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A group of 20 stone anchors from the waters of Dwarka, on the Gujarat Coast, India
The International Journal of Nautical doi:10.1006/ijna.2001.0345
Archaeology
(2001) 30.1: 95-108
A group of 20 stone anchors from the waters of Dwarka, on the Gujarat Coast, India A. S. Gaur,
Sundaresh,
Sila Tripati,
P. Gudigar,
K. H. Vora
and S. N. Bandodker
A&urine Archaeology Centre, Nutional Institute of Oceunogruphy, Donu Paula, Goa-
004, India
A large number of stone anchors were discovered in a water depth of lo--l4 m off Dwarka during the 1998-99 season. The seabed near the anchors consists of a ledge with an average height of 1 m. Several anchors were found trapped between the rocks suggesting an anchorage. Twenty stone anchors of three types were loacted in a submerged channel on the southern side of the site. The grapnel type of anchor is associated with Indo-Arab trade between the 8th and 16th centuries AD. The triangular or composite anchors have a date ranging from 2500 BC to the Modern Period. Therefore, the dating of these anchors at Dwarka is a matter of concern and is discussed. 0 2001 The Nautical Archaeology Society Key words:
anchor, stone, composite,
anchorage.
Introduction
T
he Indian coast has continued to be the focal point of maritime activities since the 3rd millennium BC. It had wide-ranging maritime trade relations with contemporary civilizations in the West. During the Early Historic Period Buddhist monks selected the sea routes in order to disseminate Buddhism in southeastern countries. Around the Christian Era Romans travelled to the Indian coast in search of spice and silk. After the 7th century AD Arabs were the main foreign traders on the Indian coast. Their trade declined around the 16th century when European powers entered the Indian Ocean. Archaeological evidence for these events has been found all along the Indian coast. Since 1983 a record has been compiled in India of the direct evidence for past maritime activities in the form of stone and iron anchors and shipwrecks. The study of anchors is an important aspect of marine archaeological studies as every ship requires anchors to remain in one place for loading, unloading cargoes and when sheltering from bad weather. During such activities several anchors may get trapped in rocks, severing ropes and becoming lost under water. Different types and sizes of anchors are an indication of the type and size of a ship. The data on 32 stone anchors collected between 1983 and 1998 from Dwarka waters have already 1057~2414/01/010095+
14 $35.00/O
been published in this Journal (Sundarseh et al., 1999). They were mainly of two types, triangular and grapnel. During the 1998-99 field season 20 stone anchors were noted at a depth of between 10 and 14 m (Tables 1 & 2). A few of them are so heavy that they were difficult to tilt even by two divers. They are spread in virtually one zigzag line, about 50 m long. The paper deals with the discovery of two groups of stone anchors found off Dwarka at a water depth of 6---14 m during the 1998-99 season.
Previous work A large number of stone anchors from different parts of the Indian coast has been reported in the last two decades particularly from Dwarka (Rao, 1987; Sundaresh et al., 1999); Sindhudurg (Sila & Gaur, 1997); Vijaydurg (Sila et al., 1998); the Tamilnadu coast (Jaykumar, 1999); Minicoy and Sri Lanka (Souter, 1998). Previously, a few anchor stones datable to the mid-3rd millennium BC had been reported from Harappan sites such as Lothal (Rao, 1979) and Kuntasi (Dhavalikar et al., 1996). They indicate a very primitive stage of formation and differ from the triangular anchors reported from the Baa1 temple at Ras Shamra on the east Mediterranean coast with a context in the same period (Frost, 1991). 0 2001 The Nautical
Archaeology
Society
no.
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Anchor
no.
145 128 142 105 125 130 188 55 65 100 185 170 110 90 155
Yellow sand stone Calcareous Calcareous Calcareous Calcareous
Raw material
30 28 28 27 34 35 30 17 30 30 40 35 38 25 31
82 80 100 85 100
20
17 17 30 20 28 15 25 20 25 25 35
17
Diam.
62 62 75 54 70
Mini
35
50 60
breadth cm
in the 1998-99 season
Max. breadth cm
off Dwarka
Max. length cm
stone anchors found
Limestone Limestone Basalt Basalt Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Basalt Limestone
season
Mini breadth cm
in the 199899
Max. breadth cm
off Dwarka
Max. length cm
stone anchors found
Raw material
Table 2. Triangular
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Anchor
Table 1. Grapnel
17 10 12 12 12
15 5
10 12
8, 8
12 x 6 broken
Diam. of top hole cm
10 8 7
12 12 11 10 10 14 10
x x x x x
x x x x x x x
17 17 16 12 12
16 x 16 17, 17 x 15, 17 x 12, 15 x 12, 12 x 12, 12 x
8 11 10 12A 14 14 14 14 161 16 18 18 18 12 21
10 x 7, 10 10 x 10, 10 10 x 10, 10 7X7,1X7 15 x 17, 15
x 15
x 8 x 10 x 10
Remark
11 12 15 15 18
has top rectangular hole 22 cm thickness two top round holes very rough surface very rough and porous surface
Remark
several grooves on one surface very smooth surface top portion is round buried in deep sediment top hole is broken very porous surface chisel marks on the holes lower part is broken ower portion broken no top hole and one lower hole broken one of the biggest anchors very heavy with rough surface lower portion is broken buried between rock buried in sediment
Buoy no.
Buoy no.
Size of lower holes cm
12 12 11 11 11 12 12
12 12 11 10 10 12 10
x x x x x x x
12, 12, 11, 10, 11, 14, 10,
Size of lower holes cm
8 5 5 10 10
of top hole cm
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
Since 1983 the Marine Archaeology Centre of the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa has been carrying out underwater explorations off Dwarka. A large number of dressed stone blocks of different shapes and sizes has been located at water depths of 3-7 m (Rao, 1987; Rao et al., 1994). Finds include a large number of stone anchors which signify the volume of maritime activities at Dwarka. Recent marine archaeological explorations in Dwarka waters have revealed some exciting evidence for the ancient anchorage. Five triangular, 17 grapnel, and three single-holed stones were discovered within a space of 50 m where a submerged channel of the River Gomati has been recorded by echosounder. It was subsequently confirmed by diver archaeologists.
Methodology The echosounder survey was initiated at the known position, that is, in front of the Samudranarayana Temple at a water depth of 8 m. It extended to 20 m offshore. The survey was mainly to identify underwater objects. Each diving team covered the area within a circle of about 50 m radius in a circular search pattern. Diving operations were carried out at several places in shallow waters from 4 m to 8 m and also at eight locations in deeper waters (10 to 20 m). A buoy was tied to each location where archaeological objects, such as structures of dressed stone blocks and anchors, were noted. Objects were interlinked by rope under water. They were drawn and measured; the distance between objects and orientations was obtained by using an underwater compass. The anchors were documented by underwater still camera. Airlifting excavation was carried out in a 2 m square. The stratigraphy was as follows: (1) blackish clay bottom up to 20 cm; (2) Shell mix coarse sand about 25 cm; (3) rolled pebbles about 10 cm; (4) dead corals about 15 cm and coral sand about 20 cm; (5) sand.
Results The site was close to a submerged rocky ledge. Echosounder signals also indicate a submerged channel of about 1 m depth issuing here. Three grapnel-type stones were noticed in zones 1 and 17 anchor stones were spread over a large area in zone 2 (Fig. 1). Apart from anchors two single-
OF DWARKA
holed stone objects were also located in zone 2. Two grapnel anchors were made of basalt while the remaining ten grapnel and five triangular anchors were made of calcareous rock. Five grapnels were intact while four anchors had lost an upper portion and three anchors had lost their lower portions. The biggest anchor measured 188 cm in length and was 30 cm wide on its lower side. Five triangular anchors were lying with the grapnel anchors found in zone 2. The biggest anchor was 1 m long and 70 cm wide. Three triangular anchors had a circular upper hole and two square/rectangular holes below. An additional circular upper hole was also noticed in anchor no. 20 and an additional rectangular hole in anchor no. 16. This is the first known occurrence in Indian waters. Anchor no. 17 had only two lower holes and its upper hole was broken. All the anchors were made of limestone. Three single-holed stone objects were also noticed in this area. One was found in the channel which was partially buried in the sediment and it was exposed by airlift operation. These objects have a flat base and conical top with a wide transverse hole in the centre. Two objects were made out of basalt while the other was made of locally available calcareous rock.
Description of the stone anchors Based on their shape, the anchors have been divided into two broad group, grapnel and triangular. The broad characteristics of these anchors have been tabulated (Tables 1 & 2).
Grapnel stone anchors (Figs 2-4)
No. 1. Grapnel lying between rocks and practically bonded with the bedrock. It has a circular upper hole and one square hole below (Fig. 5). It is made of locally available limestone. Zone 1; depth 6 m. No. 2. Grapnel partially buried in sediment and was exposed by removing sand (Fig. 6). It has a circular upper hole and two square holes below. One face of the anchor has several grooves. Zone 1; depth 6 m. No. 3. Grapnel found while locating the submerged cliff. The anchor lay just below the ledge. It has sharp edges and seems has been used for a short period. It has a very small circular upper hole and two 91
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 1. Location
of anchors off Dwarlta.
square holes at the bottom on adjacent sides of the anchor. It is made of black hard rock, probably basalt. No. 4. Anchor found about 100 m west of no. 3. The topography of this area is high rocky cliff and a submerged channel emerging here. The upper hole is very small having a 5 cm diameter and two square holes below (Fig. 7). It has very sharp edges, is 1.2 m in length and is made of basalt. It is lying in 13 m of water. No. 5. Anchor with a broken upper hole. The lower two holes are rectangular (Fig. 8). It is 125 cm in length and made of locally available limestone. The anchor is lying on the rocky slope of the cliff at a depth of 13 m. 98
(Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
No. 6. Anchor lying between the rocks (Fig. 9). It has a very rough surface and chiselmarks are visible. It lacks an upper hole but two square holes were noted at the bottom. It is made of limestone. No. 7. Grapnel lying near no. 6 and beyond the rocks. This is the longest anchor found so far in this area. It is 188 cm long, with a circular upper hole and the remains of chisel-marks. The lower two holes are rectangular (Fig. 10). It appears to be made of yellow sandstone. No. 8. Broken grapnel found about 3 m nearer the cliff than no. 6 (Fig. 11). It is 55 cm length and the lower portion is broken. A circular upper hole was noted. It is
A. S. GAUR
ET
20 STONE
AL.:
,
,
,
ANCHORS
FROM
OF DWARKA
,
.
Figure
THE WATERS
2. Location
.-
of stone anchors in Dwarka
made of calcareous rock and was found at a depth of 13 m. No. 9. Broken grapnel about 5 m distant from no. 13 and nearer the cliff (Fig. 12). It is 65 cm in length and only a circular upper hole survives. The lower portion of the anchor is broken. This is heavier than no. 8 and is made of limestone. It lies at a depth of 13 m. No. 10. Anchor found about 7 m distance from no. 9, between several fallen rocks (Fig. 13). The lower portion of the anchor is broken and only one broken lower hole was noted; it lacks an upper hole. Its length is 100 cm and it
No.
No.
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
is made of limestone. It lies at a depth of 12m. 11. Anchor lying about 25 m distant from no. 15 on the further side of the submerged ledge and trapped between rocks. It is very large and heavy, and 185 cm long (Fig. 14). This anchor has a circular upper hole and two square holes below. It has very rough surface and made of calcareous rock. This is one of the longest anchors found in this area. It lies in 13 m of water. 12. Anchor lying on the northern bank of the submerged channel near a rock and about 15 m distant from no. 8 and the 99
c----28
0 I
Figure 3. Grapnel 100
-1
30
40
50 cm I
stone anchors from Dwarka
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
A. S. GAUR
AL.: 20 STONE
ET
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
I
I I
I
10
I
I
11
-
0 L.-Y
Figure
4. Grapnel
‘,”
30 ,
40 I
stone anchors from Dwarka
:OCm.
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari) 101
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
15
Figure 7. Dwarka: anchor no. 2, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
0 /
LO zo TO 4,” 50Crn , 1 1
Figure 5. Grapnel stone (Drawing: S. B. Chitari)
anchors
from
Dwarka
waters.
Figure 8. Dwarka: anchor no. 4, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 6. Dwarka: anchor no. 1, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
same distance from the cliff. A very heavy anchor. It has a circular upper hole 5 cm in diameter with 1 square and 1 rectangular hole below (Fig. 15). It has a very rough surface and is made of calcareous rock, lying at a depth of 14 m. No. 13. Anchor lying very near no. 12. Its upper portion is broken and two lower square holes were noted (Fig. 16). It has very rough surface and is made out of calcareous rock with a length of 110 cm, lying at a depth of 14 m. 102
Figure 9. Dwarka: anchor no. 5, grapnel-type upper hole is broken from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
Figure 10. Dwarka: anchor no. 6, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 13. Dwarka: anchor no. 9, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure II. Dwarka: anchor no. I, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodkcr)
Figure 14. Dwarka: anchor no. 10, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 12. Dwarka: anchor no. 8, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 1.5. Dwarka: anchor no. 11, grapnel-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
103
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 16. Dwarka: anchor no. 12, grapnel-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 17. Dwarka: anchor no. 13, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
No. 14. Grapnel found on the northern side of no. 3. The upper portion is hidden under a rock (Fig. 17). The lower holes are square and the middle portion measured 90 cm. It is made of basalt. The anchor has very sharp edges and lies in 12 m of water. No. 15. Anchor lying in shallow water and buried in sediment. It is a heavy with no upper hole (Fig. 18). Two lower square holes were noted. It is made of calcareous rock. Vegetation growth was also noted. Zone 1; depth 6 m.
Triangular stone anchors (Fig. 19) No. 16. Anchor found very near grapnel no. 4. It is made of yellow sandstone with two square holes below and a rectangular 104
Figure 18. Dwarka: anchor no. 14, grapnel-type partially hidden under rock in zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 19. Dwarka: anchor no. 15, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
upper hole (Fig. 20). It is the first example of the type from Dwarka waters. It would appear that a circular hole may once have been replaced by a rectangular one, but how this hole would have functioned is difficult to deduce. The anchor is lying at a water depth of 13 m in zone 2. No. 17. Triangular anchor observed about 10 m from no. 16 and the same distance from the cliff on a sandy bottom. At 22 cm the anchor is very thick (Fig. 21). The upper hole is broken while the two square holes below are intact. It is made out of locally available calcareous rock with a length of 80 cm and lies in 14 m of water. No. 18. Anchor lying on disturbed rocks on the seabed. It has a length of 100 cm (Fig. 22). There are unusually two
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
I.m
0
,
IO I
20 B
30 fi
40 1
50 t
CM
, --------
--
f-y
17
Figwe 20. Triangular
stone anchors from Dwarka
circular upper holes and two square holes at the bottom. Both upper holes are 8 cm in diameter. The two round holes together may have been a precautionary measure. The anchor is made out of calcareous rock which is rough and porous. ~-
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
No. 19. Anchor near no. 18. It is finely dressed but the raw material is porous and it has a rough surface and a length of 85 cm (Fig. 23). A circular upper hole is 10 cm in diameter while two square holes below are smaller than 105
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 21. Dwarka: anchor no. 16, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 22. Dwarka: anchor no. 17, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
those of anchor 18. It is made of limestone. No. 20. Anchor lying between two rocks near grapnel no. 11. It is porous calcareous rock with a circular upper hole and two square holes below (Fig. 24). All three holes are eroded significantly. It is lying in 13 m of water.
Discussion All the triangular anchors are made of locally available calcareous rock and all of them have been found in 12-15 m of water. It indicates that they might derive from ships which used to anchor at such depths. The raw material indicates local manufacture and that they were made indigenously. An old fisherman in this region 106
Figure 23. Dwarka: anchor no. 18, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 24. Dwarka: anchor no. 19, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
recalled that people were using triangular stone anchors about 70 years ago but he was not aware of the use of grapnel anchors. It is clear from this testimony that triangular stone anchors continued in use until very recently. The occurrence of a large number of grapnel types off Oman (Vosmer, pers. comm.), Sri Lanka (Souter, 1998) the Red Sea (Raban, 1990) and the East African coast (Chittick, 1990) in association with Arab settlement indicates that grapnel anchors probably disappeared in this region with the decline of Indo-Arab trade in the 16thP17th century. A large number of anchor finds in one particular area may indicate that either this was an anchorage or that a ship having a large number of anchors was wrecked here. Ancient ships used to have several anchors on board (Hourani, 1975).
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
There is no indication of a shipwreck as no other finds have been made in the vicinity of the anchors. Therefore, it is more likely to be an ancient anchorage. The majority of anchors are made of locally available rocks but three anchors are made of basalt or granite that is not locally available. It seems that either these anchors are of foreign origin or the raw material came from southern Saurashtra near Junagarh Hill. Grapnels are comparatively heavier and bigger than triangular anchors. Several stone anchors found in the last couple of years on the Indian coast suggest that the Dwarka stone anchors may not be older than the 10th century AD. As has already been stated, an archaeological context is needed to supply firm dates for Dwarka anchors (Sundaresh et al., 1999). The presence of grapnel anchors is perhaps the indicator of Indo-Arab trade all along the Indian coast during the Medieval Period, that is, between the 8th and 16th centuries AD. The origin and date of the triangular or composite anchors is a matter of concern, It has also been noticed that the frequency of these anchors is much less compared with grapnels. The composite anchors were always found in association with grapnels at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Sindhudurg, Vijaydurg and Galle in Sri Lanka. Although the dating may not be different, the origin may differ. The presently available evidence in the form of raw material indicates that they might have been made indigenously. Another consideration is that a ship may carry both types in order to anchor on different kinds of seabed. Raban (1990) has pointed out that grapnel types are essentially intended for coral and rocky seabeds while
OF DWARKA
composite anchors can hold in a sandy seabed. Therefore, it is possible that due to the rocky seabed near Dwarka grapnel anchors were employed.
Conclusion The large number of stone anchors have indicated the importance of Dwarka as a busy maritime centre during historical and earlier periods. Different types of anchor also indicate that several types and sizes of vessels visited Dwarka. The use of local stone indicates that triangular stone anchors were made indigenously and oral testimony indicates that they were used till very recently. On the other hand grapnels may be an introduction by Arab traders to disappear once the trade between India and Arab countries declined. Therefore, the date of the grapnel anchors found at Dwarka may be earlier than the 16th century AD. The further study of the petrology of stone anchors;may reveal the source of the stone. The association of anchors in a datable context is needed to tie them in with a specific period.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Dr E. Desa, Director, NIO for permission to publish this paper. The Department of Ocean Development has provided financial assistance for this project which we acknowledge gratefully. The authors also record the necessary help rendered by Shri S. B. Chitari, Shri Umesh Sirsat and Shri K.A. Sheikh. This is NIO contribution number 3661.
References Chittick, N., 1980, Stone anchor shanks in the Western Indian Ocean. IJNA, 9: 73376. Dhavalikar, M. K., Raval, M. R. & Chitalwala, Y. M., 1996, Kuntasi-A Harappan Emporium on West Coast. Pune. Frost, H., 1991, Anchors. Ras Shamra-Ougavit VI: Arts et Industries de la Pierre. ERC Paris. Hourani, G. F., 1975, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean and Early Medieval Times. New York. Jaykumar, P. & Athiyaman, N., 1999, Stone Anchors of Tamihladu Coast. Paper presented in Second International Conjerence on Marine Archaeology, Thane, Mumbai on S-10 January, 1999. Raban, A., 1990, Medieval anchors from the Red Sea. ZJNA, 19: 2999306. Rao, S. R., 1979, Lothal-A Hurappan Povt Town. Memoir of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Rao, S. R., 1987, Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology in India. Goa. Rao, S. R., 1990, Excavation of the legendary city of Dwarka in the Arabian Sea. Journal of Marine Archaeology, 1: 59-98. Rao, S. R., 1991, Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilization. New Delhi. Rao, S. R., Tripati, S. & Gaur, A. S., 1992, Marine archaeological exploration off Somnath. Journal of Marine Archaeology, 3: 13-16. Rao, S. R., Sila, T., Gaul-, A. S., Gudigar, I?., Sundaresh & Vora, K. H. 1994, Underwater archaeological exploration of Dwarka and Somnath-Results of 1992 Survey and Problem to Attend. In S. R. Rao (Ed.), The Role oj’ Universities and Research Institutes in Marine Archaeology. Goa, 113-l 19. Sila, T. & -Gaur, A. S., 1997, Stone anchors from Sindhudurg fort on the west coast of India. IJNA, 26: 51-57. 107
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Sila, T., Saxena, M. K., Sundaresh, Gudigar, P. & Bandodker, S. N., 1998, Marine archaeological exploration and excavation of Vijaydurg-a naval base of the Maratha Period, Maharashtra, on the west coast of India. IJNA, 27: 51-57. Souter, C., 1998, Stone anchors near Black Fort, Galle, Sri Lanka. IJNA, 27: 331-342. Sundaresh, Gaur, A. S., Gudigar, P., Sila Tripati, Vora, K. H. & Bandodker, S. N., 1999, Stone anchors from the Okhamandal Region, Gujarat Coast, India. IJNA, 28: 229-252.
108
Archaeology
(2001) 30.1: 95-108
A group of 20 stone anchors from the waters of Dwarka, on the Gujarat Coast, India A. S. Gaur,
Sundaresh,
Sila Tripati,
P. Gudigar,
K. H. Vora
and S. N. Bandodker
A&urine Archaeology Centre, Nutional Institute of Oceunogruphy, Donu Paula, Goa-
004, India
A large number of stone anchors were discovered in a water depth of lo--l4 m off Dwarka during the 1998-99 season. The seabed near the anchors consists of a ledge with an average height of 1 m. Several anchors were found trapped between the rocks suggesting an anchorage. Twenty stone anchors of three types were loacted in a submerged channel on the southern side of the site. The grapnel type of anchor is associated with Indo-Arab trade between the 8th and 16th centuries AD. The triangular or composite anchors have a date ranging from 2500 BC to the Modern Period. Therefore, the dating of these anchors at Dwarka is a matter of concern and is discussed. 0 2001 The Nautical Archaeology Society Key words:
anchor, stone, composite,
anchorage.
Introduction
T
he Indian coast has continued to be the focal point of maritime activities since the 3rd millennium BC. It had wide-ranging maritime trade relations with contemporary civilizations in the West. During the Early Historic Period Buddhist monks selected the sea routes in order to disseminate Buddhism in southeastern countries. Around the Christian Era Romans travelled to the Indian coast in search of spice and silk. After the 7th century AD Arabs were the main foreign traders on the Indian coast. Their trade declined around the 16th century when European powers entered the Indian Ocean. Archaeological evidence for these events has been found all along the Indian coast. Since 1983 a record has been compiled in India of the direct evidence for past maritime activities in the form of stone and iron anchors and shipwrecks. The study of anchors is an important aspect of marine archaeological studies as every ship requires anchors to remain in one place for loading, unloading cargoes and when sheltering from bad weather. During such activities several anchors may get trapped in rocks, severing ropes and becoming lost under water. Different types and sizes of anchors are an indication of the type and size of a ship. The data on 32 stone anchors collected between 1983 and 1998 from Dwarka waters have already 1057~2414/01/010095+
14 $35.00/O
been published in this Journal (Sundarseh et al., 1999). They were mainly of two types, triangular and grapnel. During the 1998-99 field season 20 stone anchors were noted at a depth of between 10 and 14 m (Tables 1 & 2). A few of them are so heavy that they were difficult to tilt even by two divers. They are spread in virtually one zigzag line, about 50 m long. The paper deals with the discovery of two groups of stone anchors found off Dwarka at a water depth of 6---14 m during the 1998-99 season.
Previous work A large number of stone anchors from different parts of the Indian coast has been reported in the last two decades particularly from Dwarka (Rao, 1987; Sundaresh et al., 1999); Sindhudurg (Sila & Gaur, 1997); Vijaydurg (Sila et al., 1998); the Tamilnadu coast (Jaykumar, 1999); Minicoy and Sri Lanka (Souter, 1998). Previously, a few anchor stones datable to the mid-3rd millennium BC had been reported from Harappan sites such as Lothal (Rao, 1979) and Kuntasi (Dhavalikar et al., 1996). They indicate a very primitive stage of formation and differ from the triangular anchors reported from the Baa1 temple at Ras Shamra on the east Mediterranean coast with a context in the same period (Frost, 1991). 0 2001 The Nautical
Archaeology
Society
no.
16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Anchor
no.
145 128 142 105 125 130 188 55 65 100 185 170 110 90 155
Yellow sand stone Calcareous Calcareous Calcareous Calcareous
Raw material
30 28 28 27 34 35 30 17 30 30 40 35 38 25 31
82 80 100 85 100
20
17 17 30 20 28 15 25 20 25 25 35
17
Diam.
62 62 75 54 70
Mini
35
50 60
breadth cm
in the 1998-99 season
Max. breadth cm
off Dwarka
Max. length cm
stone anchors found
Limestone Limestone Basalt Basalt Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Limestone Basalt Limestone
season
Mini breadth cm
in the 199899
Max. breadth cm
off Dwarka
Max. length cm
stone anchors found
Raw material
Table 2. Triangular
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.
Anchor
Table 1. Grapnel
17 10 12 12 12
15 5
10 12
8, 8
12 x 6 broken
Diam. of top hole cm
10 8 7
12 12 11 10 10 14 10
x x x x x
x x x x x x x
17 17 16 12 12
16 x 16 17, 17 x 15, 17 x 12, 15 x 12, 12 x 12, 12 x
8 11 10 12A 14 14 14 14 161 16 18 18 18 12 21
10 x 7, 10 10 x 10, 10 10 x 10, 10 7X7,1X7 15 x 17, 15
x 15
x 8 x 10 x 10
Remark
11 12 15 15 18
has top rectangular hole 22 cm thickness two top round holes very rough surface very rough and porous surface
Remark
several grooves on one surface very smooth surface top portion is round buried in deep sediment top hole is broken very porous surface chisel marks on the holes lower part is broken ower portion broken no top hole and one lower hole broken one of the biggest anchors very heavy with rough surface lower portion is broken buried between rock buried in sediment
Buoy no.
Buoy no.
Size of lower holes cm
12 12 11 11 11 12 12
12 12 11 10 10 12 10
x x x x x x x
12, 12, 11, 10, 11, 14, 10,
Size of lower holes cm
8 5 5 10 10
of top hole cm
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
Since 1983 the Marine Archaeology Centre of the National Institute of Oceanography, Goa has been carrying out underwater explorations off Dwarka. A large number of dressed stone blocks of different shapes and sizes has been located at water depths of 3-7 m (Rao, 1987; Rao et al., 1994). Finds include a large number of stone anchors which signify the volume of maritime activities at Dwarka. Recent marine archaeological explorations in Dwarka waters have revealed some exciting evidence for the ancient anchorage. Five triangular, 17 grapnel, and three single-holed stones were discovered within a space of 50 m where a submerged channel of the River Gomati has been recorded by echosounder. It was subsequently confirmed by diver archaeologists.
Methodology The echosounder survey was initiated at the known position, that is, in front of the Samudranarayana Temple at a water depth of 8 m. It extended to 20 m offshore. The survey was mainly to identify underwater objects. Each diving team covered the area within a circle of about 50 m radius in a circular search pattern. Diving operations were carried out at several places in shallow waters from 4 m to 8 m and also at eight locations in deeper waters (10 to 20 m). A buoy was tied to each location where archaeological objects, such as structures of dressed stone blocks and anchors, were noted. Objects were interlinked by rope under water. They were drawn and measured; the distance between objects and orientations was obtained by using an underwater compass. The anchors were documented by underwater still camera. Airlifting excavation was carried out in a 2 m square. The stratigraphy was as follows: (1) blackish clay bottom up to 20 cm; (2) Shell mix coarse sand about 25 cm; (3) rolled pebbles about 10 cm; (4) dead corals about 15 cm and coral sand about 20 cm; (5) sand.
Results The site was close to a submerged rocky ledge. Echosounder signals also indicate a submerged channel of about 1 m depth issuing here. Three grapnel-type stones were noticed in zones 1 and 17 anchor stones were spread over a large area in zone 2 (Fig. 1). Apart from anchors two single-
OF DWARKA
holed stone objects were also located in zone 2. Two grapnel anchors were made of basalt while the remaining ten grapnel and five triangular anchors were made of calcareous rock. Five grapnels were intact while four anchors had lost an upper portion and three anchors had lost their lower portions. The biggest anchor measured 188 cm in length and was 30 cm wide on its lower side. Five triangular anchors were lying with the grapnel anchors found in zone 2. The biggest anchor was 1 m long and 70 cm wide. Three triangular anchors had a circular upper hole and two square/rectangular holes below. An additional circular upper hole was also noticed in anchor no. 20 and an additional rectangular hole in anchor no. 16. This is the first known occurrence in Indian waters. Anchor no. 17 had only two lower holes and its upper hole was broken. All the anchors were made of limestone. Three single-holed stone objects were also noticed in this area. One was found in the channel which was partially buried in the sediment and it was exposed by airlift operation. These objects have a flat base and conical top with a wide transverse hole in the centre. Two objects were made out of basalt while the other was made of locally available calcareous rock.
Description of the stone anchors Based on their shape, the anchors have been divided into two broad group, grapnel and triangular. The broad characteristics of these anchors have been tabulated (Tables 1 & 2).
Grapnel stone anchors (Figs 2-4)
No. 1. Grapnel lying between rocks and practically bonded with the bedrock. It has a circular upper hole and one square hole below (Fig. 5). It is made of locally available limestone. Zone 1; depth 6 m. No. 2. Grapnel partially buried in sediment and was exposed by removing sand (Fig. 6). It has a circular upper hole and two square holes below. One face of the anchor has several grooves. Zone 1; depth 6 m. No. 3. Grapnel found while locating the submerged cliff. The anchor lay just below the ledge. It has sharp edges and seems has been used for a short period. It has a very small circular upper hole and two 91
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 1. Location
of anchors off Dwarlta.
square holes at the bottom on adjacent sides of the anchor. It is made of black hard rock, probably basalt. No. 4. Anchor found about 100 m west of no. 3. The topography of this area is high rocky cliff and a submerged channel emerging here. The upper hole is very small having a 5 cm diameter and two square holes below (Fig. 7). It has very sharp edges, is 1.2 m in length and is made of basalt. It is lying in 13 m of water. No. 5. Anchor with a broken upper hole. The lower two holes are rectangular (Fig. 8). It is 125 cm in length and made of locally available limestone. The anchor is lying on the rocky slope of the cliff at a depth of 13 m. 98
(Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
No. 6. Anchor lying between the rocks (Fig. 9). It has a very rough surface and chiselmarks are visible. It lacks an upper hole but two square holes were noted at the bottom. It is made of limestone. No. 7. Grapnel lying near no. 6 and beyond the rocks. This is the longest anchor found so far in this area. It is 188 cm long, with a circular upper hole and the remains of chisel-marks. The lower two holes are rectangular (Fig. 10). It appears to be made of yellow sandstone. No. 8. Broken grapnel found about 3 m nearer the cliff than no. 6 (Fig. 11). It is 55 cm length and the lower portion is broken. A circular upper hole was noted. It is
A. S. GAUR
ET
20 STONE
AL.:
,
,
,
ANCHORS
FROM
OF DWARKA
,
.
Figure
THE WATERS
2. Location
.-
of stone anchors in Dwarka
made of calcareous rock and was found at a depth of 13 m. No. 9. Broken grapnel about 5 m distant from no. 13 and nearer the cliff (Fig. 12). It is 65 cm in length and only a circular upper hole survives. The lower portion of the anchor is broken. This is heavier than no. 8 and is made of limestone. It lies at a depth of 13 m. No. 10. Anchor found about 7 m distance from no. 9, between several fallen rocks (Fig. 13). The lower portion of the anchor is broken and only one broken lower hole was noted; it lacks an upper hole. Its length is 100 cm and it
No.
No.
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
is made of limestone. It lies at a depth of 12m. 11. Anchor lying about 25 m distant from no. 15 on the further side of the submerged ledge and trapped between rocks. It is very large and heavy, and 185 cm long (Fig. 14). This anchor has a circular upper hole and two square holes below. It has very rough surface and made of calcareous rock. This is one of the longest anchors found in this area. It lies in 13 m of water. 12. Anchor lying on the northern bank of the submerged channel near a rock and about 15 m distant from no. 8 and the 99
c----28
0 I
Figure 3. Grapnel 100
-1
30
40
50 cm I
stone anchors from Dwarka
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
A. S. GAUR
AL.: 20 STONE
ET
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
I
I I
I
10
I
I
11
-
0 L.-Y
Figure
4. Grapnel
‘,”
30 ,
40 I
stone anchors from Dwarka
:OCm.
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari) 101
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
15
Figure 7. Dwarka: anchor no. 2, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
0 /
LO zo TO 4,” 50Crn , 1 1
Figure 5. Grapnel stone (Drawing: S. B. Chitari)
anchors
from
Dwarka
waters.
Figure 8. Dwarka: anchor no. 4, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 6. Dwarka: anchor no. 1, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
same distance from the cliff. A very heavy anchor. It has a circular upper hole 5 cm in diameter with 1 square and 1 rectangular hole below (Fig. 15). It has a very rough surface and is made of calcareous rock, lying at a depth of 14 m. No. 13. Anchor lying very near no. 12. Its upper portion is broken and two lower square holes were noted (Fig. 16). It has very rough surface and is made out of calcareous rock with a length of 110 cm, lying at a depth of 14 m. 102
Figure 9. Dwarka: anchor no. 5, grapnel-type upper hole is broken from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
Figure 10. Dwarka: anchor no. 6, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 13. Dwarka: anchor no. 9, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure II. Dwarka: anchor no. I, grapnel-type from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodkcr)
Figure 14. Dwarka: anchor no. 10, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 12. Dwarka: anchor no. 8, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 1.5. Dwarka: anchor no. 11, grapnel-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
103
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 16. Dwarka: anchor no. 12, grapnel-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 17. Dwarka: anchor no. 13, grapnel-type broken anchor from zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
No. 14. Grapnel found on the northern side of no. 3. The upper portion is hidden under a rock (Fig. 17). The lower holes are square and the middle portion measured 90 cm. It is made of basalt. The anchor has very sharp edges and lies in 12 m of water. No. 15. Anchor lying in shallow water and buried in sediment. It is a heavy with no upper hole (Fig. 18). Two lower square holes were noted. It is made of calcareous rock. Vegetation growth was also noted. Zone 1; depth 6 m.
Triangular stone anchors (Fig. 19) No. 16. Anchor found very near grapnel no. 4. It is made of yellow sandstone with two square holes below and a rectangular 104
Figure 18. Dwarka: anchor no. 14, grapnel-type partially hidden under rock in zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
Figure 19. Dwarka: anchor no. 15, grapnel-type from zone 1. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: S. N. Bandodker)
upper hole (Fig. 20). It is the first example of the type from Dwarka waters. It would appear that a circular hole may once have been replaced by a rectangular one, but how this hole would have functioned is difficult to deduce. The anchor is lying at a water depth of 13 m in zone 2. No. 17. Triangular anchor observed about 10 m from no. 16 and the same distance from the cliff on a sandy bottom. At 22 cm the anchor is very thick (Fig. 21). The upper hole is broken while the two square holes below are intact. It is made out of locally available calcareous rock with a length of 80 cm and lies in 14 m of water. No. 18. Anchor lying on disturbed rocks on the seabed. It has a length of 100 cm (Fig. 22). There are unusually two
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
OF DWARKA
I.m
0
,
IO I
20 B
30 fi
40 1
50 t
CM
, --------
--
f-y
17
Figwe 20. Triangular
stone anchors from Dwarka
circular upper holes and two square holes at the bottom. Both upper holes are 8 cm in diameter. The two round holes together may have been a precautionary measure. The anchor is made out of calcareous rock which is rough and porous. ~-
waters. (Drawing:
S. B. Chitari)
No. 19. Anchor near no. 18. It is finely dressed but the raw material is porous and it has a rough surface and a length of 85 cm (Fig. 23). A circular upper hole is 10 cm in diameter while two square holes below are smaller than 105
NAUTICAL
ARCHAEOLOGY,
30.1
Figure 21. Dwarka: anchor no. 16, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 22. Dwarka: anchor no. 17, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
those of anchor 18. It is made of limestone. No. 20. Anchor lying between two rocks near grapnel no. 11. It is porous calcareous rock with a circular upper hole and two square holes below (Fig. 24). All three holes are eroded significantly. It is lying in 13 m of water.
Discussion All the triangular anchors are made of locally available calcareous rock and all of them have been found in 12-15 m of water. It indicates that they might derive from ships which used to anchor at such depths. The raw material indicates local manufacture and that they were made indigenously. An old fisherman in this region 106
Figure 23. Dwarka: anchor no. 18, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
Figure 24. Dwarka: anchor no. 19, triangular-type zone 2. (Scale: 50 cm with 10 cm divisions) (Photo: Bandodker)
from S. N.
recalled that people were using triangular stone anchors about 70 years ago but he was not aware of the use of grapnel anchors. It is clear from this testimony that triangular stone anchors continued in use until very recently. The occurrence of a large number of grapnel types off Oman (Vosmer, pers. comm.), Sri Lanka (Souter, 1998) the Red Sea (Raban, 1990) and the East African coast (Chittick, 1990) in association with Arab settlement indicates that grapnel anchors probably disappeared in this region with the decline of Indo-Arab trade in the 16thP17th century. A large number of anchor finds in one particular area may indicate that either this was an anchorage or that a ship having a large number of anchors was wrecked here. Ancient ships used to have several anchors on board (Hourani, 1975).
A. S. GAUR
ET AL.: 20 STONE
ANCHORS
FROM
THE WATERS
There is no indication of a shipwreck as no other finds have been made in the vicinity of the anchors. Therefore, it is more likely to be an ancient anchorage. The majority of anchors are made of locally available rocks but three anchors are made of basalt or granite that is not locally available. It seems that either these anchors are of foreign origin or the raw material came from southern Saurashtra near Junagarh Hill. Grapnels are comparatively heavier and bigger than triangular anchors. Several stone anchors found in the last couple of years on the Indian coast suggest that the Dwarka stone anchors may not be older than the 10th century AD. As has already been stated, an archaeological context is needed to supply firm dates for Dwarka anchors (Sundaresh et al., 1999). The presence of grapnel anchors is perhaps the indicator of Indo-Arab trade all along the Indian coast during the Medieval Period, that is, between the 8th and 16th centuries AD. The origin and date of the triangular or composite anchors is a matter of concern, It has also been noticed that the frequency of these anchors is much less compared with grapnels. The composite anchors were always found in association with grapnels at Dwarka, Bet Dwarka, Somnath, Sindhudurg, Vijaydurg and Galle in Sri Lanka. Although the dating may not be different, the origin may differ. The presently available evidence in the form of raw material indicates that they might have been made indigenously. Another consideration is that a ship may carry both types in order to anchor on different kinds of seabed. Raban (1990) has pointed out that grapnel types are essentially intended for coral and rocky seabeds while
OF DWARKA
composite anchors can hold in a sandy seabed. Therefore, it is possible that due to the rocky seabed near Dwarka grapnel anchors were employed.
Conclusion The large number of stone anchors have indicated the importance of Dwarka as a busy maritime centre during historical and earlier periods. Different types of anchor also indicate that several types and sizes of vessels visited Dwarka. The use of local stone indicates that triangular stone anchors were made indigenously and oral testimony indicates that they were used till very recently. On the other hand grapnels may be an introduction by Arab traders to disappear once the trade between India and Arab countries declined. Therefore, the date of the grapnel anchors found at Dwarka may be earlier than the 16th century AD. The further study of the petrology of stone anchors;may reveal the source of the stone. The association of anchors in a datable context is needed to tie them in with a specific period.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Dr E. Desa, Director, NIO for permission to publish this paper. The Department of Ocean Development has provided financial assistance for this project which we acknowledge gratefully. The authors also record the necessary help rendered by Shri S. B. Chitari, Shri Umesh Sirsat and Shri K.A. Sheikh. This is NIO contribution number 3661.
References Chittick, N., 1980, Stone anchor shanks in the Western Indian Ocean. IJNA, 9: 73376. Dhavalikar, M. K., Raval, M. R. & Chitalwala, Y. M., 1996, Kuntasi-A Harappan Emporium on West Coast. Pune. Frost, H., 1991, Anchors. Ras Shamra-Ougavit VI: Arts et Industries de la Pierre. ERC Paris. Hourani, G. F., 1975, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean and Early Medieval Times. New York. Jaykumar, P. & Athiyaman, N., 1999, Stone Anchors of Tamihladu Coast. Paper presented in Second International Conjerence on Marine Archaeology, Thane, Mumbai on S-10 January, 1999. Raban, A., 1990, Medieval anchors from the Red Sea. ZJNA, 19: 2999306. Rao, S. R., 1979, Lothal-A Hurappan Povt Town. Memoir of Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Rao, S. R., 1987, Progress and Prospects of Marine Archaeology in India. Goa. Rao, S. R., 1990, Excavation of the legendary city of Dwarka in the Arabian Sea. Journal of Marine Archaeology, 1: 59-98. Rao, S. R., 1991, Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilization. New Delhi. Rao, S. R., Tripati, S. & Gaur, A. S., 1992, Marine archaeological exploration off Somnath. Journal of Marine Archaeology, 3: 13-16. Rao, S. R., Sila, T., Gaul-, A. S., Gudigar, I?., Sundaresh & Vora, K. H. 1994, Underwater archaeological exploration of Dwarka and Somnath-Results of 1992 Survey and Problem to Attend. In S. R. Rao (Ed.), The Role oj’ Universities and Research Institutes in Marine Archaeology. Goa, 113-l 19. Sila, T. & -Gaur, A. S., 1997, Stone anchors from Sindhudurg fort on the west coast of India. IJNA, 26: 51-57. 107
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ARCHAEOLOGY,
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Sila, T., Saxena, M. K., Sundaresh, Gudigar, P. & Bandodker, S. N., 1998, Marine archaeological exploration and excavation of Vijaydurg-a naval base of the Maratha Period, Maharashtra, on the west coast of India. IJNA, 27: 51-57. Souter, C., 1998, Stone anchors near Black Fort, Galle, Sri Lanka. IJNA, 27: 331-342. Sundaresh, Gaur, A. S., Gudigar, P., Sila Tripati, Vora, K. H. & Bandodker, S. N., 1999, Stone anchors from the Okhamandal Region, Gujarat Coast, India. IJNA, 28: 229-252.
108