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A new keyboard layout
/ppEed Er~w2nom,ics :972, 3.', z? _ 5:
A new keyboard layout Alec Martin Head of School of ManagementStudies, Thames Polytechnic, London
'QWE RTY' is the nickname for the inefficient standard typewriter keyboard, also used for Telex and many computer input terminals, dating from 1874. The ergonomicallydesigned Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) has been available for over 35 years and there is increasing international interest in its introduction; but DSK does not take metrication into account. There is a clear need for international agreement on a new design up-dating DSK for metrication. Agreement is in the interests of both keyboard users and their employers. An Alpha-Metric Keyboard (AMK) is proposed and its design and advantages are described.
The Standard Typewriter Keyboard (QWERTY) is as well known to scientists and their assistants using conventional computer terminals as it is to typists (see Fig 1). Many terminal users struggle along visually in the 'hunt and peck' fashion for which the keyboard layout was designed by Sholes et al (1874). In order to conform to the mechanical constraints of these early typewriters, (and thus avoid key jamming), the keyboard was designed such that the letter most likely to be typed next was obscured by the operator's hand. Hence, the operating speed was slowed down, and the risk of the keys becoming jammed was lessened. The QWERTY layout was thus dictated by mechanical constraints, but it is perpetuated in modern electrical equipment by touch typists, whose training is longer than it need be and whose subsequent performance is limited in terms of speed, error rate and fatigue. Although this much is now fairly common knowledge nothing has been done to improve matters. Perhaps this is the case because the capital investment involved in a change would be considerable even though the longer-term human return would be greater. Perhaps because typists, although increasingly well paid, are still perceived as occupying a low position in the status/skill hierarchy? However, such a view is not likely to be shared by scientists, research assistants and technicians in respect of their own positions. The more irritated they become by the prescribed limits of teletypes and similar computer inputs, the more likely they are to support change in design or to look even further ahead to quite different input systems. Direct tape and other inputs are already commonplace in the rapidly converging fields of biology, genetics, neurology, psychophysiology, psychopharmacology and other related 'disciplines', but programmes are still called out by teletype. At the National Physical Laboratory 1970 conference on "Man-computer interaction" (lEE, 1970), M.J. Underwood demonstrated a voice recognition device, and H.G. Barrow described the "real world interface" - a mobile camera capable of finding and recognising objects in its environment.
48
AppliedErgonomics March
1972
Such developments are inevitable, but are hardly likely to replace Telex operators and typists in the world outside the laboratories, whether or not communication becomes increasingly oral. The paramount need appears to be for a standard international 'central core' layout to which special computer inputs or commercial, statistical and special national symbols may be added.
Dvorak Simplified Keyboard Interest is being shown in the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) as the possible next step in the business world, and DSK "In Place of QWERTY" has captured a place in the popular press. Cocking, 1970 gives a summary of the history of the Sholes machine and Dvorak's long fight:for recognition of his ergonornically designed keyl~oard layout. Full accounts of the rationale are available (eg Dvorak, Merrick, Dealy, and Ford, 1936) but the main principles are as follows: 1. Layout is arranged on the basis of the frequency of the use of letters and the frequency of letter patterns and sequences in the English language. 2. All vowels and most used consonants are on the second (or 'home') row, so that something like 70% of common words are typed on this row alone. 3. Faster operation is possible by tapping with fingers on alternate hands (particularly the most used index fingers) than by repetitive tapping with one finger. Since the probability of vowels and consonants alternating is very high, all vowels are typed with the left hand and frequent (home row) consonants with the right hand. 4. Finger travel and consequent fatigue are thus greatly reduced. There can be no doubt about the superiority of the DSK over the standard QWERTY as it was designed over 35 years ago for the situation which then existed. Cocking quotes from a 1965 US Bureau of Standards report "There is little need to demonstrate further the superiority
=C>
\l
J
i/
Fig 1 The IBM Standard Keyboard
of the Dvorak keyboard in experimental tests. Plenty of well-documented evidence exists." Novice training experiments carried out in this country in the mid-fifties were regrettably unreported, but they demonstrated a 10% saving in training time even with an instructor who retrained herself in a few weeks after years of 'Standard'experience. (A point for learning theorists interested in transfer of training is that this instructor was later able to operate either keyboard after a brief 'reorientation' run). Similar experiments were carried out in Australia, and in both cases it was hypothesised that the incentive conditions were such as to put artificial limits on DSK performance (eg girls had only to reach {he customary 30 n.w.p.m, standard to qualify).
Training Retraining of Standard typists is naturally more difficult than novice training. Some experiments have been carried out with small samples (eg Strong, 1956). Few, if any, have been based on a larger-scale multivariate approach designed to tease out the relative importance of such factors as age, years of experience, inteUigence, present 'Standard' level of performance, motivation and training method (DSIR, 1961). The last two are particularly important and intimately related. At the simplest possible level, a typist currently equipped with an ageing mechanical standard model could be highly motivated to retrain if the reward were a new electrical typewriter. The obvious should not be overlooked. At a higher level, at which there is more theoretical appear, recent advances in behavioural technology (eg Davies, 1971) point to improvements in typing training by group methods which promise very rapid results indeed. Alternatively, but by no means mutually exclusive, training and retraining can be carried out by auto-teaching. Several methods are possible, but one of the most attractive is the Solartron Automatic Keyboard Instructor (SAKI) developed by Professor Gordon Pask (1958). The availability of this machine at low cost in solid state form may well point to immediate use of auto-instruction rather than the preliminary training of a large number of 'live' instructors.
Re-design for m e t r i e a t i o n But the current DSK publicity rests on the thinking of 35 years ago. DSK does not take metrication i.n.to.account. As it spreads, more and more typists will have to take it in their stride: work containing metric tables and symbols cannot be centred on one typist in a 'pool'. The need will be universal;in laboratories, colleges and public administration, no less than in industry and commerce. There is a substantial danger that, if any changes are made at all, we may proceed by a patchwork approach instead of looking ahead over the next decade. Members of the Southern Project Group of the Central Electricity Board (Evans and Martin, 1971)have already pointed to the need for half-size numbers for use as indices in place of redundant fractions, and have recommended these and other minor modifications to the standard keyboard. Such changes may have to serve for an interim period. We are also reminded of 'creeping metrication' by Parry, 1971, who draws attention to educational problems arising from the decision that examinations are meant to be in metric by 1972[3, and to difficulties in timing the changes in different sections and industries. International agreement on metrication appears to be inevitable. Many countries have been makingthe change to metric and the USA Congress is being urged to do so, following the results of a three-year study carried out by the National Bureau of Standards. The logic of coupling international agreement on metrication with international agreement on a keyboard layout thus appears to be unanswerable. Dvorak's basic thinking on alpha distribution should not be set aside; it is still valid. Re-design for metrication preserves it and results in a solution which allows for minor variants to suit different countries.
The Alpha-Metric Keyboard Some of the main points which have been taken into account in the design of the Alpha-Metric Keyboard, or AMK (see Fig 2), are as follows: 1. The best features of IBM Standard and DSK have been combined: in particular, the economy of the
Applied Ergonomics March
1972
49
/Half size numenols 2-9 os indices in upper /shift zero index olso used for ternpe~ature degrees [°C] Index I o c c ~ in lower shift Decimol point /in mid. position /
r
I
I N 1-7171 l-r-11-;-1 ~
~
r-~
~--~
~-~
I /
Ncgotive for indices //Hyphen or normol minus
i ~
71 17-1 ~-~
~H--1 ~-T--] [ - - ~
7-1 ~-~
\1
~-~/'
1
I
~1.
.,I,-L--ca rriage I1 return
"\
Underline
Fig 2 The proposed Alpha-Metric Keyboard (AMK), based on the same model as that in Fig 1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
50
IBM layout has been preserved as far as possible. (There is a certain redundancy in DSK and in 'standard' machines produced by some companies). For example: a. numeral zero is typed by upper case O, and numeral one is typed by lower case L b. there is little need for the comma on both shifts. Although some case can be made out for the use of the period (full-stop) mark on both shifts, the opportunity can now be taken to use the upper shift period as a true decimal point above the line Platen turning to write new symbols should be obviated. The 9 fixed fraction symbols are redundant, but the minimum number of new symbols required is 14 half size indices 0 - 9 , negative sign for indices, and the Greek lower case p. Most of the indices are made available on the upper shift of the corresponding full size numeral. Thus, to accommodate 5 additional symbols, 3 extra keys are required unless some existing symbols are abandoned. The Evans and.Martin adaptation of the standard keyboard sacrifices the ampersand and the commercial @, both of which can be typed in full, as can Ohm and other symbols used in the Syst~me Internationale. The 'spare' symbol space can be allocated according to customer choice. The ampersand may be retained for commercial purposes, but there may be a good case to include the square root sign (~) on some machines. It is the only one of the five simple mathematical symbols which cannot be typed on standard machines (the oblique or solidus (/) is commonly used as the 'divide' symbol ). Space for two additional keys can be provided most economically by reducing the size of the tabulator and carriage return keys - the area now occupied by 'carriage return' can also accommodate the existing 'back space' key. If further keys are required for commercial or other purposes, the right hand 'shift' can be sacrificed.
AppliedErgonomics March 1972
7. The incidence of some common typing errors should be reduced. For example, open and close brackets and £ and $ symbols are often transposed; separating these symbols and allocating them appropriately to left and right hands is psychologically desirable. Also, emphasis must be given to the ideal, that in a stable society efficiency and human satisfaction should go hand in hand; unnecessary fatigue and boredom should be eliminated. Fatigue is the particular concern of ergonornists. A relevant report of work in Japan on fatigue assessment on key punch operators, typists and others, was carried out by Komoike and Horiguchi (1971). If is interesting to note that the centenary of Shole's machine is 1974, the time when most UK industries will have converted to metrication. It suggests itself as an appropriate target date for changeover to AMK and allows time for a training and re-training programme to be planned, programmed and budgeted as a major exercise in national PPBS (Programme, Planning and Budgetting Systems) management. It should be a programme which offers every child the facility of learning to touch-type, so that the skill will become as common as driving a car and similarly available for work, leisure and pleasure in typing and in making full use of computers.
References Cocking, R.W. 1970 Daily Telegraph Supplement, No 301,24.7.70. In Place of QWERTY. Davies, I.K. 1971 'The Management of Learning.' London: McGraw Hill. Dvorak, A., Merrick, N.L., Dealy, W.L. and Ford, G.C. 1936 'Typewriting Behaviour'. American Book Co. Evans, R.A. and Martin, W.L. 1971 Central Electricity Generating Board, Generation Development and Construction Division. Southern Project Group. SPG TR8 1970. A proposal for simple conversion of QWERTY keyboard typewriters into SI units.
Institution of Electrical Engineers 1970 Conference Publication No 68. (Proceedings of conference 2--4 September, 1970). Man-Computer Interaction. Komoike, Y. and Horiguehi, S. 1971 Ergonomics, 14.1,101-109. Fatigue assessments on key punch operators, typists and others. Parry, J. 1971 New Society, 10 June, Creeping metrication. Pask, G. 1958 Education and Commerce, July. Electronic keyboard teaching machines (reprinted in: Lumsdaine, A. and Glaser, R. (Eds) 1960). Pask, G. and Scott, B.C.E. J. Man/Machine Studies (in press) Adaptively controlled instruction of keyboard skills.
Sholes, L., Glidden, C. and Sould, S.W. 1874 The first practical typewriter was designed and placed on the market. Strong, E.P. 1956 Washington: General Services Administration. A comparative experiment in simplified keyboard retraining and standard keyboard supplementary training. Warren Spring Laboratory of the (then) DSIR 1961 Research typing and general keyboard skills bibliography. (RR/ES/4).
© AlecMartin 1972
Applied Ergonomics March
1972
51
A new keyboard layout Alec Martin Head of School of ManagementStudies, Thames Polytechnic, London
'QWE RTY' is the nickname for the inefficient standard typewriter keyboard, also used for Telex and many computer input terminals, dating from 1874. The ergonomicallydesigned Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) has been available for over 35 years and there is increasing international interest in its introduction; but DSK does not take metrication into account. There is a clear need for international agreement on a new design up-dating DSK for metrication. Agreement is in the interests of both keyboard users and their employers. An Alpha-Metric Keyboard (AMK) is proposed and its design and advantages are described.
The Standard Typewriter Keyboard (QWERTY) is as well known to scientists and their assistants using conventional computer terminals as it is to typists (see Fig 1). Many terminal users struggle along visually in the 'hunt and peck' fashion for which the keyboard layout was designed by Sholes et al (1874). In order to conform to the mechanical constraints of these early typewriters, (and thus avoid key jamming), the keyboard was designed such that the letter most likely to be typed next was obscured by the operator's hand. Hence, the operating speed was slowed down, and the risk of the keys becoming jammed was lessened. The QWERTY layout was thus dictated by mechanical constraints, but it is perpetuated in modern electrical equipment by touch typists, whose training is longer than it need be and whose subsequent performance is limited in terms of speed, error rate and fatigue. Although this much is now fairly common knowledge nothing has been done to improve matters. Perhaps this is the case because the capital investment involved in a change would be considerable even though the longer-term human return would be greater. Perhaps because typists, although increasingly well paid, are still perceived as occupying a low position in the status/skill hierarchy? However, such a view is not likely to be shared by scientists, research assistants and technicians in respect of their own positions. The more irritated they become by the prescribed limits of teletypes and similar computer inputs, the more likely they are to support change in design or to look even further ahead to quite different input systems. Direct tape and other inputs are already commonplace in the rapidly converging fields of biology, genetics, neurology, psychophysiology, psychopharmacology and other related 'disciplines', but programmes are still called out by teletype. At the National Physical Laboratory 1970 conference on "Man-computer interaction" (lEE, 1970), M.J. Underwood demonstrated a voice recognition device, and H.G. Barrow described the "real world interface" - a mobile camera capable of finding and recognising objects in its environment.
48
AppliedErgonomics March
1972
Such developments are inevitable, but are hardly likely to replace Telex operators and typists in the world outside the laboratories, whether or not communication becomes increasingly oral. The paramount need appears to be for a standard international 'central core' layout to which special computer inputs or commercial, statistical and special national symbols may be added.
Dvorak Simplified Keyboard Interest is being shown in the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard (DSK) as the possible next step in the business world, and DSK "In Place of QWERTY" has captured a place in the popular press. Cocking, 1970 gives a summary of the history of the Sholes machine and Dvorak's long fight:for recognition of his ergonornically designed keyl~oard layout. Full accounts of the rationale are available (eg Dvorak, Merrick, Dealy, and Ford, 1936) but the main principles are as follows: 1. Layout is arranged on the basis of the frequency of the use of letters and the frequency of letter patterns and sequences in the English language. 2. All vowels and most used consonants are on the second (or 'home') row, so that something like 70% of common words are typed on this row alone. 3. Faster operation is possible by tapping with fingers on alternate hands (particularly the most used index fingers) than by repetitive tapping with one finger. Since the probability of vowels and consonants alternating is very high, all vowels are typed with the left hand and frequent (home row) consonants with the right hand. 4. Finger travel and consequent fatigue are thus greatly reduced. There can be no doubt about the superiority of the DSK over the standard QWERTY as it was designed over 35 years ago for the situation which then existed. Cocking quotes from a 1965 US Bureau of Standards report "There is little need to demonstrate further the superiority
=C>
\l
J
i/
Fig 1 The IBM Standard Keyboard
of the Dvorak keyboard in experimental tests. Plenty of well-documented evidence exists." Novice training experiments carried out in this country in the mid-fifties were regrettably unreported, but they demonstrated a 10% saving in training time even with an instructor who retrained herself in a few weeks after years of 'Standard'experience. (A point for learning theorists interested in transfer of training is that this instructor was later able to operate either keyboard after a brief 'reorientation' run). Similar experiments were carried out in Australia, and in both cases it was hypothesised that the incentive conditions were such as to put artificial limits on DSK performance (eg girls had only to reach {he customary 30 n.w.p.m, standard to qualify).
Training Retraining of Standard typists is naturally more difficult than novice training. Some experiments have been carried out with small samples (eg Strong, 1956). Few, if any, have been based on a larger-scale multivariate approach designed to tease out the relative importance of such factors as age, years of experience, inteUigence, present 'Standard' level of performance, motivation and training method (DSIR, 1961). The last two are particularly important and intimately related. At the simplest possible level, a typist currently equipped with an ageing mechanical standard model could be highly motivated to retrain if the reward were a new electrical typewriter. The obvious should not be overlooked. At a higher level, at which there is more theoretical appear, recent advances in behavioural technology (eg Davies, 1971) point to improvements in typing training by group methods which promise very rapid results indeed. Alternatively, but by no means mutually exclusive, training and retraining can be carried out by auto-teaching. Several methods are possible, but one of the most attractive is the Solartron Automatic Keyboard Instructor (SAKI) developed by Professor Gordon Pask (1958). The availability of this machine at low cost in solid state form may well point to immediate use of auto-instruction rather than the preliminary training of a large number of 'live' instructors.
Re-design for m e t r i e a t i o n But the current DSK publicity rests on the thinking of 35 years ago. DSK does not take metrication i.n.to.account. As it spreads, more and more typists will have to take it in their stride: work containing metric tables and symbols cannot be centred on one typist in a 'pool'. The need will be universal;in laboratories, colleges and public administration, no less than in industry and commerce. There is a substantial danger that, if any changes are made at all, we may proceed by a patchwork approach instead of looking ahead over the next decade. Members of the Southern Project Group of the Central Electricity Board (Evans and Martin, 1971)have already pointed to the need for half-size numbers for use as indices in place of redundant fractions, and have recommended these and other minor modifications to the standard keyboard. Such changes may have to serve for an interim period. We are also reminded of 'creeping metrication' by Parry, 1971, who draws attention to educational problems arising from the decision that examinations are meant to be in metric by 1972[3, and to difficulties in timing the changes in different sections and industries. International agreement on metrication appears to be inevitable. Many countries have been makingthe change to metric and the USA Congress is being urged to do so, following the results of a three-year study carried out by the National Bureau of Standards. The logic of coupling international agreement on metrication with international agreement on a keyboard layout thus appears to be unanswerable. Dvorak's basic thinking on alpha distribution should not be set aside; it is still valid. Re-design for metrication preserves it and results in a solution which allows for minor variants to suit different countries.
The Alpha-Metric Keyboard Some of the main points which have been taken into account in the design of the Alpha-Metric Keyboard, or AMK (see Fig 2), are as follows: 1. The best features of IBM Standard and DSK have been combined: in particular, the economy of the
Applied Ergonomics March
1972
49
/Half size numenols 2-9 os indices in upper /shift zero index olso used for ternpe~ature degrees [°C] Index I o c c ~ in lower shift Decimol point /in mid. position /
r
I
I N 1-7171 l-r-11-;-1 ~
~
r-~
~--~
~-~
I /
Ncgotive for indices //Hyphen or normol minus
i ~
71 17-1 ~-~
~H--1 ~-T--] [ - - ~
7-1 ~-~
\1
~-~/'
1
I
~1.
.,I,-L--ca rriage I1 return
"\
Underline
Fig 2 The proposed Alpha-Metric Keyboard (AMK), based on the same model as that in Fig 1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
50
IBM layout has been preserved as far as possible. (There is a certain redundancy in DSK and in 'standard' machines produced by some companies). For example: a. numeral zero is typed by upper case O, and numeral one is typed by lower case L b. there is little need for the comma on both shifts. Although some case can be made out for the use of the period (full-stop) mark on both shifts, the opportunity can now be taken to use the upper shift period as a true decimal point above the line Platen turning to write new symbols should be obviated. The 9 fixed fraction symbols are redundant, but the minimum number of new symbols required is 14 half size indices 0 - 9 , negative sign for indices, and the Greek lower case p. Most of the indices are made available on the upper shift of the corresponding full size numeral. Thus, to accommodate 5 additional symbols, 3 extra keys are required unless some existing symbols are abandoned. The Evans and.Martin adaptation of the standard keyboard sacrifices the ampersand and the commercial @, both of which can be typed in full, as can Ohm and other symbols used in the Syst~me Internationale. The 'spare' symbol space can be allocated according to customer choice. The ampersand may be retained for commercial purposes, but there may be a good case to include the square root sign (~) on some machines. It is the only one of the five simple mathematical symbols which cannot be typed on standard machines (the oblique or solidus (/) is commonly used as the 'divide' symbol ). Space for two additional keys can be provided most economically by reducing the size of the tabulator and carriage return keys - the area now occupied by 'carriage return' can also accommodate the existing 'back space' key. If further keys are required for commercial or other purposes, the right hand 'shift' can be sacrificed.
AppliedErgonomics March 1972
7. The incidence of some common typing errors should be reduced. For example, open and close brackets and £ and $ symbols are often transposed; separating these symbols and allocating them appropriately to left and right hands is psychologically desirable. Also, emphasis must be given to the ideal, that in a stable society efficiency and human satisfaction should go hand in hand; unnecessary fatigue and boredom should be eliminated. Fatigue is the particular concern of ergonornists. A relevant report of work in Japan on fatigue assessment on key punch operators, typists and others, was carried out by Komoike and Horiguchi (1971). If is interesting to note that the centenary of Shole's machine is 1974, the time when most UK industries will have converted to metrication. It suggests itself as an appropriate target date for changeover to AMK and allows time for a training and re-training programme to be planned, programmed and budgeted as a major exercise in national PPBS (Programme, Planning and Budgetting Systems) management. It should be a programme which offers every child the facility of learning to touch-type, so that the skill will become as common as driving a car and similarly available for work, leisure and pleasure in typing and in making full use of computers.
References Cocking, R.W. 1970 Daily Telegraph Supplement, No 301,24.7.70. In Place of QWERTY. Davies, I.K. 1971 'The Management of Learning.' London: McGraw Hill. Dvorak, A., Merrick, N.L., Dealy, W.L. and Ford, G.C. 1936 'Typewriting Behaviour'. American Book Co. Evans, R.A. and Martin, W.L. 1971 Central Electricity Generating Board, Generation Development and Construction Division. Southern Project Group. SPG TR8 1970. A proposal for simple conversion of QWERTY keyboard typewriters into SI units.
Institution of Electrical Engineers 1970 Conference Publication No 68. (Proceedings of conference 2--4 September, 1970). Man-Computer Interaction. Komoike, Y. and Horiguehi, S. 1971 Ergonomics, 14.1,101-109. Fatigue assessments on key punch operators, typists and others. Parry, J. 1971 New Society, 10 June, Creeping metrication. Pask, G. 1958 Education and Commerce, July. Electronic keyboard teaching machines (reprinted in: Lumsdaine, A. and Glaser, R. (Eds) 1960). Pask, G. and Scott, B.C.E. J. Man/Machine Studies (in press) Adaptively controlled instruction of keyboard skills.
Sholes, L., Glidden, C. and Sould, S.W. 1874 The first practical typewriter was designed and placed on the market. Strong, E.P. 1956 Washington: General Services Administration. A comparative experiment in simplified keyboard retraining and standard keyboard supplementary training. Warren Spring Laboratory of the (then) DSIR 1961 Research typing and general keyboard skills bibliography. (RR/ES/4).
© AlecMartin 1972
Applied Ergonomics March
1972
51