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A novel approach to product design and development in a concurrent engineering environment
Technovation, 13(3) (1993) 161-176
A novel approach to product design and development in a concurrent engineering environment Shad Dowlatshahi 40 7 Pioneer Tower, College of Business, University of Wisconsin, Platteville, WI 538 18, USA Abstract In this paper the early design-marketing intet$ace for the design and development of industrial products in a concurrent engineering environment is examined. Marketing concerns, contributions. and constraints are most appropriately reflected in the when there is a collaboration and dialogue between designer and marketers at the conceptual phase of the product development cycle. In order to effectively achieve such collaboration, an algorithm containingfour steps is proposed. These steps ensure that the consumer requirements and preferences are recognized and communicated in a timely. relevant and accurate format so that they are incorporated in the physical embodiment of the product. It is eventually the collaboration between the marketers’critical utilityfactors and the designers design spectftcation or junctions that determines the form, fit and junction of the product. The e$etive collaboration between marketing and function is not feasible unless there exist fill support and cooperation of top management and an instituh’onalculture that can inSh’handfostersuch a collaboration.
1.
Introduction
The concept of concurrent engineering, in its broadest sense, is viewed as a strategy capable of providing the American manufacturing system with a competitive advantage in the world marketplace. Concurrent engineering has been defined in various ways. These definitions are mostly the reflection of an individual’s background and experience. Vasilash [I] suggests terms such as simultaneous engineering, life cycle engineering, process-driven design, team approach, and design for manufacture. Other terminologies such as concurrent design, unified life cycle engineering
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(ULCE), total quality management, and parallel engineering have also been used. Whatever the definition, the concept concentrates on the simultaneous consideration of the downstream product development activities as opposed to their consideration on a sequential and isolated basis. Concurrent engineering, therefore, calls for the consideration and inclusion of product design attributes such as aesthetics, durability, ergonomics. interchangeability, maintainability, marketability. manufacturability, procurability, reliability. remanufacturability, safety, schedulability, serviceability, simplicity, testability, and transportability in the early stages of product design.
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Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd
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1 .l. The role of product design in concurrent engineering
The natural focus of concurrent engineering is on product design. A decision concerning product design tends to have a number of significant manufacturing
manufacturing
truck transmissions
manufacturing elements of design, material, labor, and overhead, 70% of all production savings stem from in design [4]. A study revealed that the product design is responsible for only 5% of a product’s cost; it can, however, determine 75% or more of all manufacturing
manufacture, disposal of a product [6].
1.2.
The
Advantages
proper
of concurrent
use, repair, and
engineering
consideration
communication and dialogue: more efticient operation and higher productivity: overall cost savings: - reduction in the number of parts manufactured.
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better machine utilization time, more easily manufacturable parts, fewer reworks and scraps, greater use of standard features, reducing tooling costs, fewer changes in process planning; avoidance of product recalls: lower maintenance costs: more reliable products; better customer satisfaction; improved bottom-line.
. .3. System engineering
approach
thereby
to concurrent
There are two issues at the core of successful implementation of concurrent engineering: 1. All activities related to the development of a product should be focused in the early stages of product design so that the greatest benefits of such an integration are achieved. 2. The impacts and constraints associated with various functional requirements should be known to the designer on a timely, accurate, and relevant basis. This allows for the proper consideration and inclusion ofthe appropriate design constraints. Figure I depicts the system approach design of a product.
1.4.
Objective
to the
and scope of the paper
The objective of this paper is to provide specific steps by which an effective and systematic collaboration between marketing and design functions in the early stages of the product development becomes feasible. The success of product development largely depends upon this collaboration. The scope of this paper is limited to the design and development of durable industrial products. The paper makes no specific attempts to consider any functional areas other than marketing. Other
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A novel approach to product design and development
I
Design for marketability
Design for cost
Business requirements
ROdUCtiOIl
requirements Fig. I.
in concurrent
The development and introduction of new products to the marketplace is vital to corporate profitability and growth. The firms most successful in carrying out these activities use approaches and techniques that, although only slightly different from those utilized by their less successful competitors, result in a significant performance advantage. At the core of a firm’s specific approach to a
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Product design in a concurrent engineering environment.
functional areas require an in-depth treatment warranting additional investigations. For one such investigation, one may refer to Dowlatshahi [7] in which the collaboration between purchasing and design in a concurrent engineering environment is examined. The term ‘new product’, as used in this paper. may refer either to a brand-new product or to an improvement of an existing one. The steps presented in this paper are equally viable for both approaches.
2. The role of marketing engineering
support
requirements
sound new product development scheme is a well defined strategy that links the various stakeholders in a unified and well integrated manner. It is most important to recognize that product development activities are inherently an interdisciplinary function. The role of marketing in concurrent engineering is particularly crucial as it drives. or should drive. the subsequent activities ranging from the design, manufacture, and logistics aspects of the product life cycle. The importance of design for marketability is enhanced when areas of collaboration are established such that the information. concerns, constraints, and contributions of the marketing are understood and reflected in the early stages of the design process. The role of marketing is to translate the consumer’s perceptions. preferences, and desires in a usable format so that they can effectively be utilized by the designer in the conceptual phase of the design process. This process, whether it is accomplished through diaglogue. information systems. etc., must reconcile and converge the conflicting and divergent objectives that the designer and marketer may pursue in the product development process.
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Figure 2 represents the viewpoints of design and marketing and the areas of their collaboration. The concurrent engineering environment allows for the reconciliation of the opposing views of designers and marketers. The higher the degree of dialogue, cooperation. and exchange of usable information between design and marketing, the higher the probability of product success. This fact is illustrated by the Van diagram of Fig. 3. In Figure 3, the overlapping (shaded) area represents the intersection of marketing and design. The larger this area, the more the representation of design and marketing concerns in the final product. The white areas bounded by the circles represent the divergent areas of design and marketing. The area outside the circles, which belongs to the product design space (S), represents other concerns such as manufacturing, purchasing, research and development, etc. The intersect area can present three possibilities based on the following formula: marketing-design interface effectiveness =
marketing requirements > reflected in product 1 design specifications T reflected in product
If the effectiveness ratio is greater than one. the product is dominated by market forces. This is a pull or market-driven orientation to product desi . On the other hand, if the ratio is less than 9p8”e, the product is dominated by design, engineering and technological forces. This is a push or designdriven orientation to product design. If the ratio is exactly one. then the marketing forces are equal MnD
M
S
D
cb Fig. 3.
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Design-marketing
collaboration.
and they neutralize each other. Whatever orientation a firm selects. the main objective should focus on the expansion of the size of M n D.
3.
Design-marketing
interface
Now that the importance of the design-marketing interface is recognized, a step-by-step algorithm is presented to accomplish the interface. To provide an application and validity of the procedure, an example of the design of a washing machine is presented in each step. Table 1 illustrates the steps involved in the design and development of industrial products. The step-by-step procedure for the marketingdesign interface is explained as follows:
3.1.
Step 1: market analysis
This step essentially entails typical marketing groundwork pertaining to the development and introduction of products. Marketing research dominates the activities of this step. These activities include, but are not limited to: idea generation, concept screening, market structure analysis, identification of an existing or new market, evaluation of an existing or new market. demographics analysis, defining target marketing, and identifying the target group of customers. These activities lead to the identification of product market potential, market share, market characteristics, market analysis. short- and long-term forecasting and compilation of various information about the competitors. Since the activities associated with this step are well understood and accepted, only the results pertaining to market analysis of the washing machine examples are outlined here. The detailed analysis may be obtained from the author. Table 2 describes the summary characteristics of the selected target market and its potential customers. The question now remains as to the develop ment of a particular brand of washing machine
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Areas of Collaboration l
Product psycbologica&hysical positioning
l
Design for marketability
lFVcductcuncepttzhemmt
b
l
Redesign, reposition, drop, or delay
l
theproducts Establish product’s specilic objectives and strategies
lFhduct l
Marketing l
l
a
lROdUCtdCSignbadeOfh application
Concept *Prototype
structure
+
production
Desi en Orientation
Orientation
Generalview of product Wider margins of quality, safety, and performance
Opulent use of materials h4arket pull concerns . Appearance oriented products product psychological profile and positioning
l
Conceptual abstraction of product
l
J%actical margins of quality, safety
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
andPerfo== Fhctical use of materials Technology push concerns Functionally oriented products Product physical profile and positioning
l
Consumer measurement characteristics
l
l
Rational aualyis concerns
l
product design speciilcations Physical imagination concems
l
Imxxporation of consumers
l
l
Identification of consumers dimensioning process Identificatiou of consumers’
dimensioning process in product l
l
Define product image and perception De’velop marketing attributes
lF%uductrange l
l
l
Market competition Frequeht future redesigns aud modifications Generate perceptions and features
Technovation Volume 13No3
of consumers’
perceptjon% @erencea. utilities, and desires in the product
perceptions, preferen=. utilities, aud desires l
Inanporation
lCreateproductimageznxl l
perception Develop design attributes
lPeall
l
l
lange Productintegration planning
limited future Iedesigns andmodifications Simulate pexeptions and features
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S. Dowlatshahi
that is appealing target market. 3.2.
to these characteristics
of the
Step 2: develop central utility factors
Central utility factors (CUFs). prescribe the specific and possibly unique utilities that a consumer drives or perceives to drive as a result of using the product. The factors that are clearly communicated to and understood by the consumer are central to the consumer’s preference and TABLE
I.
Steps in the design-marketing
Step
I 2 3 4
intcrfacc
Activity markci analysis develop central utility factors (ClJFs) psychological positioning physical positioning
TABLE 2.
Target market characteristics
Population Age wv Annual income Occupation Rcsidcncc Education Marital statu\ Mohility Family size Lift style
3.5 million 25 to 39 years $40 w0+ prnfcssional/manaQcr mctropnlitan arca X0%,+ college dcgrcc 75% high svcragc 3.1 person, active. cngagc in socially mohilc activities. own a computer. travel ahroad. buy designer labels. participate in physical limes\ activities. intcrcst fullillmcnt. likclytocarry an American Exprcsscard
ultimate purchase of the product. CUFs are the statements of product objectives as well as the manifestati’on of the overall product strategy. Care must be taken that the CUFs are identified and formulated properly. The CUF statements should be open to discussion and modification so that a revised and consensus-oriented set of CUFs is developed. To further define and distinguish the CUFs in terms of their importance. the following two classifications are proposed:
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I. Hard (non-negotiable orprimaty) CUFs. These utilities are essential to the development and .design of the product and they must be incorporated in the final design so that the desired perception or image is created. This perception is essential in forming the consumer preference. Some consumer utilities should be treated as absolute performance standards and, as such, they must appear in the product design. The significance of these CUFs must be well understood as the product concept advances through its various stages of development. The hard constraints should typically encompass a limited number of primary utilities. CUF statements should not be so extensive as to curb the efforts of the design engineer to create a reasonable and workable product. The marketers must make a genuine effort to clearly identify and communicate only a limited number of utilities to the design engineer. The overall integrity and effectiveness of the product introduction and development depend on the sound formulation of the CUFs. 2. Sofi (negotiable or secondary) CUFs. These are second-tier utilities that a marketer wishes to incorporate in the product, and are usually subject to negotiation and compromise. Trade-offs are usually the predominant activities governing the inclusion or exclusion of these utilities. Usually the upper or lower limit specifications delineated in the hard CUFs determine the degree of flexibility of these utilities. In other words, the hard CUFs are the driving force behind the viability and usability of the soft CUFs. For example. some soft CUFs are excluded because they increase the product’s weight beyond the limit that may have been specified as a hard constraint. An effective dialogue is needed to establish priorities among various soft constraints so that a balanced set of marketing and design attributes is incorporated in the final product. The development of CUFs is heavily affected by the processed information obtained in the market analysis step. The creative task of the marketer is to identify with and relate to the mainstream population of the selected target group in terms of the identification and development of the CUFs.
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The CUFs need to be expressed in simple. clear, and concise statements. There should be no room for varying interpretations. They should be preferably expressed by a verb followed by a noun. For the washing machine example, the CUFs are identified and formulated below. The hard CUFs that must become a part of the final design are numbered, in order of their preference. in parentheses immediately after the CUF statements. The CUFs with no numbers are soft CUFs. Simple to start. operate, and terminate a cycle with simple. convenient controls (5). Durable to operate after several consecutive washing cycles (4). Spin to extract water from clothes up to 95%. Operate at a short cycle time. Appear in two colors in addition to white and almond. Weight not to exceed 210 lb (95 kg) (3). Equip with bleach and fabric softener dispensers. Appear to be drip resistant in exterior. Equip with automatic self-cleaning lint filter. Operate in three cycles of regular. permanent press. and delicate (6). in three wash/rinse temperature Operate selections. Able to offer a three-year warranty on all transmission parts and labor. Equip with lid locks during spinning. Provide self-leveling rear and adjustable front legs. Appear in dimensions no more than 40 inches (- 1 m) in height. and 25 inches (-64 cm) in width and depth; and compact enough to be placed in smaller floor space areas. Operate with medium to large size tub capacity. Able to operate quietly with rhythmic agitation and balanced spinning. Alternative agitator for gentler swishing of delicates. Control temperature electronically. Equip with water sewer control. Priced at $425 or less (I). Operate with automatic stabilizing suspension system.
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Operate with doubie scrub wash action. Able to operate with mini-quick cycles with minitub for delicates and hand washables. Equip with off-balance switches or buzzers for unbalanced loads. Able to care for fabric quality. Able to operate with energy-saving cold water rinse. The CUFs are used as the input to Step 3.
3.3.
Step 3: psychological positioning
This step is closely intertwined with Step 2 where the product CUFs are developed. This step uses the previous two steps to psychologically position the product in respect to those of competitors on a predetermined set of product dimensions. The purpose of product positioning is to identify the current positions of the competitors’ products and to uniquely place the new product so that it is effectively differentiated from those of the competitors. This process inherently entails the generation of new perceptions. features. appeals. or alternatives that competitors are not offering at this particular time. In this step no particular effort is made to identify the physical characteristics of the product. On the contrary. all the marketer’s efforts are directed toward psychological positioning of the product that creates a conceptual preference among potential buyers. The psychological positioning of the new product cannot be accomplished without the direct incorporation of CUFs. In other words. the CUFs are the driving force of product positioning. If the use of the existing CUFs (especially the hard ones) results in psychological positioning of the product which is not significantly different from that ofthe existing products in the market, the existing CUFs must be modified or revised so that a different psychological positioning may become feasible. In Step 3. the premises of Steps I and 2 are subjected to a test as to whether the target market and the unique CUFs developed for it are indeed genuine, valid. and viable premises. This step
167
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associated CUFs provide a favorable response from the majority of the selected target market. Urban and Hauser [S] propose perceptual maps as a viable tool for product positioning. They further provide two analytical methods and several examples to generate perceptual maps. A modified version of their approach is used here to generate the new product positioning for the washing machine example. The modified version uses information obtained from Consumer Reports [9] in constructing the perceptual maps. Table 3 summarizes the existing washing machines. their attributes, and their ratings. First, a set of perceptual maps is developed that has price as one consumer dimension while the
serves as an evaluation point where the available information is validated before further decisions are made. The null hypothesis is that the selected target market and the uniquely developed CUFs are sufficient prerequisites for developing a psychological positioning of a product which is adequately differentiated from those of the existing products in the market. If the null hypothesis does not hold. the necessary modifications or revisions in the CUFs must be made. Once the psychological positioning of a product is achieved, the marketer is conceptually committed to its further advancement in the product development cycle. The marketer at this tage is fairly confident that the product position and its TABLE 3. No.
Washing machine attributes
Brand and model”
Attrihutes a; Load capacity
Ii 9 10 II I2 13 14
Sears Kenmorc 2Y80 1 Whirlpool LA5SSXXS Maytag AY7Oll Magic Chef W2OH3 Admiral AWZOK-3 Montgomery Ward 6530 Gibson WA27M4 Kelvinator AW7(WKi White-Wcstinghousc LA_SfM)M Frigidaire WCDL Amama LW230.7 Speed Queen NA452 1 General Electric WWa8324G Hotpoint WLW37oOB
Water effkiency
Energy effkiency A
i
s
Satisfaction percentageh
Price ($1
Unbalanced loads
Extraction
Linting
Noise
Service access
3
s
3
s
5
o~xstl
420
3
5
3
5
s
O~XSO
377
4
5
4
5
4
tl~xso
610
2
4
4
4
4
0.722
440
2
4
4
4
4
0.725
422
2
5
4
4
4
0.750
420
5
5
3
3
4
0.775
3xs
5
5
3
3
4
077s
363
5
5
3
3
4
0.725
37s
5
5
3
3
4
067s
37x
2
4
3
3
4
0+25
427
2
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3
3
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tw?s
4s7
2
s
4
3
2
0~575
392
2
4
3
3
2
0.525
37s
I
‘Satisfaction percentap is the pcrccntagc of the avcragc of the eight attrihutcs. “The ratings are hased on a scale used hy Conwwr Rrpwn. 1 being the worst rating and S the hcst
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Technovation Volume 13 No 3
A novel approach to product design and development
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second dimension alternates among the eight attributes listed in Table 3. The results are presented in Fig. 4. After the individual perceptual maps of Fig. 4 have been developed, the attention should be focused on identifying the location of the new washing machine. The machine. as an entity. is a culmination of the eight attributes and price
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perceptual maps. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) of Saaty [ 10, 111has been used to determine the factor evaluation for each of the eight attributes. The decision hierarchy for the washing machine is presented in Fig. 5. By using Saaty’s scale of pairwise comparison. a table ofpaitwise comparisons for all eight attributes is developed (Table4). Following the steps outlined
169
S. Dowlatshahi
T
hia*
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in Saaty’s AHP. the results are summarized in Table 5. To verify the consistency of the responses. a consistency ratio described by Saaty is calculated. This ratio states how consistent one is with one’s answers. A higher number means that one is less consistent, while a lower number indicates that one is more consistent. The consistency ratio
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calculated for this example is 0.054. which is below 0.10. This indicates a fairly consistent manner in which the ratings are assigned. Now that the attribute evaluations are calculated. . it is possible to identify the location of the new washing machine with respect to the existing ones. To do so, Table 6 is constructed such that it represents the desired ratings as well as the
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A novel approach to product design and development
1 New Washinn Machine
1
*
Hard CUFs
‘Lad
i3 W&E
capacity
eflieiency ??
TABLE 4. Attrihute
Fig. 5.
Decision hierarchy for washing machine.
Painvise comparisons 02
“3
04
“5
06
07
08
1
l/8
l/9 112
l/3 7
I/? 2
114 5
l/8
1
l/5 3
9 3
2
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l/7
l/8
8 I
2 l/5
4 l/2
2 l/5
3 l/3
05 ah
7 4
I/2 l/5
112 114
5 2
l/4
1
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3 l/2
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8 5
l/l i/3
I/2 l/3
5 3
2 113
4 2
I 114
4I
al a? 03
aI
8
1
lsp* = +
i= 1.2,. 1
wi = weight of attribute a, (from Table 5)
l
c
*. 8
;=I , -, 7 ....8
Then, the new washing machine coordinates of satisfaction pementage (SP*) and price (P*) are calculated as follows: TABLE 5.
Technovation
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0.9493
372
It is now possible to identify the exact location of the new washing machine in a perceptual map that contains all the existing washing machines. This is illustrated in Fig. 6. The location of the new washing machine represents a psychological position that a marketer and management feel comfortable with and committed to. The psychological positioning represents the best chance of applying marketing mix to promote the product that is fairly differentiable from the competition. The marketer may also attempt to define a feasible envelope by which a number of possible solutions can be identified. This is especially appropriate when the degree of homogeneity among the target group members is minimal. In any event, a vector representing
Attribute evaluation for washing machine
al
02
az
04
03
06
07
08
0.0196
0.2026
0.2693
0~0340
0~1466
0.0532
0. I%9
0.0777
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=
pi
p*=?r=
i=l
P, = Price i
= R
maximum prices that the marketer is willing to pay for the new washing machine. In Table 6 we have: ai = attribute i ri = rating value of attribute i
riwi
t
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TABLE 6.
Washing
i
(li
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
“I a? 03 04 “S 06 01 ‘I8
machine
characteristics ‘iH’i
fi
0.0882 09921 1.31% 01462 06890 0.2394 09451 C-3263
315 400 380 360 375 390 350 350
Wi
‘i
0.01% 0 2026 0.2693 00340 0.1466 0.0532 0.1969 00777
4.5 4.9 4.9 4.3 4.7 4.5 4.8 4.2
the marketers. In this stage of product development, the psychological positioning becomes reality in terms of physical embodiment. This physical positioning breathes life into an idea, abstract. or fuzzy concept to create a physical artifact. The purpose of this step is to design a product that reflects the marketing specifications and characteristics enumerated in the psychological positioning aspect of the product development. This is essentially an engineering function. The design engineer has a variety of options to achieve the marketing requirements. The key, however, remains in clear and precise understanding of the marketing requirements. The purpose of the previous three steps should be to arrive at and communicate to the design engineer, in understandable terms, the characteristics the marketer actually seeks in the product. The designer, by virtue of his/her position, has to deal with a variety of constraints, among them marketing constraints. If a well designed product in every respect other than marketing
various product positions that is indicative of the mainstream target group is the appropriate solution region.
3.4.
Step 4: Physical positioning
This is the last and a crucial step in the design and development of industrial products. This step is the most neglected and misunderstood step by
Price 350 4
14
a10
1
99 m7 l6 95
*I3 425
92 ll
011 =4
t -12 I 0
I 0.25
Fig. 6.
172
500 0.50
Perceptual
I 0.75
map of washing
I 1.00 s&tisEtition w=wP
machines.
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A novel approach to product design and development
requirements is manufactured and offered to the marketplace, the results are not difficult to predict. The product created by the designer must fullill the marketing requirements; otherwise it will not meet the consumer’s preference standards. Marketing requirements are a major driving force in the conceptual phase of design and as such they must be clear and distinguishable to the design engineer. The common misconception of the marketer is to presuppose that his/her job is completed by positioning the product in the market where the competition is not positioned. The results of all marketing efforts are futile if ideas presented are not physically materialized. In the eye of the consumer, the product - and the image that it generates - does not come from a perceptual map or any other marketing effort, but emanates directly from the effective compilation of materials or parts that express the very existence of the product. Subsequent marketing efforts in promoting the product after it is designed and manufactured are severely limited by the very nature of the product design. The decisions made in the early phases of product design will have tremendous consequences and ramifications for manufacturing. quality. service and maintenance. and warranty of the product. The early design decisions. by virtue of their importance. are not easily reversible as they commit approximately 80% of product life-cycle costs [12]. To further underscore the complexity of the design process and how marketing can effectively contribute to it, some important approaches to product design are presented below. The design phase with an asterisk. in the approaches to product design, represents a phase that marketing requirements can best be represented and incorporated in the overall product design process. It is at this phase that the full benefits of such incorporation are realized. Dixon and Simmons [ 131 have suggested a fourphase approach to component design: preliminary 0 refinement: 0 analysis; l
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0 implementation. In the preliminary design phase. a rough sketch of the design is made subject to material, functional requirements, and design form considerations. The further refinement is needed to conform the component to the required design. Then, the refined design is analyzed and evaluated. It is also ascertained in this phase whether the design meets its overall functional requirements. In the implementation phase, the detailed design, design documentation, and design release issues are worked out. Pahl and Beitz 1141classify the design process into four phases: l l l l
clarification of the task; conceptual design*; embodiment design; detailed design.
They emphasize conceptual design as being the phase where a high level of conceptual abstraction of product is achieved. They also propose a mechanism by which design functions are translated into a set of design solution variants. Jones [IS] selects a system approach to the design process, and describes the design phase in terms of system requirements in seven phases: l l l l l l l
determine product requirements: develop preliminary design*: test preliminary design; develop final design: test final design: production; design upgrades.
Jones focuses on the design requirements in terms oflife-cycle costing, and includes production as a phase of the design process. If the finished product, after prototyping or initial testing, does not or is not perceived to meet consumer expectations. action must be taken to reposition the product and subsequently create a new, physically realizable artifact that meets the consumer’s perceptual standards and utility expectations.
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In the case of the washing machine, a set of design specifications is presented that fulfill the desired physical positioning of the product. One typical approach that the design engineer may use is to map each set of functional requirements (design specifications) into a component that satisfies those particular requirements. To facilitate the initial description as the artifact is conceptualized, the design should require a minimum input and should accommodate to a language that is natural to that particular design environment, e.g. a CAD environment. For the design of a washing machine this may entail the identification of a set of components and their respective interactions. Abstraction is crucial in establishing behavioral and geometrical component parameters.
TABLE 7.
Hard CUFs and their corresponding Hard CtJFs
A conceptual design environment then permits the designer to form a modular aggregation of components. This provides the designer with a flexibility to put together various modular combinations and to evaluate their effectiveness in terms of meeting the functional requirements. To avoid a technical presentation of the washing machine’s physical characteristics, only a few design specitications, pertaining to the hard CUFs, are outlined in Table 7. As may be seen, not all marketing requirements can be met simultaneously. First, the design engineer has concentrated on the achievement of hard constraints. It is interesting to note that most of the hard CUFs are interrelated in nature. Achieving one may partially contribute to the
design specitications Design specifications
Priced at $500 or less
Plastic based finished top. 20% reduction in sheet metal usage. new design of transmission with 20 fewer parts. simpler control mechanism, scratch-resistant paint. drip-resistant exterior. high glossy color
Appear in dimensions of no more than 40 inches (I m) high and 25 inches (64 cm) in width and depth. compact enough to he placed in smaller floor space areas
Designed dimensions are 37 X 20 X 20 inches (94 X 51 X 51 cm). easy to maneuver and transport. tits adequately in closets and small laundry areas adjacent to living room
Weight not to exceed 210 lb (95 kg)
Designed weight is 200 Ih (91 kg). ergonomically designed for ease ofoperating. handling, inspecting and transporting: easy to move for a mohile family. equipped with self-leveling rear and adjustable front legs
Durable to operate after seven consecutive washing cycles
Design a motorratedat0.4 h.p.(300 W): durahletuh madeofporcelainenamelglass-fused tosteel at over 1500’F (82OOC) and able to absorh heavy shocks: motor needs no lubrication. 120 V. 60 HL reversible. standard IS A fuse. themoprotected against overload: two-part ratcheting agitator with lower halfswishing in two directions while upper half moves in only one direction. agitation speed of 6OOMOOstrokes permin; waterusageofZo~S~gallons(21.5 imp.,gall. or98 limes). waterpressumof28 to I15 psi (19-7.8 bar): water line size of i mch (9.5 mm) or 5 mch (12.7 mm) O.D.. standyip of 36 inches (% I cm). 5 ft (l.S2 m) length hot and cold till hoses: turbo-type pump with j mch (12.7 mm)wide impeller. perforated wash basket to remove soil and detergent scum: no springscable suspension system
Simple to start. operate. and terminate a cycle with simple. convenient controls
Two basic control knohs: tint knob controls water temperature and agitation/spin speed. second knoh sets cycles: three basic wash/rinse options: hot/cold. warm/cold. or cold/cold: two basic agitation/spin speed choices: normal or slow: ergonomically located control knobs: automatic shutoff: water level control: self-cleaning lint tilter: easy to open and close door: instructions appear on lid
Dperates in three cycles of regular. permanent press. and delicate choices
Better than average in handling permanent press articles for line drying: washes delicate clothes in cold. gentle. short agitation cycles: fretter than average in sand disposal: severely unbalanced load causes only slight vibration
174
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A novel approach to product design and development
achievement of several other hard CUFs. Also, there are no inherent contradictions between achieving a hard CUF and an ability to incorporate one or more of the soft CUFs in the design concurrently. The entire process of design tradeoffs contributes significantly to the creative design process. To provide a summary of the steps taken in the design-marketing interface. a flow chart is presented in Fig. 7.
(7)
4.
No
No mwt-
Conclusion
The interface and collaboration of design and marketing is crucial for the introduction and development of an industrial product in a concurrent engineering environment. All factors being equal, the success of a new product is largely determined by such a collaboration. The most crucial necessity for a marketingdesign interface and collaboration is the abandonment of the ‘over-the-wall design’ concept. No degree of collaboration can effectively take place if these functions are performed in isolation and in a vacuum-like environment. An effective dialogue. with the intent of sharing usable information, is inevitable. The concurrent engineering concept proposes a simultaneous. not sequential. consideration of product development activities. This virtually calls for early collaboration of marketing and design. In a practical sense. the effective dialogue between marketing and design can only occur when the barriers and walls - whether real or imaginary - are eliminated. The full support and cooperation of top management and a positive institutional culture are needed to instill and foster such an environment.
References stop Fig. 7.
Flow chart of &sign-marketing
Technovation Volume 13 No 3
I G.S. Vasilash.
Simultaneous ment’s new competitiveness
interface.
engineering: managetool. Producrion. 99(7)
(1987) 36-41.
175
S. Dowlatshahi
2 J. Corbett, Design for economic
3 4 5 6 7
8
9 IO
I1
manufacture.Annals of CIRP, 35( 1) (1986) 93. D.E. Whitney, Manufacture by design. Harvard Business Review (July-August 1988) 83-91. M.J. Cohodas. Make the most of supplier know-how. Electronics Purchasing (July 1988) 38-39. B. Huthwaite. Designing in quality. Quality. 27(11) (1988) 34-35. J.L. Nevins and D.E. Whitney. Concurrent Design of Products and Pr0cesse.s. McGraw-Hill. 1989. pp. 2-3. S. Dowlatshahi. Purchasing’s role in a concurrent engineering environment. International Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management, 28(I) (Winter 1992) 21-25. G.L. Urban and J.R. Hauser. Design andMarketingof New Products. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey. 1980. Anon. Washing machines. Consumer Reports (Feb. 1991) 112-l 17. T. Saaty. A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structure. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 15(3) (1977) 234-281. T. Saaty. The Analvtic Hierarchy Procex~. McGrawHill. New York. 1980.
176
12 S. Dowlatshahi. A comparison of approaches to concurrent engineering. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technologv (1992). ‘I3 J.R. Dixon and M.K. Simmons, Computers that design: expert systems for mechanical engineers. Computers in Mechanical Engineering, 2(3) (1983) 10-18. I4 G. Pahl and W. Beitz. EngineeringDesign. The Design Council. Springer-Verlag, London. 1984. 15 J.V. Jones. Engineering Design, Reliability, Maintainability. and Testability. TAB Book Inc. Blue Ridge Summit. Pennsylvania. 1988.
Shad Dowlatshahi has a PhD in Industrial and Management Engineering from the University of Iowa. He holds two master’s
degrees: one in business administration and one in industrial engineering. He is currently an associate professor at the University of Wisconsin at Platteville. He also has several years’ industrial experience. His research interests lie in product design. concurrent engineering. and purchasing and materials management. He is a member of DSI. APICS. TIMS/ORSA. SMA. AMA and SAM.
Technovation
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A novel approach to product design and development in a concurrent engineering environment Shad Dowlatshahi 40 7 Pioneer Tower, College of Business, University of Wisconsin, Platteville, WI 538 18, USA Abstract In this paper the early design-marketing intet$ace for the design and development of industrial products in a concurrent engineering environment is examined. Marketing concerns, contributions. and constraints are most appropriately reflected in the when there is a collaboration and dialogue between designer and marketers at the conceptual phase of the product development cycle. In order to effectively achieve such collaboration, an algorithm containingfour steps is proposed. These steps ensure that the consumer requirements and preferences are recognized and communicated in a timely. relevant and accurate format so that they are incorporated in the physical embodiment of the product. It is eventually the collaboration between the marketers’critical utilityfactors and the designers design spectftcation or junctions that determines the form, fit and junction of the product. The e$etive collaboration between marketing and function is not feasible unless there exist fill support and cooperation of top management and an instituh’onalculture that can inSh’handfostersuch a collaboration.
1.
Introduction
The concept of concurrent engineering, in its broadest sense, is viewed as a strategy capable of providing the American manufacturing system with a competitive advantage in the world marketplace. Concurrent engineering has been defined in various ways. These definitions are mostly the reflection of an individual’s background and experience. Vasilash [I] suggests terms such as simultaneous engineering, life cycle engineering, process-driven design, team approach, and design for manufacture. Other terminologies such as concurrent design, unified life cycle engineering
Technovation
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0166-4972/93/$06.00
(ULCE), total quality management, and parallel engineering have also been used. Whatever the definition, the concept concentrates on the simultaneous consideration of the downstream product development activities as opposed to their consideration on a sequential and isolated basis. Concurrent engineering, therefore, calls for the consideration and inclusion of product design attributes such as aesthetics, durability, ergonomics. interchangeability, maintainability, marketability. manufacturability, procurability, reliability. remanufacturability, safety, schedulability, serviceability, simplicity, testability, and transportability in the early stages of product design.
Q 1993
Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd
161
S. Dowlatshahi
1 .l. The role of product design in concurrent engineering
The natural focus of concurrent engineering is on product design. A decision concerning product design tends to have a number of significant manufacturing
manufacturing
truck transmissions
manufacturing elements of design, material, labor, and overhead, 70% of all production savings stem from in design [4]. A study revealed that the product design is responsible for only 5% of a product’s cost; it can, however, determine 75% or more of all manufacturing
manufacture, disposal of a product [6].
1.2.
The
Advantages
proper
of concurrent
use, repair, and
engineering
consideration
communication and dialogue: more efticient operation and higher productivity: overall cost savings: - reduction in the number of parts manufactured.
162
-
better machine utilization time, more easily manufacturable parts, fewer reworks and scraps, greater use of standard features, reducing tooling costs, fewer changes in process planning; avoidance of product recalls: lower maintenance costs: more reliable products; better customer satisfaction; improved bottom-line.
. .3. System engineering
approach
thereby
to concurrent
There are two issues at the core of successful implementation of concurrent engineering: 1. All activities related to the development of a product should be focused in the early stages of product design so that the greatest benefits of such an integration are achieved. 2. The impacts and constraints associated with various functional requirements should be known to the designer on a timely, accurate, and relevant basis. This allows for the proper consideration and inclusion ofthe appropriate design constraints. Figure I depicts the system approach design of a product.
1.4.
Objective
to the
and scope of the paper
The objective of this paper is to provide specific steps by which an effective and systematic collaboration between marketing and design functions in the early stages of the product development becomes feasible. The success of product development largely depends upon this collaboration. The scope of this paper is limited to the design and development of durable industrial products. The paper makes no specific attempts to consider any functional areas other than marketing. Other
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A novel approach to product design and development
I
Design for marketability
Design for cost
Business requirements
ROdUCtiOIl
requirements Fig. I.
in concurrent
The development and introduction of new products to the marketplace is vital to corporate profitability and growth. The firms most successful in carrying out these activities use approaches and techniques that, although only slightly different from those utilized by their less successful competitors, result in a significant performance advantage. At the core of a firm’s specific approach to a
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I I
Product design in a concurrent engineering environment.
functional areas require an in-depth treatment warranting additional investigations. For one such investigation, one may refer to Dowlatshahi [7] in which the collaboration between purchasing and design in a concurrent engineering environment is examined. The term ‘new product’, as used in this paper. may refer either to a brand-new product or to an improvement of an existing one. The steps presented in this paper are equally viable for both approaches.
2. The role of marketing engineering
support
requirements
sound new product development scheme is a well defined strategy that links the various stakeholders in a unified and well integrated manner. It is most important to recognize that product development activities are inherently an interdisciplinary function. The role of marketing in concurrent engineering is particularly crucial as it drives. or should drive. the subsequent activities ranging from the design, manufacture, and logistics aspects of the product life cycle. The importance of design for marketability is enhanced when areas of collaboration are established such that the information. concerns, constraints, and contributions of the marketing are understood and reflected in the early stages of the design process. The role of marketing is to translate the consumer’s perceptions. preferences, and desires in a usable format so that they can effectively be utilized by the designer in the conceptual phase of the design process. This process, whether it is accomplished through diaglogue. information systems. etc., must reconcile and converge the conflicting and divergent objectives that the designer and marketer may pursue in the product development process.
163
S. Dowlatshahi
Figure 2 represents the viewpoints of design and marketing and the areas of their collaboration. The concurrent engineering environment allows for the reconciliation of the opposing views of designers and marketers. The higher the degree of dialogue, cooperation. and exchange of usable information between design and marketing, the higher the probability of product success. This fact is illustrated by the Van diagram of Fig. 3. In Figure 3, the overlapping (shaded) area represents the intersection of marketing and design. The larger this area, the more the representation of design and marketing concerns in the final product. The white areas bounded by the circles represent the divergent areas of design and marketing. The area outside the circles, which belongs to the product design space (S), represents other concerns such as manufacturing, purchasing, research and development, etc. The intersect area can present three possibilities based on the following formula: marketing-design interface effectiveness =
marketing requirements > reflected in product 1 design specifications T reflected in product
If the effectiveness ratio is greater than one. the product is dominated by market forces. This is a pull or market-driven orientation to product desi . On the other hand, if the ratio is less than 9p8”e, the product is dominated by design, engineering and technological forces. This is a push or designdriven orientation to product design. If the ratio is exactly one. then the marketing forces are equal MnD
M
S
D
cb Fig. 3.
164
Design-marketing
collaboration.
and they neutralize each other. Whatever orientation a firm selects. the main objective should focus on the expansion of the size of M n D.
3.
Design-marketing
interface
Now that the importance of the design-marketing interface is recognized, a step-by-step algorithm is presented to accomplish the interface. To provide an application and validity of the procedure, an example of the design of a washing machine is presented in each step. Table 1 illustrates the steps involved in the design and development of industrial products. The step-by-step procedure for the marketingdesign interface is explained as follows:
3.1.
Step 1: market analysis
This step essentially entails typical marketing groundwork pertaining to the development and introduction of products. Marketing research dominates the activities of this step. These activities include, but are not limited to: idea generation, concept screening, market structure analysis, identification of an existing or new market, evaluation of an existing or new market. demographics analysis, defining target marketing, and identifying the target group of customers. These activities lead to the identification of product market potential, market share, market characteristics, market analysis. short- and long-term forecasting and compilation of various information about the competitors. Since the activities associated with this step are well understood and accepted, only the results pertaining to market analysis of the washing machine examples are outlined here. The detailed analysis may be obtained from the author. Table 2 describes the summary characteristics of the selected target market and its potential customers. The question now remains as to the develop ment of a particular brand of washing machine
Technovation
Volume 13 No 3
A novel approach to product design and development
Areas of Collaboration l
Product psycbologica&hysical positioning
l
Design for marketability
lFVcductcuncepttzhemmt
b
l
Redesign, reposition, drop, or delay
l
theproducts Establish product’s specilic objectives and strategies
lFhduct l
Marketing l
l
a
lROdUCtdCSignbadeOfh application
Concept *Prototype
structure
+
production
Desi en Orientation
Orientation
Generalview of product Wider margins of quality, safety, and performance
Opulent use of materials h4arket pull concerns . Appearance oriented products product psychological profile and positioning
l
Conceptual abstraction of product
l
J%actical margins of quality, safety
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
andPerfo== Fhctical use of materials Technology push concerns Functionally oriented products Product physical profile and positioning
l
Consumer measurement characteristics
l
l
Rational aualyis concerns
l
product design speciilcations Physical imagination concems
l
Imxxporation of consumers
l
l
Identification of consumers dimensioning process Identificatiou of consumers’
dimensioning process in product l
l
Define product image and perception De’velop marketing attributes
lF%uductrange l
l
l
Market competition Frequeht future redesigns aud modifications Generate perceptions and features
Technovation Volume 13No3
of consumers’
perceptjon% @erencea. utilities, and desires in the product
perceptions, preferen=. utilities, aud desires l
Inanporation
lCreateproductimageznxl l
perception Develop design attributes
lPeall
l
l
lange Productintegration planning
limited future Iedesigns andmodifications Simulate pexeptions and features
165
S. Dowlatshahi
that is appealing target market. 3.2.
to these characteristics
of the
Step 2: develop central utility factors
Central utility factors (CUFs). prescribe the specific and possibly unique utilities that a consumer drives or perceives to drive as a result of using the product. The factors that are clearly communicated to and understood by the consumer are central to the consumer’s preference and TABLE
I.
Steps in the design-marketing
Step
I 2 3 4
intcrfacc
Activity markci analysis develop central utility factors (ClJFs) psychological positioning physical positioning
TABLE 2.
Target market characteristics
Population Age wv Annual income Occupation Rcsidcncc Education Marital statu\ Mohility Family size Lift style
3.5 million 25 to 39 years $40 w0+ prnfcssional/manaQcr mctropnlitan arca X0%,+ college dcgrcc 75% high svcragc 3.1 person, active. cngagc in socially mohilc activities. own a computer. travel ahroad. buy designer labels. participate in physical limes\ activities. intcrcst fullillmcnt. likclytocarry an American Exprcsscard
ultimate purchase of the product. CUFs are the statements of product objectives as well as the manifestati’on of the overall product strategy. Care must be taken that the CUFs are identified and formulated properly. The CUF statements should be open to discussion and modification so that a revised and consensus-oriented set of CUFs is developed. To further define and distinguish the CUFs in terms of their importance. the following two classifications are proposed:
166
I. Hard (non-negotiable orprimaty) CUFs. These utilities are essential to the development and .design of the product and they must be incorporated in the final design so that the desired perception or image is created. This perception is essential in forming the consumer preference. Some consumer utilities should be treated as absolute performance standards and, as such, they must appear in the product design. The significance of these CUFs must be well understood as the product concept advances through its various stages of development. The hard constraints should typically encompass a limited number of primary utilities. CUF statements should not be so extensive as to curb the efforts of the design engineer to create a reasonable and workable product. The marketers must make a genuine effort to clearly identify and communicate only a limited number of utilities to the design engineer. The overall integrity and effectiveness of the product introduction and development depend on the sound formulation of the CUFs. 2. Sofi (negotiable or secondary) CUFs. These are second-tier utilities that a marketer wishes to incorporate in the product, and are usually subject to negotiation and compromise. Trade-offs are usually the predominant activities governing the inclusion or exclusion of these utilities. Usually the upper or lower limit specifications delineated in the hard CUFs determine the degree of flexibility of these utilities. In other words, the hard CUFs are the driving force behind the viability and usability of the soft CUFs. For example. some soft CUFs are excluded because they increase the product’s weight beyond the limit that may have been specified as a hard constraint. An effective dialogue is needed to establish priorities among various soft constraints so that a balanced set of marketing and design attributes is incorporated in the final product. The development of CUFs is heavily affected by the processed information obtained in the market analysis step. The creative task of the marketer is to identify with and relate to the mainstream population of the selected target group in terms of the identification and development of the CUFs.
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A novel approach to product design and development
The CUFs need to be expressed in simple. clear, and concise statements. There should be no room for varying interpretations. They should be preferably expressed by a verb followed by a noun. For the washing machine example, the CUFs are identified and formulated below. The hard CUFs that must become a part of the final design are numbered, in order of their preference. in parentheses immediately after the CUF statements. The CUFs with no numbers are soft CUFs. Simple to start. operate, and terminate a cycle with simple. convenient controls (5). Durable to operate after several consecutive washing cycles (4). Spin to extract water from clothes up to 95%. Operate at a short cycle time. Appear in two colors in addition to white and almond. Weight not to exceed 210 lb (95 kg) (3). Equip with bleach and fabric softener dispensers. Appear to be drip resistant in exterior. Equip with automatic self-cleaning lint filter. Operate in three cycles of regular. permanent press. and delicate (6). in three wash/rinse temperature Operate selections. Able to offer a three-year warranty on all transmission parts and labor. Equip with lid locks during spinning. Provide self-leveling rear and adjustable front legs. Appear in dimensions no more than 40 inches (- 1 m) in height. and 25 inches (-64 cm) in width and depth; and compact enough to be placed in smaller floor space areas. Operate with medium to large size tub capacity. Able to operate quietly with rhythmic agitation and balanced spinning. Alternative agitator for gentler swishing of delicates. Control temperature electronically. Equip with water sewer control. Priced at $425 or less (I). Operate with automatic stabilizing suspension system.
Technovation Volume 13 No 3
Operate with doubie scrub wash action. Able to operate with mini-quick cycles with minitub for delicates and hand washables. Equip with off-balance switches or buzzers for unbalanced loads. Able to care for fabric quality. Able to operate with energy-saving cold water rinse. The CUFs are used as the input to Step 3.
3.3.
Step 3: psychological positioning
This step is closely intertwined with Step 2 where the product CUFs are developed. This step uses the previous two steps to psychologically position the product in respect to those of competitors on a predetermined set of product dimensions. The purpose of product positioning is to identify the current positions of the competitors’ products and to uniquely place the new product so that it is effectively differentiated from those of the competitors. This process inherently entails the generation of new perceptions. features. appeals. or alternatives that competitors are not offering at this particular time. In this step no particular effort is made to identify the physical characteristics of the product. On the contrary. all the marketer’s efforts are directed toward psychological positioning of the product that creates a conceptual preference among potential buyers. The psychological positioning of the new product cannot be accomplished without the direct incorporation of CUFs. In other words. the CUFs are the driving force of product positioning. If the use of the existing CUFs (especially the hard ones) results in psychological positioning of the product which is not significantly different from that ofthe existing products in the market, the existing CUFs must be modified or revised so that a different psychological positioning may become feasible. In Step 3. the premises of Steps I and 2 are subjected to a test as to whether the target market and the unique CUFs developed for it are indeed genuine, valid. and viable premises. This step
167
S. Dowlatshahi .
associated CUFs provide a favorable response from the majority of the selected target market. Urban and Hauser [S] propose perceptual maps as a viable tool for product positioning. They further provide two analytical methods and several examples to generate perceptual maps. A modified version of their approach is used here to generate the new product positioning for the washing machine example. The modified version uses information obtained from Consumer Reports [9] in constructing the perceptual maps. Table 3 summarizes the existing washing machines. their attributes, and their ratings. First, a set of perceptual maps is developed that has price as one consumer dimension while the
serves as an evaluation point where the available information is validated before further decisions are made. The null hypothesis is that the selected target market and the uniquely developed CUFs are sufficient prerequisites for developing a psychological positioning of a product which is adequately differentiated from those of the existing products in the market. If the null hypothesis does not hold. the necessary modifications or revisions in the CUFs must be made. Once the psychological positioning of a product is achieved, the marketer is conceptually committed to its further advancement in the product development cycle. The marketer at this tage is fairly confident that the product position and its TABLE 3. No.
Washing machine attributes
Brand and model”
Attrihutes a; Load capacity
Ii 9 10 II I2 13 14
Sears Kenmorc 2Y80 1 Whirlpool LA5SSXXS Maytag AY7Oll Magic Chef W2OH3 Admiral AWZOK-3 Montgomery Ward 6530 Gibson WA27M4 Kelvinator AW7(WKi White-Wcstinghousc LA_SfM)M Frigidaire WCDL Amama LW230.7 Speed Queen NA452 1 General Electric WWa8324G Hotpoint WLW37oOB
Water effkiency
Energy effkiency A
i
s
Satisfaction percentageh
Price ($1
Unbalanced loads
Extraction
Linting
Noise
Service access
3
s
3
s
5
o~xstl
420
3
5
3
5
s
O~XSO
377
4
5
4
5
4
tl~xso
610
2
4
4
4
4
0.722
440
2
4
4
4
4
0.725
422
2
5
4
4
4
0.750
420
5
5
3
3
4
0.775
3xs
5
5
3
3
4
077s
363
5
5
3
3
4
0.725
37s
5
5
3
3
4
067s
37x
2
4
3
3
4
0+25
427
2
4
3
3
4
tw?s
4s7
2
s
4
3
2
0~575
392
2
4
3
3
2
0.525
37s
I
‘Satisfaction percentap is the pcrccntagc of the avcragc of the eight attrihutcs. “The ratings are hased on a scale used hy Conwwr Rrpwn. 1 being the worst rating and S the hcst
168
Technovation Volume 13 No 3
A novel approach to product design and development
PI&C 350-
‘9,14 -10 l13
425’ -
n8
-8 l2
-2 -7 l6 l5
l13
-1
-4 =12
012 1 I 1
, I 2
500
I t 3
-1.6 n5
911
-11 -4
I 0
l7
I 1 4
I 5 Lora
t
1
0
1
1
, I
500
2
I I
I
3
+
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c rprcity 575
575
650I
650I
l3
PliCC
PIiCe ml4 ml0
I
5
=8 -9 -7 -13 -6 -5
T
-8 l9 010 l7
.14350
92
ml3 l6 I -5 .ll 425t -4 ml2
al
lll -4 012
I
1
,
0
1
2
I
I
500
-2 -1
I I
I I
I
3
4
5
Unbrlmccta LO&
575 -3
650
second dimension alternates among the eight attributes listed in Table 3. The results are presented in Fig. 4. After the individual perceptual maps of Fig. 4 have been developed, the attention should be focused on identifying the location of the new washing machine. The machine. as an entity. is a culmination of the eight attributes and price
Technovation
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650,
perceptual maps. The analytical hierarchy process (AHP) of Saaty [ 10, 111has been used to determine the factor evaluation for each of the eight attributes. The decision hierarchy for the washing machine is presented in Fig. 5. By using Saaty’s scale of pairwise comparison. a table ofpaitwise comparisons for all eight attributes is developed (Table4). Following the steps outlined
169
S. Dowlatshahi
T
hia*
Price
350
914
=5 -11 l4 n12
425I
I
a8 n9 -2 *IO l7 n13 ml,6
350
425
.9,14 -2 910 -7 =l 911
l8 l13 l6
95 l4
-12 t
A;;
o-=qTz
575
575
-3
-3
650I
650I
?&r
-8 l9,14 010 -7 l13 =ll 912
l2
96 -5 -4
ml
l3
6501
in Saaty’s AHP. the results are summarized in Table 5. To verify the consistency of the responses. a consistency ratio described by Saaty is calculated. This ratio states how consistent one is with one’s answers. A higher number means that one is less consistent, while a lower number indicates that one is more consistent. The consistency ratio
170
calculated for this example is 0.054. which is below 0.10. This indicates a fairly consistent manner in which the ratings are assigned. Now that the attribute evaluations are calculated. . it is possible to identify the location of the new washing machine with respect to the existing ones. To do so, Table 6 is constructed such that it represents the desired ratings as well as the
Technovation
Volume 13 No 3
A novel approach to product design and development
1 New Washinn Machine
1
*
Hard CUFs
‘Lad
i3 W&E
capacity
eflieiency ??
TABLE 4. Attrihute
Fig. 5.
Decision hierarchy for washing machine.
Painvise comparisons 02
“3
04
“5
06
07
08
1
l/8
l/9 112
l/3 7
I/? 2
114 5
l/8
1
l/5 3
9 3
2
I
0’4
l/7
l/8
8 I
2 l/5
4 l/2
2 l/5
3 l/3
05 ah
7 4
I/2 l/5
112 114
5 2
l/4
1
4
I
I/2 114
3 l/2
07 a8
8 5
l/l i/3
I/2 l/3
5 3
2 113
4 2
I 114
4I
al a? 03
aI
8
1
lsp* = +
i= 1.2,. 1
wi = weight of attribute a, (from Table 5)
l
c
*. 8
;=I , -, 7 ....8
Then, the new washing machine coordinates of satisfaction pementage (SP*) and price (P*) are calculated as follows: TABLE 5.
Technovation
4.1465 5
0.9493
372
It is now possible to identify the exact location of the new washing machine in a perceptual map that contains all the existing washing machines. This is illustrated in Fig. 6. The location of the new washing machine represents a psychological position that a marketer and management feel comfortable with and committed to. The psychological positioning represents the best chance of applying marketing mix to promote the product that is fairly differentiable from the competition. The marketer may also attempt to define a feasible envelope by which a number of possible solutions can be identified. This is especially appropriate when the degree of homogeneity among the target group members is minimal. In any event, a vector representing
Attribute evaluation for washing machine
al
02
az
04
03
06
07
08
0.0196
0.2026
0.2693
0~0340
0~1466
0.0532
0. I%9
0.0777
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=
pi
p*=?r=
i=l
P, = Price i
= R
maximum prices that the marketer is willing to pay for the new washing machine. In Table 6 we have: ai = attribute i ri = rating value of attribute i
riwi
t
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S. Dowlatshahi
TABLE 6.
Washing
i
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the marketers. In this stage of product development, the psychological positioning becomes reality in terms of physical embodiment. This physical positioning breathes life into an idea, abstract. or fuzzy concept to create a physical artifact. The purpose of this step is to design a product that reflects the marketing specifications and characteristics enumerated in the psychological positioning aspect of the product development. This is essentially an engineering function. The design engineer has a variety of options to achieve the marketing requirements. The key, however, remains in clear and precise understanding of the marketing requirements. The purpose of the previous three steps should be to arrive at and communicate to the design engineer, in understandable terms, the characteristics the marketer actually seeks in the product. The designer, by virtue of his/her position, has to deal with a variety of constraints, among them marketing constraints. If a well designed product in every respect other than marketing
various product positions that is indicative of the mainstream target group is the appropriate solution region.
3.4.
Step 4: Physical positioning
This is the last and a crucial step in the design and development of industrial products. This step is the most neglected and misunderstood step by
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A novel approach to product design and development
requirements is manufactured and offered to the marketplace, the results are not difficult to predict. The product created by the designer must fullill the marketing requirements; otherwise it will not meet the consumer’s preference standards. Marketing requirements are a major driving force in the conceptual phase of design and as such they must be clear and distinguishable to the design engineer. The common misconception of the marketer is to presuppose that his/her job is completed by positioning the product in the market where the competition is not positioned. The results of all marketing efforts are futile if ideas presented are not physically materialized. In the eye of the consumer, the product - and the image that it generates - does not come from a perceptual map or any other marketing effort, but emanates directly from the effective compilation of materials or parts that express the very existence of the product. Subsequent marketing efforts in promoting the product after it is designed and manufactured are severely limited by the very nature of the product design. The decisions made in the early phases of product design will have tremendous consequences and ramifications for manufacturing. quality. service and maintenance. and warranty of the product. The early design decisions. by virtue of their importance. are not easily reversible as they commit approximately 80% of product life-cycle costs [12]. To further underscore the complexity of the design process and how marketing can effectively contribute to it, some important approaches to product design are presented below. The design phase with an asterisk. in the approaches to product design, represents a phase that marketing requirements can best be represented and incorporated in the overall product design process. It is at this phase that the full benefits of such incorporation are realized. Dixon and Simmons [ 131 have suggested a fourphase approach to component design: preliminary 0 refinement: 0 analysis; l
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0 implementation. In the preliminary design phase. a rough sketch of the design is made subject to material, functional requirements, and design form considerations. The further refinement is needed to conform the component to the required design. Then, the refined design is analyzed and evaluated. It is also ascertained in this phase whether the design meets its overall functional requirements. In the implementation phase, the detailed design, design documentation, and design release issues are worked out. Pahl and Beitz 1141classify the design process into four phases: l l l l
clarification of the task; conceptual design*; embodiment design; detailed design.
They emphasize conceptual design as being the phase where a high level of conceptual abstraction of product is achieved. They also propose a mechanism by which design functions are translated into a set of design solution variants. Jones [IS] selects a system approach to the design process, and describes the design phase in terms of system requirements in seven phases: l l l l l l l
determine product requirements: develop preliminary design*: test preliminary design; develop final design: test final design: production; design upgrades.
Jones focuses on the design requirements in terms oflife-cycle costing, and includes production as a phase of the design process. If the finished product, after prototyping or initial testing, does not or is not perceived to meet consumer expectations. action must be taken to reposition the product and subsequently create a new, physically realizable artifact that meets the consumer’s perceptual standards and utility expectations.
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S. Dowlatshahi
In the case of the washing machine, a set of design specifications is presented that fulfill the desired physical positioning of the product. One typical approach that the design engineer may use is to map each set of functional requirements (design specifications) into a component that satisfies those particular requirements. To facilitate the initial description as the artifact is conceptualized, the design should require a minimum input and should accommodate to a language that is natural to that particular design environment, e.g. a CAD environment. For the design of a washing machine this may entail the identification of a set of components and their respective interactions. Abstraction is crucial in establishing behavioral and geometrical component parameters.
TABLE 7.
Hard CUFs and their corresponding Hard CtJFs
A conceptual design environment then permits the designer to form a modular aggregation of components. This provides the designer with a flexibility to put together various modular combinations and to evaluate their effectiveness in terms of meeting the functional requirements. To avoid a technical presentation of the washing machine’s physical characteristics, only a few design specitications, pertaining to the hard CUFs, are outlined in Table 7. As may be seen, not all marketing requirements can be met simultaneously. First, the design engineer has concentrated on the achievement of hard constraints. It is interesting to note that most of the hard CUFs are interrelated in nature. Achieving one may partially contribute to the
design specitications Design specifications
Priced at $500 or less
Plastic based finished top. 20% reduction in sheet metal usage. new design of transmission with 20 fewer parts. simpler control mechanism, scratch-resistant paint. drip-resistant exterior. high glossy color
Appear in dimensions of no more than 40 inches (I m) high and 25 inches (64 cm) in width and depth. compact enough to he placed in smaller floor space areas
Designed dimensions are 37 X 20 X 20 inches (94 X 51 X 51 cm). easy to maneuver and transport. tits adequately in closets and small laundry areas adjacent to living room
Weight not to exceed 210 lb (95 kg)
Designed weight is 200 Ih (91 kg). ergonomically designed for ease ofoperating. handling, inspecting and transporting: easy to move for a mohile family. equipped with self-leveling rear and adjustable front legs
Durable to operate after seven consecutive washing cycles
Design a motorratedat0.4 h.p.(300 W): durahletuh madeofporcelainenamelglass-fused tosteel at over 1500’F (82OOC) and able to absorh heavy shocks: motor needs no lubrication. 120 V. 60 HL reversible. standard IS A fuse. themoprotected against overload: two-part ratcheting agitator with lower halfswishing in two directions while upper half moves in only one direction. agitation speed of 6OOMOOstrokes permin; waterusageofZo~S~gallons(21.5 imp.,gall. or98 limes). waterpressumof28 to I15 psi (19-7.8 bar): water line size of i mch (9.5 mm) or 5 mch (12.7 mm) O.D.. standyip of 36 inches (% I cm). 5 ft (l.S2 m) length hot and cold till hoses: turbo-type pump with j mch (12.7 mm)wide impeller. perforated wash basket to remove soil and detergent scum: no springscable suspension system
Simple to start. operate. and terminate a cycle with simple. convenient controls
Two basic control knohs: tint knob controls water temperature and agitation/spin speed. second knoh sets cycles: three basic wash/rinse options: hot/cold. warm/cold. or cold/cold: two basic agitation/spin speed choices: normal or slow: ergonomically located control knobs: automatic shutoff: water level control: self-cleaning lint tilter: easy to open and close door: instructions appear on lid
Dperates in three cycles of regular. permanent press. and delicate choices
Better than average in handling permanent press articles for line drying: washes delicate clothes in cold. gentle. short agitation cycles: fretter than average in sand disposal: severely unbalanced load causes only slight vibration
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achievement of several other hard CUFs. Also, there are no inherent contradictions between achieving a hard CUF and an ability to incorporate one or more of the soft CUFs in the design concurrently. The entire process of design tradeoffs contributes significantly to the creative design process. To provide a summary of the steps taken in the design-marketing interface. a flow chart is presented in Fig. 7.
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Conclusion
The interface and collaboration of design and marketing is crucial for the introduction and development of an industrial product in a concurrent engineering environment. All factors being equal, the success of a new product is largely determined by such a collaboration. The most crucial necessity for a marketingdesign interface and collaboration is the abandonment of the ‘over-the-wall design’ concept. No degree of collaboration can effectively take place if these functions are performed in isolation and in a vacuum-like environment. An effective dialogue. with the intent of sharing usable information, is inevitable. The concurrent engineering concept proposes a simultaneous. not sequential. consideration of product development activities. This virtually calls for early collaboration of marketing and design. In a practical sense. the effective dialogue between marketing and design can only occur when the barriers and walls - whether real or imaginary - are eliminated. The full support and cooperation of top management and a positive institutional culture are needed to instill and foster such an environment.
References stop Fig. 7.
Flow chart of &sign-marketing
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I G.S. Vasilash.
Simultaneous ment’s new competitiveness
interface.
engineering: managetool. Producrion. 99(7)
(1987) 36-41.
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2 J. Corbett, Design for economic
3 4 5 6 7
8
9 IO
I1
manufacture.Annals of CIRP, 35( 1) (1986) 93. D.E. Whitney, Manufacture by design. Harvard Business Review (July-August 1988) 83-91. M.J. Cohodas. Make the most of supplier know-how. Electronics Purchasing (July 1988) 38-39. B. Huthwaite. Designing in quality. Quality. 27(11) (1988) 34-35. J.L. Nevins and D.E. Whitney. Concurrent Design of Products and Pr0cesse.s. McGraw-Hill. 1989. pp. 2-3. S. Dowlatshahi. Purchasing’s role in a concurrent engineering environment. International Journal of Purchasing and Materials Management, 28(I) (Winter 1992) 21-25. G.L. Urban and J.R. Hauser. Design andMarketingof New Products. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs. New Jersey. 1980. Anon. Washing machines. Consumer Reports (Feb. 1991) 112-l 17. T. Saaty. A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structure. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 15(3) (1977) 234-281. T. Saaty. The Analvtic Hierarchy Procex~. McGrawHill. New York. 1980.
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12 S. Dowlatshahi. A comparison of approaches to concurrent engineering. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technologv (1992). ‘I3 J.R. Dixon and M.K. Simmons, Computers that design: expert systems for mechanical engineers. Computers in Mechanical Engineering, 2(3) (1983) 10-18. I4 G. Pahl and W. Beitz. EngineeringDesign. The Design Council. Springer-Verlag, London. 1984. 15 J.V. Jones. Engineering Design, Reliability, Maintainability. and Testability. TAB Book Inc. Blue Ridge Summit. Pennsylvania. 1988.
Shad Dowlatshahi has a PhD in Industrial and Management Engineering from the University of Iowa. He holds two master’s
degrees: one in business administration and one in industrial engineering. He is currently an associate professor at the University of Wisconsin at Platteville. He also has several years’ industrial experience. His research interests lie in product design. concurrent engineering. and purchasing and materials management. He is a member of DSI. APICS. TIMS/ORSA. SMA. AMA and SAM.
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