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A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
Seizure 2000; 9: 198–203
doi: 10.1053/seiz.1999.0374, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex † partial epilepsy: efficacy JOEL M. REITER & DONNA JOY ANDREWS Andrews/Reiter Epilepsy Research Program, 550 Doyle Park Drive, Santa Rosa, CA 95405, USA This is a retrospective study of the efficacy of a short-term comprehensive multidisciplinary neurobehavioral treatment approach for complex partial epilepsy. Eleven patients were treated intensively for five consecutive days followed by 6 months of weekly telephone contact and an additional 6 months of monitoring of seizure logs and journals. Data was analysed at least 24 months after initiation of treatment. Pre-treatment seizure frequency ranged from 1 to 15 per month. Post-treatment seizure frequency was zero per month for the nine patients who experienced less than four seizures per month prior to treatment and less than two per month for the other two patients. Additional benefits of the treatment program were improved levels of professional achievement in the arts and computer sciences and reduction of medication dosages. c 2000 BEA Trading Ltd
Key words: neurobehavioral treatment approach; complex partial seizures.
INTRODUCTION Despite the availability of multiple older antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and a renaissance in production of new AEDs, the incidence of uncontrolled seizures in the population with complex partial epilepsy remains at approximately 50%1, 2 . Side effects of AED therapy, particularly with higher dosages and the use of multiple medications significantly impair the quality of life for a large number of patients3, 4 . These deficiencies in current epilepsy treatment prompted the authors to develop a comprehensive neurobehavioral treatment approach for complex partial epilepsy formalized in the workbook Taking Control of Your Epilepsy: A Workbook for Patients and Professionals. Andrews and Schonfeld5 previously reported the successful application of this approach and Richard and Reiter6 have detailed the essential aspects and benefits of this type of treatment. Although patients recognize the need to participate in their own wellness7, 8 , time and distance constraints can interfere with regular participation. For this reason the authors designed a short-term treatment protocol which is described in an accompanying publication9 . MATERIALS AND METHODS Eleven patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures (CPS) were treated with a short-term proto†
col. Patient demographics are summarized in Tables 1a and b. The age at the start of treatment ranged from 9 to 58 years. Number of seizures at the start of treatment from 1 to 15 per month with a mean of 3.95 per month and median of 2 per month. Total months of follow-up was greater than 24 for nine patients with a maximum follow-up period of 96 months. All patients underwent thorough neurological evaluations, which are summarized in Tables 2a and b. Nine of the 11 patients had undergone multiple medication trials previously with inadequate control of seizures and/or side effects (Tables 3a and b). The authors are a neurologist (JR) and an epilepsy counselor (DA) who treat each patient as a team. Each patient was seen by the neurologist at the beginning and end of the 5-day treatment period for a total of 4 hours, allowing for assessment of prior diagnosis and treatment, the need for further diagnostic evaluation, and the adequacy of AED therapy. Each patient was required to be accompanied by a support person throughout the treatment program. Support people included parents, spouses, siblings and friends. Patients and support people provided extensive histories and were encouraged to ask unlimited questions. Muscle and EEG biofeedback monitoring was obtained at the beginning and end of the 5-day residential treatment program. During the 5 days of treatment the counselor undertook an in-depth exploration of seizure precipitants (triggers) and identification of pre-seizure warn-
This paper was presented at the recent International Epilepsy Congress in Prague. 1059–1311/00/030198 + 06
$35.00/0
c 2000 BEA Trading Ltd
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
199
Table 1a: Patient demographics. Patient
Age at start of treatment program
Present occupation
Number of seizures at start of program
Number of seizures at completion of program
Months to complete program
BR
26
computer programmer
5/month
0/year
14
RP
58
aerospace engineer
1/week
0/year
12
CE MK
23 17
teacher college student
2/month 4/month
1/year 0/year
14 24
GS SJ AC BC DE
19 26 9 9 40
entrepreneur artist school child school child homemaker student
1/month 3/week 15/month 8/year 1/week
0/year 1/month <1/month 0/year <1/year
24 18 24 6 36
SC FM
43 35
artist doctor
4/year 1/month
0/year 0/year
12 12
Table 1b: Patient demographics. Patient
BR RP CE MK GS SJ AC BC DE SC FM
Number of seizures at start of program
Number of seizures at completion of program
Months to complete program
Total months of follow-up
5/month 1/week 2/month 4/month 1/month 3/week 15/month 8/year 1/week 4/year 1/month
0/year 0/year 1/year 0/year 0/year 1/month <1/month 0/year <1/year 0/year 0/year
14 12 14 24 24 18 24 6 36 12 12
42 48 39 27 96 20 44 12 60 56 48
Table 2a: Medical evaluation. Patient
Type of Seizures
Age at onset
EEG
MRI
BR
Nocturnal GTC
23
Rhythmic R F-T sharp during sleep
Normal
RP
CPS
50
R F-T spike-wave during sleep
Normal
CE
CPS GTC
12
R frontal spike and sharp/slow
Normal
MK
CPS GTC
14
R temporal sharp/spike
Normal
GS
CPS (atypical absence)
17
Generalized 2–3 and 5–6 Hz sharp/slow
T2 small punctate lesions
200
J. M. Reiter & D. J. Andrews
Table 2b: Medical evaluation. Patient
Type of seizures
Age at onset
EEG
MRI
SJ
CPS (adversive head movement to R) GTC
11 (age 10 months high fever with transient R hemiparesis)
R anterior temporal sharp; R temporal spikes
Routine MRI normal; volumetric R hippocampal atrophy
AC
CPS
4 months; 4
Bioccipital 3 Hz slowing; R > L low amplitude spikes; L frontal spikes
Normal
BC
CPS GTC
4
Normal
Normal
DE
CPS GTC
37
R F-T slow/sharp; LT sharp (spike) with occasional R T sharp
Normal
SC
CPS GTC
13
L F-T sharp and rhythmic sharp/slow occasionally to R
Normal
FM
CPS
32
Normal
Normal
Table 3a: AED medications. Patient
AED at beginning of intensive
AED at end of follow-up
AEDs used previously with little success &/or side effects
BR
Valproate 500 mg tid
Valproate 750 mg bid
phenytoin
PR
Carbamazepine 200 mg tid
Carbamazepine 200 mg bid
felbamate
CE
Phenytoin 160 mg bid Lamictal 150/100
Phenytoin 160 mg bid Lamictal 150/100
carbamazepine valproate, gabapentin
MK
None
Carbamazepine 300 mg bid
phenytoin valproate
GS
Valproate 625 mg/day
Carbamazepine 200 mg tid
Table 3b: AED medications. Patient
AED at beginning of intensive
AED at end of follow-up
AEDs used previously with little success &/or side effects
SJ
Phenytoin 400 mg Gabapentin 800 mg
Phenytoin 400 mg Gabapentin 800 mg
carbamazepine, valproate felbamate, primidone
AC
Valproate 250 mg bid
Valproate 187 mg
carbamazepine, clonazepam gabapentin, vigabatrin
BC DE
Valproate 625 mg Carbamazepine 400 mg bid Clorazepate
None Carbamazepine 400 mg bid
carbamazepine phenytoin, phenobarbital
SC
Valproate 250 mg bid
Valproate 125 mg bid
phenytoin, felbamate carbamazepine, gabapentin
FM
None
None
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
201
Table 4: Seizure triggers
Solutions
BR Fear of not measuring up. He needed more time to to complete jobs as a computer programmer. As a ‘right-brained’ person he approached his work differently and his boss and co-workers thought he was slow.
He recognized the effect of job pressure on him. He found a new job with a boss who appreciated his skills enough to allow as much time as he needed to complete jobs. He went back to school and earned a computer engineering degree.
RP Conflict with his family. Not asserting himself as a father and husband because of fear of abandonment. His two adult children were living in the family home but not contributing financially. He avoided facing this issue as well as marital problems with his wife. (PR had been hospitalized for 3 years at age 6 with only weekly visits from his mother.) CE Although she had a BA, she could not get a job as a school teacher. She was afraid she would not measure up to her parents who had careers as teachers. She had to use their connections to get substitute teaching jobs. Her seizures kept her from getting full-time work and interfered with her relationship with her boyfriend. This caused low self-esteem.
He moved out of the family home for a period of time. His children obtained jobs. His wife agreed to attend counselling with him. At work his superiors agreed to give him breaks and other schedule modifications appropriate for a senior aerospace engineer.
She went back to school and completed a masters degree in teaching. She obtained a full-time job as a grade school teacher. She and her boyfriend got engaged. (She had been seizure-free for 1 year when she learned that her father had been having an extra-marital affair with a family friend for 14 years with her mother’s knowledge. Her outrage at this deceit caused a single seizure recurrence.)
Table 5: Seizure triggers MK She was overweight and neglectful of her appearance, she was unsure of herself in social interactions. She ‘fell apart’ and was unable to cope at the time of her menses necessitating the use of tranquilizers. Her seizures prevented her from driving a car. GS Social fear. She was hypersensitive and easily hurt by the actions of others, particularly social injustice. ‘Things didn’t make sense’. She was upset that her boss did not treat fellow employees fairly. This caused anxiety which led her to stay up too late at night, resulting in sleep deprivation.
Solutions She enrolled in a community college where she obtained honor grades, studying horticulture. She planted an award-winning rose garden. Seizure control allowed her to obtain a driver’s license.
She found her voice and began to speak up to help other people. She worked with children who had been victims of abuse and to address other social issues as well. SG found her artistic muse and started a company that designs and makes hats based on characters from Alice in Wonderland.
Table 6: Seizure triggers SJ Anger toward not being able to save his best friend. As the son of African missionaries, he witnessed the mutilating death of his native friend in a tribal attack. He had anger toward the event and also toward his church. This led to a post-traumatic stress disorder as well. He was disorganized and disconnected; could not allow himself to feel because of his underlying anger. AC Anger that she could not control her family because she was the eldest child. She identified with ‘the evil characters of the world’ in books like Miss Mention in the Little Princess, Violet in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and the Wicked Witch of the West in the Wizard of Oz because she liked their power. She wanted to hold the primary place in the family over her two younger siblings. Seven people were hired to address her special needs and at age 9 she was doing first grade work.
Solutions He found a new relationship with his art and church. He was a ‘right-brained’ person malfunctioning out of his left brain because of seizures and anger. He started to feel which allowed a new relationship with his church. This allowed him access to his right brain leading to a rebirth of his artistic abilities.
She stopped identifying with powerful evil characters and lessened her need to control the family. She advanced from first to fifth grade level work and her need for special help was reduced to one tutor twice a week. By age 13, she studied Hebrew and successfully completed her Bat Mitzvah.
202
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Table 7: Seizure triggers BC Nine-year-old child who felt hurt and angry when people did not listen to her. She experienced psychic impressions that bad things were about to happen. She was sure that there was something evil in the woods behind the family house and was mad that her parents did not believe her. DE Her husband made all the family decisions involving their two children, house and finances. When she began to have seizures, he exerted even tighter control. In turn she kept a tight rein on her children’s activities. Her parents who lived nearby demanded daily contact without regard to her schedule or needs. She was angry constantly about her inability to make her own decisions and control her life.
Solutions Her parents started to listen to her. They took her warnings seriously and restricted the children from going into the woods. CB’s anxiety diminished with a resultant decrease in her feelings of anger.
She went back to school to get an advanced degree despite her husband’s opposition because of her seizures. DD began to express anger when her husband made decisions without consulting her. She gave her children more freedom. She and her husband made the joint decision that he would accept a new position in a distant city.
Table 8: Seizure triggers
Solutions
SC She was an artist whose husband pressured her to manage his engineering business. Although he seemed to be a relaxed person, he loaded her up with work from his business. She had been the victim of incest which caused post-traumatic anger. Her lack of control over her life magnified her anger.
She separated from her husband and dated another man briefly. She began to paint and function more out of her right brain. This allowed her to go back to her husband and limit his demands to work in his business. She was successful in showing and selling her painting.
FM Her mother died when she was young. She grew up with her father and brothers who made most of the family decisions. She learned to be dependent on them. This dependency engendered anger which interfered with successful schoolwork and relationships with men.
ings as well as seizure auras. Patients learned behavioral interventions to use both on a daily basis and at the time of pre-seizure warnings. Following the 5day intensive program, patients contacted the epilepsy counselor weekly by phone for 6 months to provide details of progress, ask questions about interventions and be reinforce prior learning or address new issues in treatment. After the 6 months of phone contact, patients mailed the counselor their seizure logs and journal entries for an additional 6 months. Further details of the counselor’s treatment are described in the accompanying publication8 .
She moved away from her family home and studied Chinese medicine. She established an independent and successful practice of Chinese and natural medicine.
and follow-up. Furthermore, the improved QOL was a necessary accompaniment of improved seizure control. Each patient had unique seizure triggers which had to be identified and impacted to allow both improved seizure control and enhanced QOL. Although the counselor used similar methods to treat each patient, the solution for each patient was unique. The identified seizure triggers and solutions are summarized in Tables 4–8.
DISCUSSION RESULTS Post-treatment seizure frequency was zero per month for the nine patients who experienced less than four seizures per month prior to treatment and less than two seizures per month for the two patients who experienced greater than 12 seizures per month prior to treatment (Table 1a). AED medication was either reduced or unchanged except for one patient who started on a previously untried AED medication (Table 3a). Every patient underwent a significant improvement of quality of life (QOL) during the period of treatment
These case studies demonstrate that there is a ‘missing link’ in the customary treatment of epilepsy. The individual history contains the clues to improving control. Although it can be a time-consuming process, this approach is essential for many people to gain control of their epilepsy. Patients in this study underwent thorough medical evaluations prior to inclusion in the treatment program, including adjustment of anti-epileptic medications to minimize side effects. Neuropsychologic testing aided in the development of the treatment approach by determining cognitive and emotional strengths and weaknesses. Patients learned
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
how to keep daily journals which detailed life events, emotional responses to daily living, seizure auras and seizures. With practice they became able to identify triggers that precipitated seizures and early warning symptoms that occurred before seizures. Understanding seizure triggers resulted in major changes in old learned patterns of response to life stressors. Behavioral interventions included deep breathing, visual imagery and cognitive restructuring. Individuals used the behavioral interventions to prevent the progression of early seizure warnings to seizures. Repeated success reinforced new learned response patterns. Increasing self-awareness and control over seizures created many opportunities for improved quality of life. Patients obtained further education; changed jobs; improved relationships with family members and coworkers; and cultivated latent abilities and talents. One case study (SJ) requires special mention. Although his EEG and MRI localize to the R temporal lobe, his history indicates L hemisphere onset of seizures (Table 7). His emotional trigger is anger which supports a L hemisphere onset as well8 . Two consultants at a major epilepsy center recommended R temporal lobectomy despite the available history. He chose to participate in our intensive treatment program with marked success. Most important, he was able to resume work as an artist. His artistic ability might have been impaired had he undergone R hemisphere surgery.
203
CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the efficacy of a comprehensive neurobehavioral approach in reducing seizure frequency and improving the quality of life for patients with complex partial epilepsy.
REFERENCES 1. Kramer, G. The limitations of antiepileptic drug monotherapy. Epilepsia 1997; 38 (Suppl. 5): S9–S13. 2. Mattson, R. H., Cramer, J. A. and Collins, J. F. Comparison of four antiepileptic drugs. The New England Journal of Medicine 1985; 313: 145–151. 3. Trimble, M. R. Anticonvulsant drugs and cognitive function: review of the literature. Epilepsia 1987; 28: 537–545. 4. Meador, K., Loring, D., Huh, K. et al. Comparative cognitive effects of anticonvulsants. Neurology 1990; 40: 391–394. 5. Andrews, D. J. and Schonfeld, W. Predictive factors for controlling seizures using a behavioral approach. Seizure 1992; 1: 111–116. 6. Richard, A. and Reiter, J. M. Epilepsy: A New Approach, 2nd edition. New York, Walker & Co., 1995. 7. Travis, J. W. Wellness Workbook and Wellness Inventory. Mill Valley, California, Wellness Center, 1975. 8. Reiter, J. M., Andrews, D. J. and Janis, C. Taking Control of Your Epilepsy: A Workbook for Patients and Professionals. Santa Rosa, California, Andrews/Reiter Epilepsy Research Program, 1987. 9. Andrews, D. J., Reiter, J. M., Schonfeld, W., Kastl, A. and Denning, P. A neurobehavioral treatment for unilateral complex partial seizure disorders: a comparison of right and left hemisphere patients. Seizure 2000; 9: 159–197.
doi: 10.1053/seiz.1999.0374, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex † partial epilepsy: efficacy JOEL M. REITER & DONNA JOY ANDREWS Andrews/Reiter Epilepsy Research Program, 550 Doyle Park Drive, Santa Rosa, CA 95405, USA This is a retrospective study of the efficacy of a short-term comprehensive multidisciplinary neurobehavioral treatment approach for complex partial epilepsy. Eleven patients were treated intensively for five consecutive days followed by 6 months of weekly telephone contact and an additional 6 months of monitoring of seizure logs and journals. Data was analysed at least 24 months after initiation of treatment. Pre-treatment seizure frequency ranged from 1 to 15 per month. Post-treatment seizure frequency was zero per month for the nine patients who experienced less than four seizures per month prior to treatment and less than two per month for the other two patients. Additional benefits of the treatment program were improved levels of professional achievement in the arts and computer sciences and reduction of medication dosages. c 2000 BEA Trading Ltd
Key words: neurobehavioral treatment approach; complex partial seizures.
INTRODUCTION Despite the availability of multiple older antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and a renaissance in production of new AEDs, the incidence of uncontrolled seizures in the population with complex partial epilepsy remains at approximately 50%1, 2 . Side effects of AED therapy, particularly with higher dosages and the use of multiple medications significantly impair the quality of life for a large number of patients3, 4 . These deficiencies in current epilepsy treatment prompted the authors to develop a comprehensive neurobehavioral treatment approach for complex partial epilepsy formalized in the workbook Taking Control of Your Epilepsy: A Workbook for Patients and Professionals. Andrews and Schonfeld5 previously reported the successful application of this approach and Richard and Reiter6 have detailed the essential aspects and benefits of this type of treatment. Although patients recognize the need to participate in their own wellness7, 8 , time and distance constraints can interfere with regular participation. For this reason the authors designed a short-term treatment protocol which is described in an accompanying publication9 . MATERIALS AND METHODS Eleven patients with uncontrolled complex partial seizures (CPS) were treated with a short-term proto†
col. Patient demographics are summarized in Tables 1a and b. The age at the start of treatment ranged from 9 to 58 years. Number of seizures at the start of treatment from 1 to 15 per month with a mean of 3.95 per month and median of 2 per month. Total months of follow-up was greater than 24 for nine patients with a maximum follow-up period of 96 months. All patients underwent thorough neurological evaluations, which are summarized in Tables 2a and b. Nine of the 11 patients had undergone multiple medication trials previously with inadequate control of seizures and/or side effects (Tables 3a and b). The authors are a neurologist (JR) and an epilepsy counselor (DA) who treat each patient as a team. Each patient was seen by the neurologist at the beginning and end of the 5-day treatment period for a total of 4 hours, allowing for assessment of prior diagnosis and treatment, the need for further diagnostic evaluation, and the adequacy of AED therapy. Each patient was required to be accompanied by a support person throughout the treatment program. Support people included parents, spouses, siblings and friends. Patients and support people provided extensive histories and were encouraged to ask unlimited questions. Muscle and EEG biofeedback monitoring was obtained at the beginning and end of the 5-day residential treatment program. During the 5 days of treatment the counselor undertook an in-depth exploration of seizure precipitants (triggers) and identification of pre-seizure warn-
This paper was presented at the recent International Epilepsy Congress in Prague. 1059–1311/00/030198 + 06
$35.00/0
c 2000 BEA Trading Ltd
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
199
Table 1a: Patient demographics. Patient
Age at start of treatment program
Present occupation
Number of seizures at start of program
Number of seizures at completion of program
Months to complete program
BR
26
computer programmer
5/month
0/year
14
RP
58
aerospace engineer
1/week
0/year
12
CE MK
23 17
teacher college student
2/month 4/month
1/year 0/year
14 24
GS SJ AC BC DE
19 26 9 9 40
entrepreneur artist school child school child homemaker student
1/month 3/week 15/month 8/year 1/week
0/year 1/month <1/month 0/year <1/year
24 18 24 6 36
SC FM
43 35
artist doctor
4/year 1/month
0/year 0/year
12 12
Table 1b: Patient demographics. Patient
BR RP CE MK GS SJ AC BC DE SC FM
Number of seizures at start of program
Number of seizures at completion of program
Months to complete program
Total months of follow-up
5/month 1/week 2/month 4/month 1/month 3/week 15/month 8/year 1/week 4/year 1/month
0/year 0/year 1/year 0/year 0/year 1/month <1/month 0/year <1/year 0/year 0/year
14 12 14 24 24 18 24 6 36 12 12
42 48 39 27 96 20 44 12 60 56 48
Table 2a: Medical evaluation. Patient
Type of Seizures
Age at onset
EEG
MRI
BR
Nocturnal GTC
23
Rhythmic R F-T sharp during sleep
Normal
RP
CPS
50
R F-T spike-wave during sleep
Normal
CE
CPS GTC
12
R frontal spike and sharp/slow
Normal
MK
CPS GTC
14
R temporal sharp/spike
Normal
GS
CPS (atypical absence)
17
Generalized 2–3 and 5–6 Hz sharp/slow
T2 small punctate lesions
200
J. M. Reiter & D. J. Andrews
Table 2b: Medical evaluation. Patient
Type of seizures
Age at onset
EEG
MRI
SJ
CPS (adversive head movement to R) GTC
11 (age 10 months high fever with transient R hemiparesis)
R anterior temporal sharp; R temporal spikes
Routine MRI normal; volumetric R hippocampal atrophy
AC
CPS
4 months; 4
Bioccipital 3 Hz slowing; R > L low amplitude spikes; L frontal spikes
Normal
BC
CPS GTC
4
Normal
Normal
DE
CPS GTC
37
R F-T slow/sharp; LT sharp (spike) with occasional R T sharp
Normal
SC
CPS GTC
13
L F-T sharp and rhythmic sharp/slow occasionally to R
Normal
FM
CPS
32
Normal
Normal
Table 3a: AED medications. Patient
AED at beginning of intensive
AED at end of follow-up
AEDs used previously with little success &/or side effects
BR
Valproate 500 mg tid
Valproate 750 mg bid
phenytoin
PR
Carbamazepine 200 mg tid
Carbamazepine 200 mg bid
felbamate
CE
Phenytoin 160 mg bid Lamictal 150/100
Phenytoin 160 mg bid Lamictal 150/100
carbamazepine valproate, gabapentin
MK
None
Carbamazepine 300 mg bid
phenytoin valproate
GS
Valproate 625 mg/day
Carbamazepine 200 mg tid
Table 3b: AED medications. Patient
AED at beginning of intensive
AED at end of follow-up
AEDs used previously with little success &/or side effects
SJ
Phenytoin 400 mg Gabapentin 800 mg
Phenytoin 400 mg Gabapentin 800 mg
carbamazepine, valproate felbamate, primidone
AC
Valproate 250 mg bid
Valproate 187 mg
carbamazepine, clonazepam gabapentin, vigabatrin
BC DE
Valproate 625 mg Carbamazepine 400 mg bid Clorazepate
None Carbamazepine 400 mg bid
carbamazepine phenytoin, phenobarbital
SC
Valproate 250 mg bid
Valproate 125 mg bid
phenytoin, felbamate carbamazepine, gabapentin
FM
None
None
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Table 4: Seizure triggers
Solutions
BR Fear of not measuring up. He needed more time to to complete jobs as a computer programmer. As a ‘right-brained’ person he approached his work differently and his boss and co-workers thought he was slow.
He recognized the effect of job pressure on him. He found a new job with a boss who appreciated his skills enough to allow as much time as he needed to complete jobs. He went back to school and earned a computer engineering degree.
RP Conflict with his family. Not asserting himself as a father and husband because of fear of abandonment. His two adult children were living in the family home but not contributing financially. He avoided facing this issue as well as marital problems with his wife. (PR had been hospitalized for 3 years at age 6 with only weekly visits from his mother.) CE Although she had a BA, she could not get a job as a school teacher. She was afraid she would not measure up to her parents who had careers as teachers. She had to use their connections to get substitute teaching jobs. Her seizures kept her from getting full-time work and interfered with her relationship with her boyfriend. This caused low self-esteem.
He moved out of the family home for a period of time. His children obtained jobs. His wife agreed to attend counselling with him. At work his superiors agreed to give him breaks and other schedule modifications appropriate for a senior aerospace engineer.
She went back to school and completed a masters degree in teaching. She obtained a full-time job as a grade school teacher. She and her boyfriend got engaged. (She had been seizure-free for 1 year when she learned that her father had been having an extra-marital affair with a family friend for 14 years with her mother’s knowledge. Her outrage at this deceit caused a single seizure recurrence.)
Table 5: Seizure triggers MK She was overweight and neglectful of her appearance, she was unsure of herself in social interactions. She ‘fell apart’ and was unable to cope at the time of her menses necessitating the use of tranquilizers. Her seizures prevented her from driving a car. GS Social fear. She was hypersensitive and easily hurt by the actions of others, particularly social injustice. ‘Things didn’t make sense’. She was upset that her boss did not treat fellow employees fairly. This caused anxiety which led her to stay up too late at night, resulting in sleep deprivation.
Solutions She enrolled in a community college where she obtained honor grades, studying horticulture. She planted an award-winning rose garden. Seizure control allowed her to obtain a driver’s license.
She found her voice and began to speak up to help other people. She worked with children who had been victims of abuse and to address other social issues as well. SG found her artistic muse and started a company that designs and makes hats based on characters from Alice in Wonderland.
Table 6: Seizure triggers SJ Anger toward not being able to save his best friend. As the son of African missionaries, he witnessed the mutilating death of his native friend in a tribal attack. He had anger toward the event and also toward his church. This led to a post-traumatic stress disorder as well. He was disorganized and disconnected; could not allow himself to feel because of his underlying anger. AC Anger that she could not control her family because she was the eldest child. She identified with ‘the evil characters of the world’ in books like Miss Mention in the Little Princess, Violet in Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, and the Wicked Witch of the West in the Wizard of Oz because she liked their power. She wanted to hold the primary place in the family over her two younger siblings. Seven people were hired to address her special needs and at age 9 she was doing first grade work.
Solutions He found a new relationship with his art and church. He was a ‘right-brained’ person malfunctioning out of his left brain because of seizures and anger. He started to feel which allowed a new relationship with his church. This allowed him access to his right brain leading to a rebirth of his artistic abilities.
She stopped identifying with powerful evil characters and lessened her need to control the family. She advanced from first to fifth grade level work and her need for special help was reduced to one tutor twice a week. By age 13, she studied Hebrew and successfully completed her Bat Mitzvah.
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Table 7: Seizure triggers BC Nine-year-old child who felt hurt and angry when people did not listen to her. She experienced psychic impressions that bad things were about to happen. She was sure that there was something evil in the woods behind the family house and was mad that her parents did not believe her. DE Her husband made all the family decisions involving their two children, house and finances. When she began to have seizures, he exerted even tighter control. In turn she kept a tight rein on her children’s activities. Her parents who lived nearby demanded daily contact without regard to her schedule or needs. She was angry constantly about her inability to make her own decisions and control her life.
Solutions Her parents started to listen to her. They took her warnings seriously and restricted the children from going into the woods. CB’s anxiety diminished with a resultant decrease in her feelings of anger.
She went back to school to get an advanced degree despite her husband’s opposition because of her seizures. DD began to express anger when her husband made decisions without consulting her. She gave her children more freedom. She and her husband made the joint decision that he would accept a new position in a distant city.
Table 8: Seizure triggers
Solutions
SC She was an artist whose husband pressured her to manage his engineering business. Although he seemed to be a relaxed person, he loaded her up with work from his business. She had been the victim of incest which caused post-traumatic anger. Her lack of control over her life magnified her anger.
She separated from her husband and dated another man briefly. She began to paint and function more out of her right brain. This allowed her to go back to her husband and limit his demands to work in his business. She was successful in showing and selling her painting.
FM Her mother died when she was young. She grew up with her father and brothers who made most of the family decisions. She learned to be dependent on them. This dependency engendered anger which interfered with successful schoolwork and relationships with men.
ings as well as seizure auras. Patients learned behavioral interventions to use both on a daily basis and at the time of pre-seizure warnings. Following the 5day intensive program, patients contacted the epilepsy counselor weekly by phone for 6 months to provide details of progress, ask questions about interventions and be reinforce prior learning or address new issues in treatment. After the 6 months of phone contact, patients mailed the counselor their seizure logs and journal entries for an additional 6 months. Further details of the counselor’s treatment are described in the accompanying publication8 .
She moved away from her family home and studied Chinese medicine. She established an independent and successful practice of Chinese and natural medicine.
and follow-up. Furthermore, the improved QOL was a necessary accompaniment of improved seizure control. Each patient had unique seizure triggers which had to be identified and impacted to allow both improved seizure control and enhanced QOL. Although the counselor used similar methods to treat each patient, the solution for each patient was unique. The identified seizure triggers and solutions are summarized in Tables 4–8.
DISCUSSION RESULTS Post-treatment seizure frequency was zero per month for the nine patients who experienced less than four seizures per month prior to treatment and less than two seizures per month for the two patients who experienced greater than 12 seizures per month prior to treatment (Table 1a). AED medication was either reduced or unchanged except for one patient who started on a previously untried AED medication (Table 3a). Every patient underwent a significant improvement of quality of life (QOL) during the period of treatment
These case studies demonstrate that there is a ‘missing link’ in the customary treatment of epilepsy. The individual history contains the clues to improving control. Although it can be a time-consuming process, this approach is essential for many people to gain control of their epilepsy. Patients in this study underwent thorough medical evaluations prior to inclusion in the treatment program, including adjustment of anti-epileptic medications to minimize side effects. Neuropsychologic testing aided in the development of the treatment approach by determining cognitive and emotional strengths and weaknesses. Patients learned
A neurobehavioral approach for treatment of complex partial epilepsy: efficacy
how to keep daily journals which detailed life events, emotional responses to daily living, seizure auras and seizures. With practice they became able to identify triggers that precipitated seizures and early warning symptoms that occurred before seizures. Understanding seizure triggers resulted in major changes in old learned patterns of response to life stressors. Behavioral interventions included deep breathing, visual imagery and cognitive restructuring. Individuals used the behavioral interventions to prevent the progression of early seizure warnings to seizures. Repeated success reinforced new learned response patterns. Increasing self-awareness and control over seizures created many opportunities for improved quality of life. Patients obtained further education; changed jobs; improved relationships with family members and coworkers; and cultivated latent abilities and talents. One case study (SJ) requires special mention. Although his EEG and MRI localize to the R temporal lobe, his history indicates L hemisphere onset of seizures (Table 7). His emotional trigger is anger which supports a L hemisphere onset as well8 . Two consultants at a major epilepsy center recommended R temporal lobectomy despite the available history. He chose to participate in our intensive treatment program with marked success. Most important, he was able to resume work as an artist. His artistic ability might have been impaired had he undergone R hemisphere surgery.
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CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates the efficacy of a comprehensive neurobehavioral approach in reducing seizure frequency and improving the quality of life for patients with complex partial epilepsy.
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