Peridotite protolith

Grossular and Andradite

Calc-silicate protolith (Group 1)

Grossular and Andradite

IS37B n=17

Almandine

Pyrope

IS36 n=17

189

Granitoid protolith (Group 2)

Spessartine

Fig. 7. Ternary diagrams showing abundances of almandine, grossular and andradite, pyrope, and spessartine end-members in detrital garnets from the Malay Peninsula. Provenance fields from Suggate (2011).

1982). Locally, basalts are intruded by Miocene diorites. Miocene volcanic rocks are calc-alkaline to high-K calc-alkaline basalts, andesites, and dacites. Pleistocene–Holocene volcanic rocks include calc-alkaline andesites, dacites, and rhyolites with rare basalts. These are less variable, but on the whole more acid, than the Neogene–Paleogene volcanic rocks (e.g. Rock et al., 1982). Therefore, heavy mineral assemblages in

Cenozoic sandstones derived from Sumatra may not be identical to those observed in modern rivers. Nonetheless, the presence of volcanic minerals is expected in all Cenozoic sediments derived from this area. Rare occurrences of minerals derived from the basement do not allow detailed characterisation. However, it is expected that heavy

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minerals derived from the pre-Cenozoic basement of Sumatra would be similar to those in modern rivers of the Malay Peninsula. 7.2. Heavy mineral dissolution during transport Heavy mineral assemblages in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra are immature, despite the position of these areas at the heart of the humid tropics. Apatite is common in granitic and volcanic source rocks but rare in the river sediments, suggesting selective dissolution during weathering. However, other minerals commonly regarded as less durable, such as amphibole, pyroxene, monazite, xenotime, andalusite, titanite, and olivine, are preserved and locally abundant. Although corrosion and etching marks on the surfaces of these grains (Fig. 5) suggest some dissolution, the abundance of these minerals indicates mild dissolution that only significantly affected apatite. Furthermore, rounding of olivine suggests that this mineral survives transport in tropical rivers. Rounding can be produced during first cycle transport but may also indicate recycling of olivine from the pre-Cenozoic basement, e.g. from the Woyla Group. The diversity of heavy mineral species and preservation of olivine, pyroxene and amphibole suggest high erosion rates, rapid transport and short grain residence time in the river. This is in agreement with the high present day sediment yields typical of SE Asia (Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Milliman et al., 1999; Syvitski and Milliman, 2007; Kao and Milliman, 2008). Models based on U-series isotopes suggest that the mean sand-grain residence time in global rivers varies between ~1 and 500 kyr (e.g. Vigier et al., 2006). The shortest residence is typical of highland drainages, e.g. Iceland (0.98–6.3 kyr, Vigier et al., 2006) the Andes (3–4 kyr, Dosseto et al., 2006a), and SE Australia (Dosseto et al., 2006b). In the Amazon lowlands mean sediment residence time is longer, 100– 500 kyr (Dosseto et al., 2006a). The authors know of no sediment residence time studies in SE Asia. However, by analogy with other short rivers draining mountainous regions it is assumed that the mean grain residence time in rivers of the Malay Peninsula does not exceed several thousand years. Even more rapid transport is expected for the volcanic arc-derived sediments in Sumatra. Deposition of material from turbidity currents, pyroclastic flows, mass flows and air-borne-tuffs typical of volcanic arcs (Marsaglia et al., 1995; Underwood et al., 1995) is almost instantaneous on a geological time scale. For instance, sediment accumulation rates from the rain-triggered lahar deposits at the Merapi Volcano, Central Java vary between 3.5–4 cm/min to 20 cm/min (Lavigne and Thouret, 2003). Seasonal climate fluctuations and episodic heavy rainfalls, such as those typical of SE Asia, can further reduce grain residence time in the river. Kao and Milliman (2008) demonstrated that in Taiwan, dry- and wet-season discharges vary by 1–2 orders of magnitude. Typhooninduced floods increase river discharge by 2–3 orders of magnitude in a single day. Such events can account for a major part of the annual sediment discharge even when they last only several hours to a few days (Syvitski and Milliman, 2007; Kao and Milliman, 2008). According to van Baren and Kiel (1950) heavy mineral assemblages on the shallow-marine shelf around Sumatra and Java are dominated by hypersthene, augite, and hornblende. Both corroded and fresh grains that are locally surrounded by volcanic glass are common in these areas. Andalusite and staurolite are abundant in offshore Borneo, whereas epidote and blue-green hornblende are prominent in the South China Sea (van Baren and Kiel, 1950). This suggests that only an insignificant selective loss of heavy mineral species from the heavy mineral assemblages occurs on the Sunda Shelf. Rapid sediment transport minimises mineral interaction with natural etching fluids, and in a monsoonal climate such fluids are diluted by heavy rainfall. Mild heavy mineral weathering has also been observed in other modern tropical settings, e.g. in the Gulf of Carpentaria (Haredy, 2008). It is therefore argued from the present study that, in contrast to common assumptions, detrital heavy minerals may have high preservation potential in tectonically active tropical areas, such as SE Asia.

7.3. Implications for sediment provenance in the North Sumatra Basin These new data add important details to the heavy mineral provenance model for Miocene sedimentary rocks of the North Sumatra Basin (Morton et al., 1994). Based on heavy mineral data, supplemented by garnet and tourmaline geochemistry, Morton et al. (1994) suggested that in the Early Miocene sediments were shed to this basin from the east-southeast (the Malay Peninsula or Asahan Arch), while in the Middle-Late Miocene sandstones were sourced from the Barisan Mountains in Sumatra. Heavy mineral suites common in the Miocene sandstones of the North Sumatra Basins are dramatically different from those in Sumatran river sands. The North Sumatra Basin lacks hypersthene, augite and hornblende, which are abundant in modern rivers draining the Barisan Mountains (Fig. 4). These discrepancies cannot be explained simply by the dissolution of these mineral species during weathering or after deposition. Profound lateritic weathering inferred from the presence of diaspore by Morton et al. (1994) would be expected to result in dissolution of phosphate minerals. Apatite, abundant in the Miocene sandstones of the North Sumatra Basin, contradicts this inference. Furthermore, diaspore does not directly indicate lateritic weathering, as it is present not only in sedimentary bauxites, but is also a common product of hydrothermal alteration of aluminous minerals, e.g. sillimanite, kyanite, andalusite, pyrophyllite or corundum (e.g. Deer et al., 1992). Morton et al. (1994) showed that garnets in the Middle–Upper Miocene sandstones of the North Sumatra Basin, which they interpreted as derived from the Barisan Mountains in Sumatra, are pyrope-poor grossular and spessartine varieties. However, new data obtained in this study show that grossular and spessartine garnets are also common in the Malay Peninsula (Fig. 7). North Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula are both underlain by fragments of Gondwanaderived continental crust that is intruded by granitoids and it is therefore argued here that heavy mineral assemblages derived from the Malay Peninsula cannot be confidently distinguished from those derived from the pre-Cenozoic basement of Sumatra. However, by the Miocene the basement of Sumatra was not producing abundant detritus because it was covered by the Eocene–Oligocene volcanic rocks, volcaniclastic sediments and was the site of sediment deposition. Since granitic and metamorphic minerals are abundant in both the Belumai and the Keutapang sandstones, it is proposed here that the Malay Peninsula was a major source of sediments in the North Sumatra Basin throughout the Miocene and not only during the Early Miocene. Previous provenance models for the North Sumatra Basin (e.g. Kallagher, 1989; Morton et al., 1994; Samuel et al., 1997) do not account for several other significant observations. The Miocene formations in the North, Central, and South Sumatra Basins are distinctively different from those in the Barisan Mountains and in the forearc basins. The Miocene strata in the basins east of the Barisan Mountains are predominantly shales; and coarse immature sandstones that are locally tuffaceous are common only along the Eastern Foothills of the Barisan Mountains (e.g. Barber et al., 2005). This suggests only a small contribution from the Barisan Mountains and the nearby Cenozoic volcanic arc into these basins. In contrast, volcanic material is abundant in Miocene shelf deposits and deep-water turbidites of the forearc basins (Kallagher, 1989; Samuel et al., 1997; Barber et al., 2005). Kallagher (1989) has shown that epidote, amphibole, tourmaline, tremolite, zircon, and minor rutile, apatite, sillimanite, spinel, and hypersthene are common in Pleistocene strata of the West Aceh Basin. There are no heavy mineral studies of the Miocene strata in the forearc basins. However, trace amounts of olivine, hornblende, and tourmaline were identified in thin-sections of the Miocene sandstones from Nias (the Nias Beds) (Kallagher, 1989). The presence of olivine and amphibole suggests that significant postdepositional dissolution is unlikely to have taken place.

I. Sevastjanova et al. / Sedimentary Geology 280 (2012) 179–194

EARLY MIOCENE 20 Ma

?

Su nd

?

aT r en ch

? Transgression LATE MIOCENE 10 Ma

?

Su aT

nd

?

191

ch

r en

The new interpretation based on the present study supports the suggestion of Morton et al. (1994) that during the Miocene sediments were shed into the North Sumatra Basins from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. We agree that occurrences of chrome spinel in the Middle– Upper Miocene sandstones of this basin mark sediment influx from the Woyla Group that was caused by the uplift of the Barisan Mountains. The exposure of the Barisan Mountains from the Mid Miocene onwards could have been further amplified by eustatic sea level fall (e.g. Haq et al., 1987). However, we argue that the Malay Peninsula remained a dominant source area for sediment in the North Sumatra Basin throughout the Miocene. We suggest that only a minor contribution from the Miocene volcanic rocks was shed into the North Sumatra Basin, and most of these immature assemblages were shed towards the Sunda Forearc Basins. This is consistent with the conclusion of Barber et al. (2005) with regard to the migration of the major drainage divide in Sumatra during the Cenozoic. Wide present day exposure of granitoids in the Malay Peninsula, which were emplaced at deeper crustal levels, suggests a significant unroofing of this area. There are a few geobarometric studies based on the aluminium content in granitic hornblendes, and contact metamorphic mineral assemblages, from in situ samples and pebbles derived from these rocks (Hutchison, 1989; Khoo, 2002a; Azman and Singh, 2005). The accuracy of these data is not always clear, but they suggest that between 6 and 14 km of overburden strata may have been removed from the Malay Peninsula since granite emplacement in the Mesozoic. This is consistent with denudation estimates for other areas in SE Asia. Hall and Nichols (2002) estimated that average thickness of 6 km crust has been removed from Borneo during the Cenozoic and denudation rates per unit area of Borneo are comparable to those of the Himalayan orogen (Hall and Nichols, 2002). Such rapid source area unroofing is likely to have resulted in a complete removal of certain rock types from the source area. This partly explains the dramatic differences in heavy mineral assemblages between SE Asian river sands discussed in this study and the North Sumatra Basin sandstones (Morton et al., 1994).

? Regression 0

250

500 km

deep sea

highland

possible drainage divide

Fig. 8. Simplified map showing the Miocene sedimentary pathways in western Sundaland. Red box shows an approximate location of the North Sumatra Basin. Distribution of highlands and deep sea modified from Barber et al. (2005). White areas show emerged lowlands or shallow-marine shelf. In the Early Miocene sediment were shed from the Malay Peninsula. The Barisan Mountains became emergent as a result of ongoing uplift and eustatic sea level changes (e.g. Haq et al., 1987).

Abundant volcaniclastic sediments in the forearc and recycled sediments in the North Sumatra Basin suggest that during the Miocene the Barisan Mountains were shedding detritus predominantly towards E and SE. This suggests either (a) a different drainage divide or (b) higher sediment yields for rivers discharging into the forearc. A different position for the drainage divide compared to the present day fits well with the palinspastic reconstructions of Barber et al. (2005) that suggest ca. 30 km eastwards migration of the divide since the Middle Miocene (Fig. 8). Algorithms used for predicting present day sediment yields (e.g. Milliman and Syvitski, 1992; Milliman et al., 1999) suggest that small mountainous rivers, such as those draining the eastern slope of the Barisan Mountains, would have transported very large volumes of detritus. At present, higher sediment yields are expected for the forearc basins, compared to those close to the Malaka Straits (e.g. Suggate and Hall, 2003). A similar situation is probable during the Miocene.

8. Conclusions 1. Granitic and contact metamorphic heavy mineral assemblages prevail in river sands from the Malay Peninsula. Several provenancediagnostic heavy minerals are identified for this area which includes the Tin Belt granitoids. These are brown zircon, monazite, chiastolite and, if present, cassiterite, colourless spinel, diaspore and allanite. However, the distribution of these minerals within the peninsula is not uniform. Dense minerals (e.g. cassiterite) are rarely transported large distances and therefore absence of any of these minerals offshore does not necessitate a different provenance. 2. Detrital heavy minerals in modern Sumatran river sands are derived from two major sources: the active volcanic arc (I) and the basement (II). Abundant hypersthene and augite are diagnostic of the volcanic arc source. Vesuvianite, garnet, andalusite, tourmaline, chrome spinel, rutile, anatase and corundum, are present only in small amounts (b3%), and are interpreted to be recycled from the basement. Zircon, apatite, hornblende, epidote, and olivine are also common in Sumatra and are likely to have a mixed provenance from these two sources. 3. An abundance of pyroxene, amphibole and locally monazite and olivine suggests mild weathering. This possibly reflects dilution of natural etching fluids by heavy rainfall in a monsoonal climate, high erosion rates, rapid transport and short grain residence time in the river. 4. Comparisons of heavy mineral assemblages from tropical rivers draining SE Asia with previously published data from the North Sumatra Basin reveal significant provenance changes within the last 5–7 Ma (since the Late Miocene). These changes are most likely caused by the rapid unroofing of the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra.

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Supplementary data to this article can be found online at doi:10. 1016/j.sedgeo.2012.03.007. Acknowledgements This contribution is dedicated to the memory of Dr Maria Anna Mange-Rajetzky, who is deeply missed by her friends and colleagues. Maria is sincerely thanked for her tremendous help with heavy mineral identifications and for useful discussions about the dissolution of heavy minerals in SE Asia. IS thanks the International Association of Sedimentologists (IAS) for an award from the Postgraduate Grant Scheme that made it possible to visit Maria in UC Davis and improve heavy mineral identifications. The work presented here was funded by the SE Asia Research Group and we thank our sponsors and colleagues, in particular Dr Benjamin Clements, Dr Michael Cottam, Dr Ian Watkinson, Dr Simon Suggate, Indra Gunawan, Lorin Davis, Duncan Witts and Lanu Cross. 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