A functional perspective on improving leadership effectiveness

The leader with a functional perspective uses structures within the larger organization to get people to accomplish important tasks and commit themselves to organizational goals.

A Functional Perspective on Improving Leadership EfJectiveness Orlando Behling Charles F. Rauch,

Jr.

t least three times in the 64-year history of formal

leadership

research,

experts in the

with some research that shows how the problems with previous approaches may be over-

field thought they knew the answer to the rid-

come. Finally, ways in which the functional

dle, “What creates leadership?” Each time, however, after it became obvious that re-

perspective

search was yielding little theoretical

can

help

managers

increase

leadership effectiveness will be discussed.

under-

standing or useful instruction, they had to admit that leadership had eluded researchers and managers alike. Several factors have contributed to the limited success of attempts to understand leadership, the most important being the failure to look at leadership from a functional perspective. As a response to that omission, this article will first review past approaches to leadership as background for a discussion of the functional perspective. Next, the functional perspective will be described along

PREVIOUS PERSPECTIVESON LEADERSHIP

Most of the research uses one of four theories to describe the nature of leadership: universal trait, universal behavior, situational trait, or situational behavior explanations. (See Exhibit 1.) The universal trait explanation of leadership begins with the assumption that effective leaders share a set of personal characteristics that set them apart from their less effective counterparts. There are few personal

51

characteristics another

that have not at one time or

been identified

ship; however,

with effective leader-

drive or energy,

oral and written

communication

physical

(height)

stature

most commonly these

theories

identified

intelligence, skills, and

have

been

linked to leadership. differ

in the

as important

those

Though

characteristics

is that those with the

“right” traits can lead almost any kind of individual in almost any kind of situation. the universal behavior

In contrast, starts

effectiveness

1920) until approximately research away

with the assumption

in leadership

stems

that

less from

domi(around

1950. Mainstream

in the 1950s and early 1960s moved from

attempts

leader characteristics a universally

to

isolate

successful

and toward a search for

effective

leadership

style.

The limits of both of these theories became

more and more obvious

as research

results accumulated. A relatively simple search for the characteristics or the behaviors of effective leaders changed to a complicated attempt to identify and match characteristics of situations

and subordinates

with charac-

who the manager is than from the way in which he or she behaves. Advocates of the uni-

teristics and behaviors ational trait approach

versal behavior

Fiedler in 1963, but most recent research

“leadership haviors

approach

often speak about

style,” the particular

that a manager

learned

be-

uses to deal with em-

ployees. thought, approach fectively

Like the universal trait school of advocates of the universal behavior assume that one style will work effor almost

all situations

and subor-

been

based

havior

of managers. The situwas proposed by Fred

on a variety

approaches.

of situational

Although

The

situational

trait explanation

returns to the idea that success in leadership is intrinsic-but holds that no one set of characteristics

can

guarantee

effectiveness

situational

has bebe-

havior approaches aren’t ideal-in terms of scientific accuracy or practical usefulness they do point in the right direction. Therefore, of four major approaches to leadership study that have emerged over the years, three lack scientific

dinates.

ticality.

The evidence

ational

behavior

not encouraging. ture

about

merit and prac-

is not all in for the situ-

approach,

but results

In other words,

leadership

contains

are

the literalittle

that

across more than a narrow range of situations and subordinates. Finally, the situational behavior ex-

would cause many people to disagree with this statement, made by Warren Bennis almost 24 years ago: “Of all the hazy and con-

planation assumes that leadership is a matter of learned style that may work in one situa-

founding areas in social psychology, leadership theory undoubtedly contends for top nomination. And, ironically, probably more

tion with one group of subordinates but not in another. Thus, since the manager cannot rely on a single style, he or she must have a repertoire in order to respond to varying circumstances

52

nated the research from its beginning

to leader success, they

share the assumption

explanation

ing effective leaders, and this emphasis

and different subordinates. While all four categories of explanation have had advocates throughout the history of formal study of leadership, there have been important shifts in mainstream thought from one era to another. As Exhibit 1 shows, the earliest work on leadership centered on the search for a single set of traits characteriz-

has been leadership havioral

written and less known about than any other topic in the be-

sciences. “ It is clearly time for a new approach to leadership: The functional perspective has some important advantages over those theories that preceded it. Not only does it yield some important insights into the reasons that leaders succeed and fail, but it can also be used to guide managers in selecting their leadership behaviors on a day-to-day basis.

Exhibit I DEVELOPMENT OF MAINSTREAMLEADERSHIP THEORY

Leadership a personal characteristic or “trait” of the manager 1920-1950

is..

.

a behavior; something the manager does 1950 -1965

1965 -Present

THE FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

proaches to leadership is to compare it with understanding something as mundane as an

The functional perspective has its roots in structural functionalism, which attempts to show how the actions of a person, group, organization, or society affect the larger social systems in which they exist. Perhaps a good way to understand the functional perspective and the ways in which it differs from more traditional ap-

automobile carburetor. A static description of a carburetor could be compared with a traits description of a leader. A blueprint and a materials-specifications sheet for a carburetor is obviously useful; a person trying to replace a broken part or to duplicate a carburetor would find it invaluable. A dynamic description of a carburetor, which might in-

53

a carburetor would explain that the carburetor provides the proper mixture of gasoline and oxygen to permit explosive combustion in the cylinders and would provide some important information

not available from the

other two ways of looking at the mechanism. First, the functional perspective can help determine which are requisite or auxiliary functions Orlando

Behling

Bowling

Green State University

joining

is professor

the BGSU faculty,

professor of organizational

of management

in Ohio. Before

Dr. Behling was a behavior

at Ohio

performed

personnel administrator for manpower develop Corporation

in Minneapolis, Minnesota, before

he began his teaching career. Dr. Behling received his Ph.D. from the He is a

the identification

member of the American Psychological Association and its Division

of Industrial

and Or-

was elected presiden

of Management

nor

Yet they are

form for the engine. They are, in other words, “functionally

s&ant for a wide variety of firms, governmental agencies, and professional associations in the areas of leadership, stress, and employee improvement.

*

equivalent structures:’ An un-

derstanding of functional equivalencies allows for the replacement of one with another, even though they may look and operate differently.

volve diagrams of the movements of its parts and their relation to the flow of raw gasoline,

The Functional Perspective on Leadership

air, and the combustible mixture they create, would explain what the carburetor does,

A functional perspective on leadership, then, must do two things. First, it must look at task-

rather than what it is. This kind of descrip-

oriented groups-firms, departments, work teams -and determine their essential func-

tion, like behavioral

descriptions

of leader-

ship, has value. A mechanic would find it extremely useful in trouble-shooting, for example. But neither the static nor the dy-

54

operates in the same fashion.

equivalent in terms of the function they per-

Review.

Dr. Behling, a licensed psychologist, is a con

performance

equivalents.

a fuel injection

system neither looks like a carburetor t

of the Academy’s Midwest Division, and is the editor of the Academy

is requisite-

of functional

In the case of an automobile,

ganizational Psychology. He is active in the Academy of Management,

by the carburetor

necessary- for the operation of the car, while the function of the pollution control valve is not. Second, this perspective allows for

at Control Data

University of Wisconsin-Madison.

move the carburetor, and the engine stops; remove the pollution control valve and the engine continues to run. The function

State University for 18 years. He worked as a ment and communications

within the context of the

larger system or structure. For example, re-

al

namic description of a carburetor alone nor the two together tell us everything about the mechanism. Important additional insight may be gained by looking at its function: the role it plays in the operation of the engine of which it is part. A functional description of

tions. Second, it must deal with leadership as a structure that has rough functional equivalents. Leadership functions. Although leadership research has started with many different assumptions and moved along different paths, there is a common thread running through the many conclusions that have been drawn. The various theories have identified two major dimensions of leadership-

one is the leader’s efforts to get the job done, and the other is his or her efforts to ensure the satisfaction of group members and the wellbeing and cohesiveness of the work group. From a functional perspective, we can say that leadership

performs

two major

func-

tions. First, leadership ensures that the group accomplishes some tusk important to the larger organization of which it is a part. Second,

leadership

maintenance;

operates

to ensure group

that is, individual satisfaction

and commitment

are at sufficient levels to

keep the group intact and working toward or-

Charles

F. Rauch,

Jr. has been a member of the

management faculty of the College of Business Administration at the University

of Maine at

Orono for the past three years and has recently

ganizational goals. Both of these functions can be per-

assumed the duties of acting director of finan-

formed by a number of different structures of which the behavior of the official unit head is

In 7976, he retired from the U.S. Navy as a

only one. The task function may be fulfilled if the leader uses such task-oriented behaviors as assigning work to individuals, specifying goals or targets, distributing rules or procedures, clarifying roles, and so forth. Or the task function may be fulfilled by actions of influential, “informal leaders:’ other workers, managers who have no direct authority over the work group, or employees themselves (self-direction). In addition, the obvious demands of the task at hand, and such task-

cial management

for the University.

rear admiral after a 30-year naval career that included 4 years in command of two nuclear submarines;

one and a half yean as deputy

chief of staff to the commander

of U.S. Naval

Forces in Vietnam (during which he directed tkt development

and implementation of the plan

for the turnover of U.S. Navy assets to the Vietnamese Navy); and 5 years at the Navy Headquarters in Washington, D.C. (where he developed the Navy’s human resources management activities and established the Leadership and Management Development

Program that

the Navy has used for the past decade). A Naval Academy graduate, he has an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the Naval Post-

related influences as labor unions, professional associations, family members, and so

graduate School, and an M.B.A. and Ph.D. in

forth, may also accomplish the task function.

University.

organizational behavior from Ohio State

We refer to the sum of these structures as directive leadenhip

structures or direction,

for short. The maintenance function can be accomplished through supportive behaviors from the head of the unit, other influential managers, peers, and other members of the work group; the satisfaction derived from the work itself; commitment of the individual to the goals of the organization; and supportive influences coming from people outside the firm. Supportive leadership structures or support are the totality of structures that satisfy the maintenance function. Exhibit 2 summarizes some key structures that are used to per-

form task and maintenance functions. Influence of structures on performance and commitment. How do different structures influence leaders to successfully carry out their two functions-which, phrased slightly differently, are to maintain acceptable levels of commitment and performance? We studied this question from a functional perspective. Our research involved 380 employees in 42 work groups in 6 subdivisions of a large Department of Defense installation.

55

Some

writers

on leadership

imply

to (2) high task/high

ship, to (3) low task/high

ber of structures

low task/low

directing

better task performance work group,

employees

will be. The results

show

this is true only

There tion

is a point of

the introduc-

task

maintenance

- particularly

ventions

or

if they involve

and performance.

highly trained and experienced do

detailed

inter-

by the supervisor-actually

satisfaction ten

of our study

up to a point.

after which

additional

structures

not

the

performance

and committed

employees that

toward

and maintaining

the more effective

will be and the more satisfied

simply

procedures

ignore manual;

reduce

Similarly,

a large number

may decrease

offers greater insight

different

1. New employees require considerable

performing new tasks direction that, realisti-

cally, can come only from the formal head of the unit. At the same time, the challenge of new tasks and the developing support from peers provide considerable employee satisfacThus,

employees

the need for maintenance

of-

irritatingly

frequently

it be-

of “command

per-

it for employees

with

active social lives of their own. The relation-

for the

maturity:

tion.

an

per-

into why these

may be appropriate

levels of group

to (4)

A functional

high,

formance” social functions, even though they may be designed to increase employee satisfaction,

spective

relationship.

recommendations

relation-

relationship,

For example,

comes a sore point that reduces performance.

while

the need

low, since the latter cues. The employee 2. As the group new, challenging

is

is relatively

is provided

by internal

wants to come to work to

do a good job and master trinsic satisfaction

for direction

tasks.

matures, associated

much of the inwith learning

task has disappeared.

a

Task

direction from the unit head is still necessary, but he or she must also replace decreasing in-

ship between the number of structures and the successful carrying out of a function,

trinsic

then, is an inverted

3. As maturation progresses still further, direction from the leader is substituted by in-

“II” curve. As more direc-

tion from more sources mance climbs, different

commitment

and so forth,

as more support

structures,

satisfaction

to the firm climbs,

and then declines. by absenteeism,

is provided,

perfor-

levels off, and then decreases.

In this same fashion, from

comes and

levels off,

As a result, costs triggered turnover,

decline,

grievances,

waste,

level off, and climb

again.

56

relationship

that more is better - that the greater the num-

The functional approach to leadership helps the manager understand when leadership behavior is needed to maintain both unit performance and employee commitment at consistently high levels. The functional perspective on leadership thus complements and extends the current situational behavior theories. For example, Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard’s situational leadership model asserts that as a new work group matures, the leadership style needs to change in the following way: from (1) high task/low

satisfaction

with support

from other

structures.

dividual

job knowledge

peers. Supportive manager

are required,

ways of generating

and direction

behaviors

however,

support

from

on the part of the if alternative

and commitment

have not been developed. 4. In a fully mature group, the task, job knowledge of the individuals making it up, the job itself, and other group members provide both maintenance and direction. Little direct, overt action is required from the manager. Thus the functional perspective augments the situational leadership model in several ways. First, it provides a clearer understanding of why Hersey and Blanchard’s recommendations may be correct. Second, it shows how some leader behaviors may be unnecessary or even counterproductive in certain situations. Finally, it suggests alternative ways in which managers may act to remedy

Exhibit 2

A SUMMARYOF THE FUNCTIONALLEADERSHIP PERSPECTIVE Outcome

Leadership Structure

Leadership Function

Task accomplishment

Directive leader behavior by the supervisor, another manager, or an influential peer Self-management Task clarification Group direction External direction

Performance

Group maintenance

Supportive leader behavior by the supervisor, another manager, or an influential peer Occupational commitment Intrinsically satisfying nature of the task Group support External support

Organizational commitment and job satisfaction

specific

combinations

direction

of deficiencies

and maintenance

in task

(performance

and

commitment). Thus in the case of the newly formed work group, the manager should provide better instructions, ask an influential member

of the group

higher-level redesign

manager

to guide

it, call on a

to help clarify tasks, or

jobs so that employees

better under-

work, widespread improvement in leadership effectiveness can come only through systematic analysis of how leadership functions are carried out in specific situations. Diagnosing various leadership situations from the functional perspective can allow managers to better understand complex interrelationships. Second, managers can change their

they have to do.

actions to meet the needs of particular situa-

APPLYING THE FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

and maintenance structures listed in Exhibit 2. Some examples of appropriate managerial responses to particular problems follow.

stand

what

tions. They can use one or more of the task

The functional perspective, unlike other kinds of theories, shows how leadership is related to other organizational structures and how it affects performance and commitment. The application of the functional perspective, like the situational behavior theories, is based on two premises. First, although leaders may adjust their behaviors to complement existing structures through luck or inspired guess-

Unsatisfactory Performance Combined Satisfactory Commitment

with

The situation in which employee performance is inadequate but commitment is high may be a result of inadequate direction combined with adequate support. For example, some young professionals who take jobs in

57

Washington,

D.C. become so caught up in the

excitement

of the Capital-making

ministering

laws that affect the whole nation,

associating

with internationally

sonalities, strongly

and ad-

and so forthcommitted

known

that

per-

they become

to the organizations

which they work. This is particularly

for

true for

those whose work groups are supportive

and

whose tasks are intrinsically rewarding. The size and complexity of the federal government may

overwhelm

performance

them,

however,

and

their

may be far less effective

than

their bosses might desire. If this is the case, the manager has many alternatives. Obviously,

the manager

direction. dures

can provide

the needed

He or she may disseminate

and

regulations,

tasks orally, or otherwise

spell

out

clarify

the persons involved. There are other options,

proceassigned

the roles of however.

related

by appealing

be appropriate to use other structures. A higher-level manager or a particularly skilled

mately

functionally

any combination

of them. All of

these have been used successfully government

agencies.

In

other

in various settings,

The choice among

them

and the manager’s

per-

Commitment If the quantity

and quality

of work is accepta-

ble, but there is high voluntary turnover, absenteeism, grievances, and the like, lack of support

should

probable

cause of this situation.

be considered

The most obvious

first

solution

as the is for the

manager to increase supportive behavior. Efforts can also be made to provide additional sources of satisfaction in the job itself or in the job context.

On the other

is uncomfortable

of such behaviors, Redesign advocates

may

hand,

if the

with or incapable

an assistant perform

or a higherthis function.

of jobs along the lines suggested of job enrichment

might be called intrinsic

performance-contingent compensation systems may be used not only as incentives for

provided

self-direction, but as ways of drawing attention to crucial aspects of job performance. While more difficult to manipulate,

may

the work group can also serve as a source of direction. Though the human relations move-

working conditions, can serve as means crease commitment.

ment of the 1940s and 1950s sank under the weight of its own wrong conclusions, its major assumption, that peers are potent influencers of individual job behavior, was correct. (Japanese success in utilizing the work group shows that this assumption is right, and American organizations are expressing a lot of interest in Japanese management styles.) In addition, self-motivation may be

any one or

Satisfactory Performance and Unsatisfactory

level manager

of what is expected

equivalent,

on his or her actions, sonal preferences.

be undertaken standing

are approxi-

of them may be used to in-

crease performance.

manager

employees’ under-

held job-

should be made on the basis of the manager’s strengths, the financial and other constraints

assistant may be enlisted to give direction. Task redesign or goal-setting programs may to increase

to strongly

values of employees. Since the structures

If

the manager is not suited to provide this kind of direction or lacks the skills to do so, it may

58

increased

by

can give what

support,

or support

by the job itself. Various aspects of the work context also be changed to increase commit-

ment. The most obvious of these is pay, but it is also clear that generous benefits, pleasant prestige, and security of support and thus inFinally, it may be possi-

ble for the manager to operate through the work group to increase support. Encouragement, within reason, of organized, companysponsored sports and other recreational activities as well as such informal social events as birthday parties and the like can work to bring an individual employee closer to the firm and increase his or her commitment.

An creased support who

example

of a leader

who

in-

became

Chief

1970. He learned

of Naval

Operations

that the first-term

ment rate had been steadily declining previous

unsatisfactory adequate

in

support.

a manager

over the

ployees

10%

perience

gives detailed or education at

experienced,

direction.

The support

officers for an efthe perforsuperb in

job itself has been stance,

unless

demanding operations over a number of years. Admiral Zumwalt issued directives

other source,

that let commanding

problem

of actions

officers

take a number

to show more respect and concern

for sailors as individuals

and to make work-

useful,

levels

if other

additional

stemming

support

from

and

is to decrease

the

in this in-

is provided

total commitment obvious

ex-

jobs on their

give

reduced

The most and increase

to em-

through

can be exacerbated

other

when

instructions

to handle

managers

petty

and inthat this

occurring

who feel well qualified

own. The problem

middle

situation

It is unfortunate

overall. (A 30% rate of first-term reenlistments will provide the optimum number of fective Navy.) On the other hand, mance of the Fleet had been

The

is often the case, frequently

reenlist-

several years and had reached

commitment.

may be a result of excessive direction

commitment through an alternative system is Admiral Elmo Zumwalt,

from an-

will be low.

solution

to the

managerial

direction

behaviors.

It may be

supportive

if several managers

are involved,

one to be responsible

neatly trimmed beards, found ways to greatly reduce time spent standing in lines, and so forth. Not only were the commanding

problem is not always that simple, however. After all, some might ask, how can one man-

officers in a position to be more supportive, but the head of the organization itself was seen as being more supportive. working there

conditions

were

Furthermore,

were improved.

reports

of abuses

and

Although Admiral

Zumwalt received criticism from some retired officers and senior petty officers, the firstterm reenlistment

rate immediately

started

climb, and the Navy’s superb operational

to per-

continued. As we have already pointed out, when structures are functionally equivalent, choices may be made according to personal

others

for direction

for

ing conditions better. The Navy lifted several antiquated restrictions on liberty, allowed

to be responsible

and the

for support.

The

age without providing direction? This is a valid question, especially in organizations where periodic emergencies sweep away many of the redundant sources of direction. The manager

must be prepared

in emergencies, tioned

to take charge

and the group must be condi-

to accept this authority.

In instances

where superfluous sources of direction are eliminated, direction from the titular head of the organization

should

always

remain

in

formance

place.

preferences

care

commitment can also result from leadership that is too autocratic or demanding. In Coach Woody Hayes’ last year at Ohio State Univer-

should be taken to ensure that supportive actions are genuine. A real or apparent lack of

sity, his team lost three games, and dissention among some players and assistant coaches

sincerity

had surfaced.

to backfire

and capabilities.

and spontaneity and actually

Unsatisfactory

may cause actions reduce commitment.

Performance

with Unsatisfactory

In addition,

Combined

Commitment

More than one combination can result in unsatisfactory

of circumstances performance and

Unsatisfactory

Although

performance

Hayes

and

had a good

reputation with most of his players off the field, he had the reputation of being a hard taskmaster on the practice and playing fields. The following year, with much the same team, Earl Bruce took over, released some of the tension, and led his team to an undefeated regular season; they lost only to the Univer-

59

sity of Southern

California,

by one point,

in

the Rose Bowl.

rected by substituting some

Similarly,

the new chairman

First Chicago Corporation autocratic and arbitrary created a different

took over from an predecessor and

atmosphere

ing and by encouraging

of the

by decentraliz-

openness

and team-

managers

can easily

the pattern needed,

management

and the corpora-

direction

was .23%. Three

If done

on investment

years later, the officer turnover to 5%,

and

the return

had dropped

on investment

had

mitment participate tion from direction

shows,

of the First Chicago

performance

may be improved

and com-

when

employees

in decision making. When directhe manager is reduced, group can become

a source

of increased

for

not

all

style.

In

but

a change

the group

rupt,

a change

about

style

needs

to

not make abgoal setting and

other role-clarification

activities.

nization

an authoritarian

decides

itself

in his or her behavior,

but, rather, should introduce

proach is needed,

in

commitment. should

changes

is

in performance

management

a manager

radical

What

change in

performance.

feel better

and also lead to greater be altered,

rather

to improve

properly,

will make

painful.

that

If an orgaap-

it may be best to ask a new

support, if employees see their participation as evidence of management recognition of

manager to introduce it rather than have existing managers change their behaviors. It

their abilities

also may be helpful

and management

their preferences. ticipates,

direction

sensitivity

to

When the work group parcoming from the manager,

to involve

employees

quality circles and similar activities primary work groups can provide

in

so that needed

then, does not concern the specifics of the work to be done. Rather, it is limited primar-

direction.

ily to the ground rules of the participation process and includes, for example, items that

unsatisfactory commitment can be the result of still a third failure in leadershipinadequate direction and inadequate support. This situation requires additions of both task

need to be formally approved by the manager, or how the supervisor is to be informed of actions taken by the group. Although more participation may be needed in some situations, unsatisfactory performance and commitment result of inadequate direction

can also be a and excessive

support. While this problem was in all likelihood more common at the height of the human relations movement, it certainly exists in

60

style

When

As the example

their

is not a complete

sufficient

more than doubled. Corporation

change

is extremely

however,

turnover

tion’s return

leadership

leadership,

many cases they have become so closely involved with their subordinates that changing

work. Before he took over in 1980, the officer had been 12.7%,

directive

of the supportive

some organizations today. In these companies, employees who originally enjoyed their work are provided with so many additional sources of support and so little direction that the firm develops a country club atmosphere; performance declines and with it many of the good feelings about the company and the job. While this problem may be cor-

Unsatisfactory

performance

and

and maintenance structures. Moreover, a certain degree of participative management may be effective in raising both performance and commitment. In this case, though, the leader should be prepared to provide more guidance to the group than would be necessary if too much direction was the problem. Sometimes it takes only a simple display of appreciation to change employee attitudes or behavior. In the needle trades, piece rates are commonly used because product quantity and quality can readily be tied to individual workers. Yet in one footwear plant in New England a few years ago, both performance and commitment were starting to decrease.

The

superintendent

of

the

plant

decided

to try a new approach;

he simply

ar-

has a range of alternatives

ranged to have a rose on the table to greet any worker the day after she had performed ex-

maintaining

ceptionally

because

well.

The

superintendent

in-

effective

and commitment. commitment

seen as an expression of a personal the individual by management;

much support

performance

and commitment

increased.

support

or because

discussed

above

demonstrate

some of the ways in which managers the functional perspective to increase

of a combination

these

and

situation.

similar

of too questions

the manager

for available,

for remedying

can begin

practical

the inadequacies

structures in any work

Some of the actions we recommend

are not generally

can use the per-

If

and too little direction?

Once to search

The examples

is poor, is it

is weak, is it because of too little

have been answered,

An Overview of the Functional Perspective

performance

If performance

of too little or too much direction?

creased self-direction by drawing attention to performance goals. In addition, the rose was interest in thus both

to choose from in

employee

thought

of as part of leader

behavior.

Nevertheless,

they

likelihood

that employees

the

will perform

well

formance and commitment of employees. If the manager views leader behavior as one of several structures capable of fulfilling task

and commit

work group. And, certainly, who takes steps to produce

the manager effective em-

and maintenance

ployee behavior

leader.

functions,

then he or she

are provided

SELECTEDBIBLIOGRAPHY

trative Two useful

books

are Orguniza-

on leadership

tional Behavior:

Theory,

tion, by Orlando

Behling and Chester Schriesheim

Research,

and Applica-

(Allyn and Bacon, 1976) and Organizational havior,

by Dennis

(Business

Organ

ideas presented found

and W. Clay Hammer

Publications, Inc., 1982). In-depth treatment of the functional

proach and discussion

of the research

in this article

in “Functionalism

Be-

ap-

on which the

as a Base for Midrange

Theory

in Organization

Orlando

Behling (in Middle Range Theory and the

Study

of Organizations,

edited

by

by Craig Pinder

and Larry Moore, M. Nijhoff, 1980), and “Functionalism: Basis for an Alternate Approach to the Study of Leadership,” by Charles Rauch, Jr. and Orlando Behling (in Leaden and Managers, edited by James Hunt, Diane Hoskins, Chester Schriesheim, and Rosemary Stewart, Pergamon, 1984). Critiques of problems in leadership research

and discussion

of alternative

Warren

approaches

to the goals of the

is an effective

in “Leadership

Behavior:

Theory

The Problem

terly, June 1959), Management Behavior:

Hersey

and Adminis-

of Authority,”

Bennis (in Administrative Utilizing

and

Kenneth

Human

Leadership

Lars Larson,

Future of the Leader-

edited

leadership

sey and Blanchard’s ship at First Chicago “The New Challenge the Momentum” 1983).

book.

by John Miner by James Hunt Press,

model appears The change

Corporation Week,

(in and

1975). in Her-

in leader-

is described

at First Chicago:

(Business

by Paul

(Prentice-Hall,

Kent State University

The situational

by

Quar-

of Organizational

Blanchard

An Overview,”

Frontiers,

Science

Resources,

1982), and “The Uncertain ship Concept:

are based may be

Behavior/Theory,”

themselves

increase

in

Maintaining December

5,

If you wish to make photocopies or obtain reprints of this or other articles in ORGANIZATIONALDYNAMICS, please refer to the special reprint service instructions on page 80.

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