A meta-analytic review of Berzonsky’s Identity Style Inventory (ISI)

Journal of Adolescence 35 (2012) 333–343

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A meta-analytic review of Berzonsky’s Identity Style Inventory (ISI) Leslie A. Bosch*, Noel A. Card Norton School of Family and Consumer Sciences, Department of Family Studies and Human Development, Tucson, AZ 85721-0078, United States

a b s t r a c t Keywords: Meta-analysis Identity styles Identity Style Inventory (ISI)

Identity formation is an essential developmental challenge associated with adolescence (Cote, 2009; Erikson, 1950, 1968). Berzonsky (1988) developed a social-cognitive model that distinguishes three styles by which adolescents engage the tasks associated with identity formation: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Focusing on studies (K ¼ 62) that employed the Identity Style Inventory (ISI; Berzonsky, 1989), three metaanalytic reviews were performed. First, results show a medium positive association between the informational and normative styles, a medium negative association between informational and diffuse-avoidant styles, and a negligible negative association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant styles. Second, results show large positive associations between commitment and both the informational and normative identity styles, and a large negative association between commitment and the diffuse-avoidant style. Finally, results show a small positive association between gender and the diffuse-avoidant identity style, with men scoring higher than women. Age and country of origin were evaluated as moderators. Ó 2011 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The study of identity has its origin in Erikson’s (1950) theory of psychosocial development. Within this theory, Erikson (1950, 1968) identified eight stages of development across the lifespan, each consisting of central challenges and goals for resolution. Resolution of the fifth developmental stagedidentity versus identity diffusiondtypically occurs in adolescence and young adulthood and may coincide with college attendance in Western industrialized societies (Cote, 2009; Erikson, 1950, 1968; Schwartz, Cote, & Arnett, 2005). Resolution of the identity versus identity diffusion developmental challenge requires adolescents and young adults to formulate a stable sense of self grounded in a set of personal goals, values, and beliefs. A clear set of identity-related goals, values, and beliefs are advantageous because they serve as guidelines that facilitate decision-making. In contrast, identity diffusiondthe absence of identity-related goals, values, and beliefsdmay interfere with the decision-making process, leaving one apathetic, confused, and/or ambivalent when faced with important life choices (Erikson, 1950, 1968). Further, failure to resolve the fifth developmental challenge is expected to negatively impact the resolution of subsequent stages, including the developmental challenges associated with intimacy (versus isolation) during young adulthood, generativity (versus stagnation) during middle adulthood, and integrity (versus despair) during older adulthood (Erikson, 1950, 1968). Moreover, resolution of the identity challenge is vital in late-modern societies where deinstitutionalizing processes create “normlessness” and individuals are left to address the void by constructing norms or guidelines in the form of personally meaningful goals and values (e.g., Schwartz, Cote, & Arnett, 2005). In support of these theoretical assumptions, a growing body of evidence suggests that individuals who have yet to resolve this developmental challenge, and as such lack a clear sense of identity, are at increased risk for several personal and behavioral problems including academic difficulties and poor peer

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 520 626 6538. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (L.A. Bosch). 0140-1971/$ – see front matter Ó 2011 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2011.08.007

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relations (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2005), low self-esteem and depression (Nurmi, Berzonsky, Tammi, & Kinney, 1997), eating disorders (Wheeler, Adams, & Keating, 2001), drug and alcohol problems (Jones, Ross, & Hartmann, 1992), and conduct disorders (Adams, Munro, Doherty-Poirer, Munro, Petersen, & Edwards, 2001). Conceptualizing and measuring identity formation Given the importance of identity formation to adolescent development, Marcia (1966) was among the first scholars to operationalize the identity versus identity diffusion stage of Erikson’s theory for empirical research. In his model, Marcia (1966) posited two fundamental dimensions of identity development. Exploration involves an active search for information about alternative lifestyles, beliefs, and values. Commitment involves efforts to decide which possibilities fit best with one’s personality and to apply these decisions in a variety of contexts. Based on the dimensions of exploration and commitment, Marcia identified four identity statuses: achieved (high exploration and high commitment), moratorium (high exploration and low commitment), foreclosed (low exploration and high commitment), and diffuse (low exploration and low commitment). Extensive research has demonstrated the versatility and usefulness of the identity status model in predicting both adjustment and maladjustment (e.g., Kroger, 2005). Extending Marcia’s categorical model of identity status, Berzonsky (1989) formulated a process model of identity styles. The term identity style refers to the social-cognitive strategies that people routinely employ when engaging in or avoiding tasks associated with constructing and maintaining a sense of identity (Berzonsky, 1989). Berzonsky (1988, 1989) identified three identity processing styles informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant. Conceptually, Berzonsky retained the dimensions of exploration and commitment. However, in constructing the inventory designed to measure identity style, the Identity Style Inventory (ISI), Berzonsky uncoupled the exploration and commitment aspects that were confounded in Marcia’s measure of identity status. Hence, the ISI consists of four scales, three designed to measure different types of exploration (informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant) and one designed to measure commitment. Within the process of identity exploration, the three identity styles differ along quantitative (presence or absence of exploration) as well as qualitative (e.g., reasons for the absence of exploration) dimensions. An informational identity style is one in which exploratory efforts are present. These individuals actively seek identity relevant information from a variety of sources, exhibit openness to experience, and postpone identity-related decision making until they can obtain and process relevant information. A normative identity style is one in which exploratory efforts are absent because these individuals readily adopt, without considering alternatives, the identity-related goals, values, and commitments significant others deem appropriate. Similarly, those who prefer a diffuse-avoidant identity style also lack exploratory efforts. However, rather than readily adopting the identity standards prescribed by significant others (normative identity style), these individuals avoid exploring identity-related issues, preferring to allow situational demands and emergent short-term needs to guide their identity-related decisions and behavior. Although diffuse-avoidant individuals may explore to some extent, such exploratory efforts are likely haphazard, in contrast to those who prefer an informational identity style. Turning back to the dimension of identity commitment, there are expectable associations between the three styles of identity exploration measured by the ISI with a separate scale of identity commitment. The informational identity style is associated with the formation of personally meaningful commitments. The normative identity style is also associated with the presence of commitments although those commitments are formed without exploration. Finally, given an avoidance of identity-related issues, the diffuse-avoidant identity style is negatively associated with commitment. Identity Style Inventory The Identity Style Inventory (ISI; Berzonsky, 1989) is the most commonly used instrument to assess the three identity styles (informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant). The ISI consists of 40 items that comprise four scales: informational identity style (11 items), normative identity style (9 items), and diffuse-avoidant identity style (10 items), as well as identityrelated commitment (10 items). Respondents rate each item based on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 (uncharacteristic) to 5 (characteristic). Sample items from the informational identity subscale include: “When I have a personal problem, I try to analyze the situation in order to understand it” and “When I discuss an issue with someone, I try to assume their point of view and see the problem from their perspective.” Sample items from the normative identity subscale include: “I’ve more-or-less always operated according to the values with which I was brought up” and “I think it’s better to have a firm set of beliefs than to be open-minded.” Sample items from the diffuse-avoidant identity subscale include: “I’m not really thinking about my future now; it’s still a long way off” and “It doesn’t pay to worry about values in advance; I decide things as they happen.” Finally, sample items from the commitment subscale include: “I have a definite set of values that I use in order to make personal decisions” and “To live a complete life, I think people need to get emotionally involved and commit themselves to specific values and ideals.” Goals of the meta-analytic review Given the importance of identity formation during adolescent development, as well as the need to measure the construct accurately, we aimed to meta-analytically review over 20 years of identity style research that has been conducted using the ISI (Berzonsky, 1989). Our goals are threefold. First, we will evaluate the magnitudes of associations of the three identity styles.

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Second, we will evaluate the magnitudes of associations of the three identity styles with commitment. Third, we will explore sex differences in identity styles. Within each analysis, we will explore the moderating effects of age and country of origin. In the following paragraphs, we elaborate each goal as well as the rationale for each moderator. These efforts are designed to provide researchers with data that may inform the use of this measure in future studies. Associations among the ISI informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant identity styles Berzonsky (1989) placed emphasis on identity style preferences, indicating that although virtually all normal individuals should be able to employ all three processing orientations by late adolescence, individuals tend to rely on one identity style more than they rely on the other identity styles. Even so, the three identity styles were not conceptualized to be completely independent; rather, moderate relations are expected among these scales in some cases (Berzonsky, 1989). For example, an active approach to information processing is expected to be inversely related to an avoidant approach. Also, an active approach to information processing may be positively related to an approach that favors adherence to social norms without question because both strategies may lead individuals to seek information from significant others. Alternatively, an informational style may or may not be associated with commitment (i.e., as with the moratorium identity status, where informed exploration is present but commitments have yet to be formed). Hence, because some individuals with high informational scores will have strong commitments similar to those with high normative scores, controlling for commitment may attenuate the correlation between normative and informational scores. Although not yet systematically synthesized, the empirical evidence does appear to indicate a positive relation between the ISI informational and the normative identity styles (e.g., Berzonsky, 1994a,b, 2004). However, negative associations are occasionally reported (e.g., Berzonsky, 1989, 1992), and the magnitude of associations varies widely. Thus, we expect a positive association between the informational and normative identity styles, but the magnitude of this relation is yet unclear. Similarly, empirical evidence appears to indicate the expected negative relation between the informational and the diffuse-avoidant identity styles (e.g., Berzonsky, 1989, 1992), although positive associations are occasionally reported (e.g., Dunkel, 2005; Jakubowski & Dembo, 2004) and again, the magnitude of this association varies widely. Thus, we expect a negative association between the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity styles, and we will quantify the magnitude of this relation in this meta-analysis. Finally, the association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles is quite inconsistent in the literature, with both positive and negative associations reported. Thus, our meta-analytic review will clarify both the existence and the magnitude of the association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles. We also explored whether the variability in the magnitude of associations among the identity styles can be explained by the moderating effects of age and country of origin, which we describe further below. Associations between the three identity styles and commitment As described above, positive associations are conceptually expected of both the informational and the normative identity styles with the commitment scale of the ISI. Empirical evidence has demonstrated these predications, although the magnitude of these associations varies widely (e.g., Casey, 2006; Dollinger, Dollinger, & Centeno, 2005). Thus, we expect a positive association between both the informational and the normative identity styles and commitment scales, and we will also quantify the magnitude of these relations. Similarly, as expected, empirical evidence has demonstrated a negative relation between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment scales, although again, the magnitude of this association varies widely (e.g., Berzonsky, 1989; Streitmatter, 1993). Thus, we expect a negative association between the diffuseavoidant identity style and commitment scales, but the magnitude of this relation is explored. Again, we also explored whether the variability in the magnitude of associations among the identity style and commitment scales can be explained by the moderating effects of age and country of origin. Sex differences in the identity styles Theoretically, sex differences in identity formation are not expected (Erikson, 1950, 1968) and empirical evidence does not strongly suggest sex differences (e.g., Kroger, 1997). Similarly, associations between the identity processing styles and sex differences are rarely reported in the literature (e.g., Soenens, Berzonsky, Vansteenkiste, Beyers, & Goossens, 2005). However, reports that males score higher than females on the diffuse-avoidance identity style do exist (e.g., Berzonsky, 1989, 1992). Although rare, these findings may reflect differences in sex-role socialization, where male children are provided more freedom and less supervision than their female counterparts (Berzonsky, 2008). Thus, we explored whether or not sex differences exist among the identity style scales. We also explored whether any variability in the magnitude sex differences might be explained by the moderating effects of age and country of origin. Moderators Age In line with developmental perspectives, identity formation begins with less complex identity structures; moves through a period of crisis in which old identity structures begin to loosen and new or transformed support structures are sought

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through processes of exploration; and culminates in more complex identity structures that reflect the presence of personally meaningful commitments (Erikson, 1950, 1968). Empirical evidence suggests that identity formation begins in middle adolescence, continues into late adolescence and young adulthood, before the process stabilizes in adulthood (Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010). Accordingly, we tested age as a moderator to evaluate whether the associations between identity constructs (exploration and commitment) as measured by the ISI converge, diverge, or remain constant. Given the absence of studies that sample a wide range of ages among study participants, the exploration of the moderating effects of age on the associations among the ISI scales will contribute to the extant literature. Specifically, we considered three developmental groupsdhigh school students, college students, and adultsdgiven that these groups typically experience different life events (in addition to age) relevant to identity development. In middle adolescence, high school students typically experience less freedom as they live at home with their parents and are legally considered minors in many countries. In late adolescence and young adulthood, college students are typically of an age considered legal majority, and they may also experience increasing freedom as they move away from home and are afforded additional opportunities to explore a wider range of options. Finally, in adulthood, adults may experience both greater freedom and responsibilities as they begin to take on the duties associated with full-time employment, marriage, and child bearing. Country of origin Studies of identity style using the ISI have been conducted in a number of countries outside the US including Belgium, the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, Greece, Italy, Korea, and Slovakia. Because identity formation occurs in cultural settings and emerges from interactions with significant others (e.g., Cote, 2000), we explored whether cultural differences moderate the associations between the ISI scales. However, the extant literature cannot speak to such effects given the limited number of studies that compare samples from different countries. Nevertheless, a meta-analytic exploration of study characteristics such as country of origin can shed some light on the topic. Method Selection of studies We obtained studies for this meta-analysis through four approaches. First, we conducted computerized literature searches of the PsycINFO, ERIC, Sociological Abstracts, and Proquest (for unpublished dissertations) databases using the keywords “identity style” or “identity and Berzonsky” (last search performed November 2009). Second, we examined references cited in other articles (i.e., “backward search” procedures). Third, Berzonsky’s (1989) seminal article was entered into the Social Science Citation Index to identify studies that cite this article (i.e., “forward search” procedures). Finally, we asked experts in the field to examine initial lists of reports for accuracy and to suggest additional studies. We chose to be lenient in the initial review of studies in order to be as inclusive as possible. Consequently, we reviewed a total of 85 journal articles, chapters, and dissertations in selecting studies for potential inclusion. Ultimately, we included studies that met three criteria. First, the studies used the Identity Style Inventory (Berzonsky, 1989). Second, the studies presented data on all three identity styles. Third, we included studies that provided empirical data to allow calculation of effect sizes relevant to at least one of our three goals. Dissertations and conference presentations that later appeared as publications were eliminated from further analysis as were multiple reports that used the same sample. Using these criteria, a total of 50 studies (N ¼ 12,482 participants) were used to investigate mean associations between the three identity styles; 27 studies (N ¼ 6563) were used to investigate mean associations between the identity styles and commitment; and 16 studies (N ¼ 4047) were used to investigate sex differences in identity style scores. Coding of studies For all studies, we coded sample size and the effect sizes (described below) of interest. We also coded the following study characteristics as potential moderators of effect sizes: mean age of the sample (categorized in terms of three developmental groups: high school, college, and adult samples), country from which the sample was drawn (due to the number of studies, this variable was dichotomized into US and non-US studies), and publication status (dichotomized in terms of published and unpublished studies). Publication status was used in tests of publication bias, which we describe further in the Results section below. To evaluate reliability of coding, the first author recoded 50% of studies three months after the initial coding (see Card, 2012; Wilson, 2009). Although intracoder agreement may not be a perfect substitute for intercoder agreement, it can serve as reasonable evidence of reliability if efforts are made to ensure independence of the coding sessions (Card, 2012). In this study, the coder worked with unmarked copies of the studies and the coding sessions were separated by three months. The intracoder agreement rate was 98%, supporting the reliability of study coding. Statistical analysis Effect size calculations Using standard procedures (e.g., Rosenthal, 1991), we transformed all study results into a common effect size metric: Pearson’s r. We assigned an r ¼ 0 when researchers reported that a particular effect was nonsignificant and additional

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information from which an effect size might be computed was also missing. This occurred three percent of the time in the identity style with identity style meta-analysis, two percent of the time in the identity style with commitment meta-analysis, and 13% of the time in the identity style with sex meta-analysis. This conservative approach may lead to slight underestimation of overall effect sizes, although the low occurrence of these conservative estimates likely resulted in a very small bias. Combining and comparing effect sizes across studies All effect sizes were combined using weighted random-effects analyses (e.g., Hedges & Vevea,1998). Before combining effect sizes, the correlation metrics (r) were transformed to Fisher’s Zr in order to meet assumptions of normality (Rosenthal, 1991). Two studies reported multiple effect sizes; hence, to avoid violating assumptions of independence, we computed the average effect size in order to yield one effect size per study. Finally, for reporting purposes, Zrs were transformed back into mean rs. Results Correlations among identity styles as measured by the ISI We meta-analyzed associations among the informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant identity styles from 50 studies consisting of 12,482 participants. All 50 studies appeared between 1989 and 2009 and 84% appeared in peer-reviewed journals. The sample sizes ranged from 31 to 899, with a median sample size of 209. Seventy percent of the studies were conducted in the US. Studies using the ISI were also conducted in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Greece, Italy, Korea, Netherlands, and Slovakia. The average sample age ranged from 13 to 38 years, with a median average sample age of 20 years. Seventyeight percent of the studies were conducted using college students, 10% used high school students, and 12% used adults outside of college settings. Ninety percent of the 12,482 participants were White and 68% were female. Ten studies (20%) used translated versions of the ISI (Flemish, Greek, Italian, Slovak). Two studies (4%) used an abbreviated version of the ISI. Cronbach’s alphas for the subscales ranged from .50 to .78 (Median ¼ .68) for the informational style, from .49 to .78 (Median ¼ .62) for the normative style, from .49 to .79 (Median ¼ .72) for the diffuse-avoidant style, and from .62 to .80 (Median ¼ .71) for commitment. Results from random-effects models are summarized in Table 1. Using Cohen’s (1988) benchmarks, the magnitude of an effect size was considered small if r ¼ .10, medium if r ¼ .30, and large if r ¼ .50. As shown in the first two rows of Table 1, results indicated a small-to-medium positive average correlation between the informational and normative identity style scales (mean r ¼ .19, p ¼ .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .15 to .23); a small-to-medium negative average correlation between the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity style scales (mean r ¼ .25, p ¼ .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .29 to .20); and a statistically significant, but of trivial magnitude, negative average correlation between the normative and diffuseavoidant identity style scales (mean r ¼ .04, p ¼ .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .06 to .02). Analyses of the heterogeneity in effect sizes across studies indicated significant variability (see third row of Table 1). To evaluate potential sources of this heterogeneity, as described above, we tested the moderating effects of age and country of origin. Regarding age, the association between the informational and normative identity styles was moderated by age (fifth row of Table 1) such that high school and adult samples yielded medium associations (mean rs ¼ .32 and .30, respectively; sixth and eighth rows of Table 1), whereas small associations were found for college student samples (mean r ¼ .15; seventh row of

Table 1 Summary of meta-analyses of associations between identity styles (K ¼ 50, N ¼ 12,482).

Random-effects mean r 95% C. I. Heterogeneity (Q) Failsafe ka Age moderationb Qbetween(2) Mean r for high school (k ¼ 6) Mean r for college (k ¼ 38) Mean r for adult (k ¼ 6) Country of originc,d moderation Qbetween(1) Mean r for US (k ¼ 33) Mean r for Non-US (k ¼ 15) *

Informational with normative

Informational with diffuse-avoidant

Normative with diffuse-avoidant

.19* .15 to .23 267.64* 45 69.96* .32 .15 .30 30.08* .25 .15

.25* .29 to .20 303.72* 75 3.97 .23 .29 .26 37.05* .23 .33

.04* .06 to .02 123.00* NA 1.45 .02 .05 .04 2.03 .06 .03

p < .01. a Orwin’s (1983) failsafe number of studies needed to reduce the effect size to a trivially meaningful magnitude, r ¼ .10. b One study was excluded because it contained undifferentiated data from two age categories (high school and college). However, the total number of studies adds up to 50 because another study, also containing two age categories (high school and college), did report differentiated results for each age category (N ¼ 11,968). c Two studies were excluded because they either contained data from two countries (US and Finland) or the country of origin could not be determined (N ¼ 11,824). d Non-US countries: Australia (2 studies), Belgium (6), Canada (2), Greece (1), Italy (1), Korea (1), Netherlands (1), and Slovakia (1).

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Table 1). Age did not moderate either the association between the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity styles or the association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles. Regarding country of origin, first, the association between the informational and normative identity styles was moderated by country of origin (Table 1, row 9) such that studies conducted in the US yielded slightly larger associations (mean r ¼ .25; row 10) than studies conducted outside the US (mean r ¼ .15; row 11). Regarding the association between the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity styles, studies conducted in the US yielded slightly smaller associations (mean r ¼ .23) than studies conducted outside the US (mean r ¼ .33). The near–zero association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles was not moderated by country of origin. Although statistically significant in two out of three cases, these differences are conceptually quite negligible. Nevertheless, we wondered whether or not these differences might be due to cross-cultural issues or to translational issues. Although direct comparisons between all the countries were impossible given the limited number of studies conducted in Australia, Canada, Greece, Italy, and Korea, we were able to test the moderating effects of country of origin (US vs. Non-US) and translation (English vs. translation). To do so, we created three groups: US English (k ¼ 33), Non-US English (k ¼ 5), and Non-US translated (k ¼ 10). These tests were significant for two of the three associations and mirrored the pattern found for country of origin as described above. That is, regarding the association between the informational and normative identity styles, US English and Non-US English studies yielded slightly larger associations (mean rs ¼ .25 and .20, respectively) than Non-US translated studies (mean r ¼ .13). Regarding the association between the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity styles, US English and Non-US English studies yielded slightly smaller associations (mean rs ¼ .22 and .26, respectively) than Non-US translated studies (mean r ¼ .34). Again, the near–zero association between the normative and diffuse-avoidant identity styles was not moderated by country of origin and translation. Correlations among the identity style and commitment scales of the ISI Twenty-seven studies consisting of 6563 participants were used to test the associations between the informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant identity styles and commitment. All 27 studies appeared between 1989 and 2009, and 89% appeared in peer-reviewed journals. The sample sizes ranged from 31 to 899, with a median sample size of 199. Seventy percent of the studies were conducted in the US. Studies using the ISI were also conducted in Belgium, Canada, Czech Republic, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, and Slovakia. The average sample age ranged from 13 to 38 years, with a median average sample age of 20 years. Eighty-four percent of the studies were conducted using college students, 9% featured high school students, and 7% featured adults. Ninety-three percent of the 6563 participants were White and 68% were female. Seven studies (26%) used a translated version of the ISI (Czech, Flemish, Greek, Italian, Slovak). One study (4%) used an abbreviated version of the ISI. Results from random-effects models, summarized in Table 2, indicated a medium positive association between the informational identity style and commitment scales (mean r ¼ .35, p < .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .31 to .40); a mediumto-large positive association between the normative identity style and commitment scales (mean r ¼ .41, p < .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .37 to .45); and a medium-to-large negative association between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment scales (mean r ¼ .39, p < .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .43 to .35). Analyses of the heterogeneity indicated significant variability in all three effect sizes across studies (see Table 2). To evaluate potential sources of heterogeneity, as described above, age and county of origin were tested as moderators. Regarding age, the association between the informational identity style and commitment was moderated by age such that high school and college samples yielded medium associations (mean rs ¼ .35 and .35, respectively), whereas large Table 2 Summary of meta-analyses of associations between identity style and commitment (K ¼ 27, N ¼ 6563).

Random-effects mean r 95% C. I. Heterogeneity (Q) Failsafe ka Ageb moderation Qbetween(2) Mean r for high school (k ¼ 2) Mean r for college (k ¼ 22) Mean r for Adult (k ¼ 2) Country of originc,d moderation Qbetween(1) Mean r for US (k ¼ 18) Mean r for non-US (k ¼ 8) *

Informational with commitment

Normative with commitment

Diffuse-avoidant with commitment

.35* .31 to .40 91.05* 67 24.19* .35 .35 .49 68.22* .40 .35

.41* .37 to .45 97.32* 84 28.56* .57 .41 .46 9.85* .44 .41

.39* .43 to .35 82.22* 78 13.49* .28 .39 .46 6.29* .43 .37

p < .01. a Orwin’s (1983) failsafe number of studies needed to reduce the effect size to a trivially meaningful magnitude, r ¼ .10. b One study was excluded because it contained undifferentiated data from two age categories (high school and college) (N ¼ 6049). c One study was excluded because it contained data from three countries (US, Czechoslovakia, and Finland) (N ¼ 6086). d Non-US countries: Belgium (1 study), Canada (2), Greece (2), Italy (1), Netherlands (1), Slovakia (1).

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associations were found for adult samples (mean r ¼ .49). Second, the association between the normative identity style and commitment was moderated by age such that college samples and adult samples yielded medium-to-large associations (mean rs ¼ .41 and .46, respectively), whereas large associations were found for high school samples (mean r ¼ .57). Finally, the association between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment was moderated by age such that high school and college samples yielded medium associations (mean rs ¼ .28 and .39, respectively), whereas slightly larger associations were found for adult samples (mean r ¼ .46). Regarding country of origin, all three associations were moderated by country of origin such that studies conducted in the US yielded slightly larger associations than studies conducted outside the US. Specifically, the association between the informational identity style and commitment was mean r ¼ .40 in US studies, and mean r ¼ .35 in studies conducted outside the US. The association between the normative identity style and commitment was mean r ¼ .44 in US studies, and mean r ¼ .41 in studies conducted outside the US. Finally, the association between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment was mean r ¼ .43 in US studies, and mean r ¼ .37 in studies conducted outside the US. Taken together, differences are conceptually quite negligible. We were unable to test the moderating effects of country of origin (US vs. NonUS) and translation (English vs. translation) given the limited number of studies conducted in English outside the US. Sex differences in identity style scales of the ISI Sixteen studies consisting of 4047 participants were used to test sex differences in the informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant identity style scales. All 16 studies appeared between 1989 and 2008, and 88% appeared in peer-reviewed journals. The sample sizes ranged from 64 to 711, with a median sample size of 225. Sixty-nine percent of the studies were conducted in the US. Non-US countries included Belgium, Canada, Korea, and Slovakia. The average sample age ranged from 13 to 38 years, with a median average sample age of 20 years. Sixty-three percent of the studies were conducted using college students, and 37% featured high school students (no studies using adults reported sex differences). Eighty-five percent of the 4047 participants were White and 64% were female. Three studies (19%) used a translated version of the ISI (Flemish, Slovak). Results from random-effects models, summarized in Table 3, indicate no significant sex differences for the informational identity style. However, we found a trivial sex difference for the normative identity style (mean r ¼ .04, p < .01, 95% confidence interval ¼ .07 to .01) such that females scored higher than males. We also found a small sex difference for the diffuse-avoidant identity style (mean r ¼ .16, p < .001, 95% confidence interval ¼ .12 to .21) such that males scored higher than females. Analyses of the heterogeneity in effect sizes across studies indicated significant variability in the sex difference for the informational identity style only (see Table 3). Age and country of origin were evaluated as potential sources of this heterogeneity. Results indicated sex differences in the informational identity style scale only, such that females scored higher than males in high school samples (mean r ¼ .16), but males scored higher than females in college samples (mean r ¼ .01) although the latter sex difference was trivial (no studies with adult samples reported sex differences). Country of origin did not moderate any of the associations. We were unable to test the moderating effects of country of origin (US vs. Non-US) and translation (English vs. translation) given the limited number of studies in general. Evaluation of publication bias Publication bias potentially threatens any review (Begg, 1994) because unpublished studies are more likely to have nonsignificant results or otherwise smaller effects than published studies. Thus, unpublished studies may be less likely to be included in meta-analytic reviews, resulting in biased estimates that inflate the magnitude of associations. We reduced the threat of this bias by obtaining unpublished studies such as dissertations; however, the inclusion of unpublished studies does

Table 3 Summary of meta-analyses of associations between identity style and sex differences (K ¼ 16, N ¼ 4047).

Random-effects mean r 95% C. I. Heterogeneity (Q) Failsafe ka Age moderation Qbetween(2) Mean r for high school (k ¼ 6) Mean r for college (k ¼ 10) Country of originb moderation Qbetween(1) Mean r for US (k ¼ 11) Mean r for non-US (k ¼ 5)

Informational with sex differences

Normative with sex differences

Diffuse-avoidant with sex differences

.06 .13 to .01 68.65* NA 24.08* .16 .01 .30 .06 .07

.04* .07 to.01 12.82 NA .69 .06 .03 2.31 .02 .07

.16* .12 to .21 24.35 10 1.68 .19 .15 .03 .16 .16

* p < .05. Female ¼ 0; Male ¼ 1. a Orwin’s (1983) failsafe number of studies needed to reduce the effect size to a trivially meaningful magnitude, r ¼ .10. b Non-US countries: Belgium (2 studies), Canada (1), Korea (1), Slovakia (1).

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not necessarily guarantee the absence of publication bias. Therefore, we also investigated potential publication bias through three statistical approaches. First, we tested to see whether the results differed by publication status. Publication status was considered as a dichotomous variable in the form of unpublished versus published studies in a series of nine weighted regression models, one for each of the effect sizes described throughout this review. None of the nine models tested reached significance. Second, we examined the association between sample size and effect size within each study because a significant finding may indicate the presence of publication bias (Sterne & Egger, 2005). None of the nine correlations tested reached significance. Finally, failsafe numbers were calculated (Rosenthal, 1979). Failsafe numbers indicate the number of potentially excluded studies with effect sizes equal to zero that would need to exist such that their inclusion would result in nonsignificant or trivial effects (Orwin, 1983; Rosenthal, 1979). To calculate the failsafe number, we used Orwin’s (1983) approach to evaluate how many additional studies (with rs ¼ 0) could have been excluded from the meta-analysis before the effect sizes become trivially small (r ¼ .10). With the exception of sex difference in diffuse-avoidant style, the failsafe numbers were large enough to conclude that effect sizes are robust to the file drawer threat. In sum, the results of three evaluations of potential publication bias yield little consistent evidence of this threat. Discussion Identity formation is an essential aspect of adolescent development. Based on Erikson’s (1950, 1968) theory of psychosocial development, Berzonsky (1988) developed a social-cognitive model that distinguishes how individuals process selfrelevant information. Since its inception, identity styles have been investigated using the Identity Style Inventory (ISI; Berzonsky, 1989). Accordingly, through a series of meta-analyses, we aimed to review approximately 20 years of identity research using the ISI. Specifically, we examined the associations among the identity styles themselves, associations of the identity styles with commitment, and sex differences in the identity styles. Additionally, we sought to clarify the magnitude of these associations as well as the moderating effects of age and country of origin. Associations among the ISI informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant identity styles Overall, the findings from this meta-analytic review support the theoretical assumptions suggested by Erikson’s (1950, 1968) theory of psychosocial development as well as Berzonsky (1988) identity process model. Regarding the associations between the identity styles, first, as expected, we found a positive association between the informational and the normative identity styles. The magnitude of the association was small-to-medium and the association was moderated by age and country of origin. Second, as expected, we found a negative association between the informational and the diffuse-avoidant identity styles. The magnitude of this association was small-to-medium and the association was moderated by country of origin. Finally, we found a negative association between the normative and the diffuse-avoidant identity styles. The magnitude of this association was trivial and no evidence of moderation by age or county of origin was found. Regarding age moderation, our findings indicate that the exploratory strategies associated with the informational and normative identity styles are more similar (less divergent) among high school (middle adolescent) and adult samples than they are among college samples (late adolescents and young adults). If so, these findings are in line with developmental perspectives. That is, although some exploratory efforts are expected in middle adolescence (high school), such efforts are expected to peak in late adolescence or young adulthood (college) before such exploratory efforts are expected to subside in adulthood (Erikson, 1950, 1968; Kroger, Martinussen, & Marcia, 2010). Regarding country of origin, our findings indicate that the informational and normative identity styles are more overlapping in US than non-US studies, but that informational and low diffuse-avoidant styles are more strongly associated in non-US than US studies. This suggests that differences between the exploratory strategies associated with the informational and normative identity styles may be more difficult for individuals living in the US to distinguish. If so, ambiguity might be due, in part, to the fact that information seeking is considered normative in the US, especially within the university setting. In contrast, differences between the exploratory strategies associated with the informational and diffuse-avoidant identity styles may be more readily apparent for individuals living in non-US countries given the activity associated with information seeking as compared to the inactivity associated with avoidance. Associations among the ISI identity styles and commitment Results also supported our expectations regarding the associations between identity styles and commitment. First, we found a positive association between the informational identity style and commitment. The magnitude of this association was medium and the association was moderated by age and country of origin. Second, we found a positive association between the normative identity style and commitment, which was of medium magnitude and moderated by age and country of origin. Finally, we found a negative association between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment. The magnitude of this association was medium and the association was moderated by age and country of origin. Although the results for age moderation should be viewed with caution given the small number of studies that sampled high school students (k ¼ 2) and adults (k ¼ 2), taken together, the results make sense theoretically. In general, as discussed previously, from a developmental perspective we expect exploration to begin in middle adolescence and to increase with age

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through late adolescence or young adulthood before subsiding in adulthood. We also expect the number of commitments based on exploratory efforts to increase with age while the number of commitments based on parental expectations may decrease with age. This pattern is reflected in our results. That is, the association between the normative identity style and commitment appears to weaken with age whereas the association between the informational identity style and commitment appears to strengthen. In addition, as expected, the pattern of results based on age for the positive association between the informational identity style and commitment is mirrored by the negative association between the diffuse-avoidant identity style and commitment. That is, with age, the association between the two styles and commitment grows stronger in the expected directions (i.e., positive for the informational style and negative for the diffuse-avoidant style). Sex differences in the identity styles Our evaluation of sex difference in the identity styles was largely exploratory, but motivated by occasional reports of sex differences in the literature. We found no evidence for sex differences in either the informational or the normative identity styles. However, although the sex differences in the informational identity style were both trivial and nonsignificant, this association was moderated by age and the country from which the study originated. Finally, as expected, males did report using the diffuse-avoidant style on the ISI slightly more than their female counterparts. The magnitude of this association was small and the effects were homogeneous across studies. Hence, moderator analyses were not performed. These results indicate that females may begin exploring sooner than males (i.e., in middle adolescence or while attending high school) but that by late adolescence and young adulthood (while attending college), any gap related to exploration between males and females effectively closes or ceases to exist. Overall, our findings appear to echo those reported elsewhere (e.g., Kroger, 1997), and suggest that, as predicted, sex is not a factor in the ultimate formation of identity (just the timing). However, these findings should be viewed with caution as an insufficient number of unpublished studies were available and so the findings may be subject to publication bias. Future research and conclusions Consistent with the goals of this review, the results of these meta-analyses confirm expected associations involving scales of the ISI and clarify the magnitude of these associations, as well as illuminating study characteristics (moderators) that partially account for the range of findings reported in the literature. The availability of such findings provides a point of reference whereby future ISI results might be more readily compared to extant findings. This review also points to segments of the population in which identity styles have been inadequately explored. For instance, the majority of the studies reviewed featured samples comprised of White college students living in Western industrialized societies, the majority of whom were female. Accordingly, sampling in future investigations might target late adolescents and young adults living beyond the confines of the university setting as well as ethnic minorities and men. Additionally, the limited number of studies conducted in non-US countries precluded a more nuanced or detailed analysis of cultural influences. Future research that systematically investigates this association across languages and different cultural contexts is needed. Resolution of the developmental challenge associated with identity formation is particularly important in late-modern Western societies because a clearly formed sense of self helps adolescents and young adults locate themselves among an almost limitless and ever expanding number of identity alternatives. This review assists researchers in their efforts to study this important construct by clarifying the relations among the three identity styles as measured by Berzonsky’s (1989) ISI, the relations of each identity style with commitment, and demonstrating the general absence of substantial sex differences in the use of identity style. 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References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analyses.

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Further reading *Adams, G. R., Berzonsky, M. D., & Keating, L. (2006). Psychosocial resources in first-year university students: the role of identity processes and social relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35, 81–91. *Albanese, M. N. (1996). The relationships between perceived parenting behavior, internal working models of parental attachment, and identity style. Unpublished dissertation, Fordham University, New York, United States. *Alvarez, A. N. (1996). Asian-American racial identity: An examination of world views and racial adjustment. Unpublished dissertation, University of Maryland College Park, United States. *Beaumont, S. L. (2009). Identity processing and personal wisdom: an information-oriented identity style predicts self-actualization and self-transcendence. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 9, 95–115. *Berman, A. M., Schwartz, S. J., Kurtines, W. M., & Berman, S. L. (2001). The process of exploration in identity formation: the role of style and competence. Journal of Adolescence, 24, 513–528. *Berzonsky, M. D. (2003). Identity style and well-being: does commitment matter? Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 3, 131–142. *Berzonsky, M., Branje, S. J. T., & Meeus, W. (2007). Identity-processing style, psychosocial resources, and adolescents’ perceptions of parent-adolescent relations. Journal of Early Adolescence, 27, 324–345. *Berzonsky, M. D. (2008). Identity formation: the role of identity processing style and cognitive processes. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 643– 653. *Berzonsky, M. D., & Ferrari, J. R. (1996). Identity orientation and decisional strategies. Personality and Individual Differences, 20, 597–606. Berzonsky, M. D., & Kuk, L. S. (2005). Identity style, psychosocial maturity, and academic performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 235–247. *Berzonsky, M. D., & Kinney, A. (2008). Identity processing style and defense mechanisms. Polish Psychological Bulletin, 39, 111–117. *Berzonsky, M. D., & Luyckx, K. (2008). Identity styles, self-reflective cognition, and identity processes: a study of adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of self-analysis. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 8, 205–219. *Berzonsky, M. D., Macek, P., & Nurmi, J.-E. (2003). Interrelationships among identity process, content, and structure: a cross-cultural investigation. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 112–130. *Berzonsky, M. D., & Sullivan, C. (1992). Social-cognitive aspects of identity style: need for cognition, experiential openness, and introspection. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 140–155. *Blum, D. F. (1998). The role of identity style as a moderator variable in the relationship between undergraduate academic stress and negative psychological outcomes. Unpublished dissertation, Fordham University, New York, United States. *Busacca, L. A. (2003). Identity styles and career development during adolescence. Unpublished dissertation, Kent State University, Ohio, United States. *Caputi, P., & Oades, L. (2001). Epistemic assumptions: understanding self and the world. Journal of Constructivist Psychology, 14, 127–134. *Cheek, C., & Jones, R. M. (2001). Identity style and employment histories among women receiving public assistance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 76– 88. *Cox, L. M. (1996). The relationship of cognitive style and epistemological commitment to counselor trainee development level. Unpublished dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi, United States. *Crocetti, E., Rubini, M., Berzonsky, M. D., & Meeus, W. (2009). Brief report: the identity style inventory: validation in Italian adolescents and college students. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 425–433. *Dollinger, S. M. C. (1995). Identity styles and the five-factor model of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 29, 475–479.

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*Dunkle, C., Papini, D., & Berzonsky, M. D. (2008). Explaining differences in identity styles: possible role of personality and family functioning. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 8, 349–363. *Duriez, B., & Soenens, B. (2006). Personality, identity styles, and authoritarianism: an integrative study among late adolescents. European Journal of Personality, 20, 397–417. *Duriez, B., Soenens, B., & Beyers, W. (2004). Personality, identity styles, and religiosity: an integrative study among late adolescents in Flanders (Belgium). Journal of Personality, 72, 877–910. *Good, M., Grand, M. P., Newby-Clark, I. R., & Adams, G. R. (2008). The moderating effect of identity style on the relation between adolescent problem behavior and quality of psychological functioning. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 8, 221–248. *Lutwak, N., Ferrari, J. R., & Cheek, J. M. (1998). Shame, guilt, and identity for men and women: the role of identity orientation and processing style in moral affects. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 1027–1036. *Luyckx, K., Soenens, B., Berzonsky, M. D., Smits, I., Goossens, L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2007). Information-oriented identity processing, identity consolidation, and well-being: the moderating role of autonomy, self-reflection, and self-rumination. Personality and Individual Differences, 43, 1099–1111. *Moon, K. S. (2005). Identity style and psychological well-being among Korean adolescents: Moderating role of individualism and collectivism. Unpublished dissertation, University of Wisconsin, Madison, United States. *Passmore, N. L., Fogarty, G. J., Bourke, C. J., & Baker-Evans, S. F. (2005). Parental bonding and identity style as correlates of self-esteem among adult adoptees and nonadoptees. Family Relations, 54, 523–534. *Phillips, T. M. (2009). Does social desirability bias distort results on the ego identity process questionnaire or the identity style inventory? Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 9, 87–94. *Phillips, T. M., & Pittman, J. F. (2007). Adolescent psychological well-being by identity style. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 1021–1034. *Pittman, J. F., Kerpelman, J. L., Lamke, L. K., & Sollie, D. L. (2009). Development and validation of a Q-sort measure of identity processing style: the identity processing style Q-sort. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1239–1265. *Seaton, C. L., & Beaumont, S. L. (2008). Individual differences in identity styles predict proactive forms of positive adjustment. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 8, 249–268. *Smits, I., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Duriez, B., Berzonsky, M., & Goossens, L. (2008). Perceived parenting dimensions and identity styles: exploring the socialization of adolescents’ processing of identity-relevant information. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 151–164. *Soenens, B., Duriez, B., & Goossens, L. (2005). Social-psychological profiles of identity styles: attitudinal and socialcognitive correlates in late adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 28, 107–125. *Sramova, B., Bianchi, G., Lasticova, B., Fichnova, K., & Hamranova, A. (2008). Analyses of socio-cognitive identity styles by Slovak adolescents. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 24, 432–436. *Vleioras, G. (2007). Not all identity style items refer to identity: does it matter? Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 7, 255–262. *Vleioras, G., & Bosma, H. A. (2005). Are identity styles important for psychological well-being? Journal of Adolescence, 28, 397–409. *Watson, P. J., & Morris, R. J. (2005). Spiritual experience and identity: relationships with religious orientation, religious interest, and intolerance of ambiguity. Review of Religious Research, 46, 371–379. *White, J. M., & Jones, R. M. (1996). Identity styles of male inmates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 23, 490–504. *White, J. M., Montgomery, M. J., Wampler, R. S., & Fischer, J. L. (2003). Recovery from alcohol or drug abuse: the relationship between identity styles and recovery behaviors. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 3, 325–345.