A review on dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites

Construction and Building Materials 106 (2016) 149–159

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Construction and Building Materials journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

A review on dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites N. Saba a, M. Jawaid a,b,⇑, Othman Y. Alothman b, M.T. Paridah a a b

Biocomposite Technology Laboratory, Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

h i g h l i g h t s
DMA is one of the most powerful tools to study behaviour of polymer composites.
DMA study will help utilisation of natural fibre composites in construction field.
Natural fibre composites can be used for replacing steel, wood and concrete.

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 1 April 2015 Received in revised form 8 November 2015 Accepted 10 December 2015

Keywords: Natural fibre Composite Dynamic mechanical analysis Loss modulus Storage modulus Tan d

a b s t r a c t Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) is a versatile technique that complements the information provided by the more traditional thermal analysis techniques such as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and thermal mechanical analysis (TMA). The dynamic parameters such as storage modulus (E0 ), loss modulus (E00 ), and damping factor (Tan d) are temperature dependent and provide information about interfacial bonding between the reinforced fibre and polymer matrix of composite material. The dynamic parameters were ominously influenced by the increase in fibre length and loading but not in a geometric progression. Dynamic loading conditions are frequently stumble in civil infrastructure systems due to sound, winds, earthquakes, ocean waves and live loads. Vibration damping parameters shows prime importance for structural applications in order to enhance the reliability, performance, buildings comfort and in the alleviation of bridges hazards. DMA also predicts the effects of time and temperature on polymer sealants viscoelastic performance under different environments. Present review article designed to be a comprehensive source of reported literature involving dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced polymer composites, hybrid and nano composites and its applications. This review article will provides a perfect data to explore its industrial application primarily as cheaper construction and building materials for doing further research in this topic. Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glass transition temperature (Tg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoset composites. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced bio-polymer composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid thermoset composites. . . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid thermoplastic polymer composites Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid Biopolymer composites . . . . . . . . . Dynamic mechanical properties of hybrid nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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⇑ Corresponding author at: Biocomposite Technology Laboratory, INTROP, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M. Jawaid). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.12.075 0950-0618/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Applications . . . . Conclusion . . . . . Acknowledgments References . . . . . .

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1. Introduction The growing interest in proper utilisation of natural fibres, paralleled to glass and carbon fibres are chiefly due to their low cost, high specific modulus, light weight, lower energy requirementsless wear and tear in processing, wide availability, biodegradability, resistance to deforestation along with other usual advantages. The incorporation of natural fibres as reinforcing agent in both thermoset and thermoplastic polymer composites has gained increasing applications both in many areas of Engineering and Technology [1]. A variety of natural fibres based polymer composite materials have been developed using modified synthetic strategies to extend its application from automotive to biomedical fields [2]. Natural fibres such as coconut, sisal, jute, ramie bast, eucalyptus pulp, malva, banana, hemp, kenaf bast, flax, pineapple leaf, sansevieria leaf, abaca leaf, bamboo, date, palm, sugarcane fibre and cotton are being commonly reinforced in the polymer system to complement the certain specific properties in the final products [3,2]. These cellulosic natural fibres have a wide range of physical and mechanical properties that is related to the original source such as diameter, length, specific gravity, methods of processing, treatment etc. governing its wider applications [4]. Among different natural fibres, hibiscus sabdariffa, henequen, pines, esparto, sabai grass and banana fibres are still some of the unexplored high potential fibres having similar chemical constituents (cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin), mechanical properties and thermal resistance to other natural fibres such as jute, sisal, hemp, bamboo, oil palm [5]. Construction and building materials are the most interesting application area, which relates to enhancing the functional properties of concrete, steel, wood, and glass, as the primary construction materials [6]. They are used as a structural component (construction material), for improving the properties of the polymer composites, and shows costs effectiveness, when compared to the total cost of the composites especially when high percentage of fibres involved compared to steel fibre [3]. The reuse and recycling for a sustainable development are the major issues of government policy around the globe. In response to this the use of natural fibres will ensure more greener, sustainable and smart construction development as compared to polymer/steel/synthetic fibres [7]. Thus a huge possibility of replacing the traditional structural component with natural fibres, currently get highlighted and inveterate by the many researchers [8]. Natural fibre (such as kenaf, jute, hemp) reinforced polymer composite reflects outstanding and comparable mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties to steel and aluminum, leading to extend its applications for special engineering materials such as automotive, aerospace industry and construction structures [6]. Currently cellulosic or natural fibres as reinforcements for cement mortar composites and Portland cement masonry blocks reinforced with lechuguilla natural fibres constitute a very interesting option for the construction industry in ecofriendly manner [9,7]. However, before their applications in structural fields, some testing techniques are required to prompt to investigate the composite structure and performance under periodic stress such as damping behaviour. DMA technique which is useful in characterising composite structure and damping as a function of frequency, temperature, time, stress, atmosphere or a combination of these parameters

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156 157 157 157

[10]. The dynamic mechanical response of the multi-component systems like composites is highly complex and involves the theories of constitutive equations and micromechanics. DMA also depends on the physical or structural arrangement of phases such as interface, morphology and the nature of constituents [11,12]. Researchers elaborated that the presence of the compatibilizer, additives like filler, fibre content, fibre orientation and the mode of testing governed the dynamic mechanical properties of a composite material [13].

2. Dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) Dynamic mechanical analysis is an indispensable and effective tool for determining the morphology and viscoelastic properties of crystalline polymer and composite materials related to primary relaxations and other valuable parameters, such as crosslinking density [14], dynamic fragility [15], dynamic/complex viscosity, storage/loss compliance, creep compliance/stress–relaxation modulus and the non-Arrhenius variation of relation times with temperature [16]. The storage modulus (E0 ) or dynamic modulus typically related to the Young’s modulus. It often associated with ‘‘stiffness” of a material and determine how stiff or flimsy a sample. E0 regarded as a material tendency/ability to store energy applied to it for future purpose [17]. Loss modulus (E00 ) or dynamic loss modulus, is a viscous response of the materials and regarded as materials tendency to dissipate energy applied to it [17]. The dynamic loss modulus is often associated with ‘‘internal friction” and is sensitive to different kinds of molecular motions, transitions, relaxation processes, morphology and other structural heterogeneities. Thus, when ball is allowed to bounced, it results some energy to be dissipated and some energy save for future as illustrated in Fig. 1. Tan d is expressed as a dimensionless number and regarded as the mechanical damping factor defined as the ratio of loss and storage modulus (Tan d = E00 /E0 ) shown in Fig. 2. The relationship between loss, storage modulus and Tan d in the DMA graph versus temperature are shown in Fig. 3. The resultant component obtained from the plot are called as complex modulus (shear modulus), denoted by (E⁄). A high Tan d value is indicative of a material having high, non-elastic strain component while a low value indicates high elasticity. Increase in the fibre/matrix interface bonding results reduction in damping factor since mobility of the molecular chains at the fibre/matrix interface decreases. Thus, lower the energy loss in relation to its storage capacity greater the Tan d

Fig. 1. Illustrations of the loss modulus and storage modulus.

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Fig. 2. Relationship between E0 , E00 and Tan (d).

Fig. 3. Relationship between E0 , E00 and tan delta Vs temperature in the DMA.

(E00 /E0 ) value in the system. The damping factor is related to molecular movements, viscoelasticity besides the certain defects that contribute towards damping such as dislocations, grain boundaries, phase boundaries and various interfaces [18]. 3. Glass transition temperature (Tg) The dynamic Tg is defined as the temperature where (i) the middle point of E0 vs. temperature curve or (ii) the region where

151

E0 increases with increasing frequency at constant temperature or (iii) maximum of the Tan d occurs or (iv) maximum of the E00 occurs [19]. Thus glass transition temperature is the temperature range where a thermosetting polymer changes from a ‘‘glassy”, rigid or hard state to a more compliant, pliable or ‘‘rubbery” state. It is quite different from melting temperature (Tm), as at melting point the materials begin to melts while at (Tg) the materials get softer. Fig. 4 shows the plot of heat amount added to the 100% crystalline polymer/100% amorphous polymer on the y-axis and the temperature on the x-axis, showing first order transition (melting), and a second order transition (the glass transition). If the polymer has both crystalline and amorphous form, melting temperature of crystalline form is always higher than the Tg. Moreover, it is the temperature above which the polymer is in the rubbery stage and below to this temperature the polymer is in the glassy or in brittle stage. The glass transition is a transition which happens to amorphous polymers at Tg. Some polymers are used above their glass transition temperatures, and some are used below. Rubber elastomers like polyisobutylene and polyisoprene are used in the rubbery state, i.e. above their Tg where they are flexible and soft. Hard plastics like poly (methyl methacrylate) and polystyrene are used in glassy state below their glass transition temperatures as their Tg are around 100 °C well above room temperature. Higher the Tg, greater the cross-linked density which then leads to higher polymer modulus value of the system. The effects of crosslinking on the various regions of the DMA curve are visible in rubbery and glass transition region. However, in the glassy region, both the loss and storage moduli are independent of the degree of crosslinking (Fig. 5). Thus, highly cross-linked thermoset polymer has much larger loss and storage moduli indicating the tighter network structure and higher stiffness while the polymer of lightly cross linked shows considerable smaller storage and loss modulus. 4. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoset composites Recently comparative study were reported on mechanical and damping properties of unidirectional (UD) and flax fibre (FF) reinforced thermoplastic (polypropylene (PP), thermoset (epoxy) and polylactic acid (PLA) composites having 40 vol.% of fibres, with those of carbon (CF) and glass (GF) fibre reinforced epoxy composites[20]. The composites DMA analysis reinforced with flax fibre displayed improved damping compared to composites reinforced

Fig. 4. Comparison between Tm and Tg.

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Fig. 5. The effects of crosslinking in DMA.

Table 1 Reported dynamic mechanical analysis work of natural fibres based reinforced thermoset polymer composites. Reinforcement

Matrix

Refs.

Ramie fibre Cellulose micro fibres Banana fibre Untreated and alkali-treated jute fibre Sansevieria cylindrical fibre Eucalyptus wood cellulose fibre Oil palm empty fruit bunch fibre Phormium tenax leaf fibre Untreated and treated coconut sheath fibre Treated and untreated agave continuous fibre Untreated and alkali-treated jute fibre Piassava fibre Jute fibre UD and twill 2/2 flax fibre Sisal fibre Pultruded kenaf fibre

Epoxy EVA Polyester Vinyl-ester Polyester Phenolic Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Vinyl-ester Polyester Polyester Epoxy Epoxy Unsaturated Polyester

[24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [17] [30] [31] [32] [27] [33] [34] [35] [36] [23]

Unidirectional (UD), Poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA).

with synthetic CF and GF. In this case researchers find the best compromise between stiffness and damping with flax fibre reinforced in semi-crystalline renewable and biodegradable PLA. In other study the dynamic mechanical properties at 1 Hz of 0– 60 wt.% randomly oriented kenaf fibre reinforced poly lactic acid (PLA) composites were made [21]. The composites containing more than 50 wt.% kenaf fibres displayed a decrease in damping peak (Tan d) amplitude with regard to neat PLA. The damping properties of the flax fibre reinforced composites at room temperature were found better as compared to glass and carbon fibre reinforced composites [22]. Researchers also investigate the degradation of dynamic mechanical properties after immersion in various solutions of pultruded kenaf fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester composites (PKRC) [23]. The dynamic mechanical properties of PKRC are highly affected by the presence of absorbed water in the specimens. But PKRC properties such as storage modulus, loss modulus and Tan d get reduced after immersion in different pH. PKRC immersed in sea water (pH 8.9) displayed the highest reduction, followed by distilled water (pH 7) and acidic raining water (pH 5.5). Some of the reported work on DMA is tabulated in Table 1. Recently DMA analysis were carried out to investigate the viscoelastic property of celluloses microfibres (CMF) reinforced poly (ethylene-co-vinyl acetate) (EVA) composite [25]. DMA results showed that damping and stiffness properties decreased while storage modulus increased with CMF loading. The reinforcement

of EVA with CMF consents increases the modulus increases up to 7.5% due to transfer of applied stress at the interface level. However the storage modulus gets decreased at higher filler loading. In other work, with special reference to the effect of frequency, fibre loading and high temperature dynamic mechanical analysis of banana fibre reinforced polyester composites was carried out by the researchers [26]. DMA results show that at lower temperatures (in the glassy region), the E0 values are maximum for the neat polyester whereas at temperatures above Tg, the E0 values are found to be maximum for composites with 40% fibre loading. They explored that morphology of the system, intrinsic properties of components and the interface nature between the phases chiefly governed the dynamic mechanical properties of the composite. In other work, vinyl ester-resin-matrix composites reinforced with untreated and 5% NaOH treated jute fibres for 4 and 8 h with different fibre loading were subjected to DMA in order to determine their dynamic properties as a function of temperature [27]. All composites shows a decreasing trend in storage modulus, E0 , with increase in temperature. Addition of the fibres evidently lowered the high tan delta value of the resin within the composites, thus lowered the damping factor of the composites. Increase of the jute fibre content in the composite, increases the E0 values after reinforcement in the matrix, as result of more interfacial stress transfer. Finally decreased in the tan delta, values are observed after the incorporation of the reinforcing fibres. Researchers reported influence of fibre length, fibre loading and chemical treatments of SCFRPCs (Sansevieria cylindrical (SC) fibre reinforced polyester matrix composites) over the mechanical and thermal stability were analysed at different temperatures [28]. The dynamic characteristics such as E0 , E00 and damping were significantly influenced by the increase in fibre length and fibre loading but not in a geometric progression. Study implies that the reinforced fibre can increase the E0 due to the stiffening effect of fibre with matrix and finally decreased the damping curve of polyester matrix. They further declared that damping property of fibre reinforced composite materials depends upon the various factors such as fibre/matrix interface, frictional resistance, interphase zone, fibre breakage and matrix cracking. Recently the dynamic mechanical properties of treated coconut sheath fibre and untreated (raw) (UTCSE) reinforced epoxy composites (TCSE) were conceded [31]. From DMA results the damping parameter (Tan d) was decreased and the storage modulus (E0 ) value increased for TCSE composite, indicating higher adhesion between treated coconut sheath fibre and epoxy resin than untreated (UTCSE) composite. Research investigation were made to analyze the properties of interface and the impact of the fibre treatment on the fibre matrix adhesion of alkali treated (TCEC) and untreated (UTCEC) agave continuous

N. Saba et al. / Construction and Building Materials 106 (2016) 149–159

fibre reinforced epoxy composites [32]. The storage modulus values of the UTCEC found to lower than the TCEC, indicating the superior interfacial bond strength and adhesion between the agave fibre and resin matrix. The incorporation of treated fibre increases the loss modulus (E00 ) of the composites compared to untreated fibre, consequently increases the structural mobility of the polymer within the composite.

5. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites Researchers elaborated the fabrication work for thermoplastic polymer composite using natural fibre as reinforcement. Some of the important reported studies on dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites were tabulated in Table 2. DMA results of wood flour polypropylene (PP) composites, shows that the storage modulus improved and loss factor decreased in the presence of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MA-PP) [40]. The result depicts positively much better interfacial adhesion between the PP matrix and wood flour (WF) filler than in the absence of compatibilizer. As the incorporation of modified MA-PP WF in the PP matrix, amended the stiffness of the composites. In other study the (Tan d) and E0 of matrix modified composites displayed improved value compared to non-modified polypropylene with the same fibre content, for both aged and prepared samples [44]. The reduction in (Tan d) at the same temperature, shows increase in E0 with increasing fibre content far greater than E00 value [46]. Viscoelastic properties of jute/polypropylene nonwoven reinforced composites were investigated using DMA. DMA result shows that the magnitudes of peak loss modulus and storage modulus of nonwoven composites get improved with an increase in the jute fibre content. In other study the dynamic mechanical properties of microfibres of oil palm-reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) composites were investigated as a function of frequency, temperature, treatment and fibre content by the researchers [47]. The storage modulus increases with weight fraction of microfibrils due to the increase in stiffness conveyed by the strong adhesion between the polar matrix Table 2 Reported work on dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced thermoplastic polymer composites. Reinforcement

Matrix

Refs.

Short coir fibre Kenaf fibre Short hemp fibre Short sisal fibre Wood flour Pineapple leaf fibre Short hemp fibre Hemp fibre Jute fibre Sisal fibre Short jute fibre Oil palm microfibril

Natural rubber HDPE Polypropylene Polystyrene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene Rubber seed oil polyurethane Polypropylene Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber Natural rubber HDPE Polypropylene Poly(methyl methacrylate) Polyvinylchloride Polyethylene Polypropylene Polypropylene LLDPE HDPE Polyethylene

[19] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47]

Oil palm microfibril (MAPE) modified jute fibre Doum palm fibre Chicken feathers Alfa fibre Short henequen fibre Unidirectional and twill 2/2 Flax fibre Modified jute fibre Oil palm fibre Treated argan nut shell particles Pineapple fibre

[48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [20] [54] [55] [56] [57]

High-density polyethylene (HDPE), Linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE), Maleic Anhydride grafted Polyethylene (MAPE).

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and the hydrophilic micro fibrils. Furthermore, the increase in fibre content, decreases the damping nature of the composite as the amplified stiffness imparted by the natural fibres. The experimental study on the viscoelastic behaviour of jute fibre reinforced high density polyethylene (HDPE) composites by DMA was carried out [49]. Variations in mechanical strength, (E0 ), (E00 ) and damping parameter (Tan d) with the addition of fibres and coupling agents were investigated. DMA data showed an increase in the storage modulus of the treated composites. A prominent increase was observed in the modulus of virgin matrix with the incorporation of jute fibres. Reduction in damping properties of the untreated and treated composites values compared to the virgin matrix also found significant. A novel work by researchers on the evaluation of dynamic mechanical thermal behaviour of doum fibres reinforced polypropylene composites for both binary and ternary composites were reported. Remarkable increase in the viscosity and glass temperature for ternary composites were noted compared to the binary composites [50]. Recently DMA analysis of keratin fibres from chicken feathers used as short-fibre reinforcement for a poly (methyl methacrylate) matrix also been conveyed by the researchers [51]. The influence of stacking sequence of preferentially and nonpreferentially aligned nonwovens on viscoelastic properties of composites was also investigated [54]. Result analysis revealed that by increasing the jute fibres content in composites can minimised the reduction in storage modulus (E0 ) due to the strengthening imparted by the jute fibres. The dynamic mechanical properties of oil palm fibre (OPF) linear low density polyethylene (LLDPE) composites in terms of (E0 ), (E00 ) and damping parameter (Tan d) in a temperature range of 150–100 °C were analysed [55]. The effect of fibre content, fibre size and fibre surface treatment on the dynamic mechanical properties is determined. The E00 values increased with increase in both alkali treated fibre and fibre content. However the (Tan d) peak values get decreased upon fibre addition whereas alkali treatment increases the (Tan d) peak at all frequencies signifying better impact properties after alkali treatment. Research study on high density polyethylene (HDPE) composites reinforced with treated bio-filler from argan-nut shell (ANS) at various filler contents, fabricated by extrusion and injection moulding processes are evaluated [56]. They found that damping factor decreases with the increase in bio-filler content. An increase in E0 and reduction in the viscous elastic lag between the stress and the strain were also evident from DMA analysis. The effect of coir fibre chemical treatment on damping of composites was studied in another work. Result of DMA showed that as frequency increases the values of E00 and (Tan d) decreases whereas E0 values get increases both in gum and in composites [19]. Fibre incorporation increases the E00 , which indicates the higher heat dissipation (heat build-up) in the short coir fibre reinforced natural rubber composites compared to that of gum. This study explore that, good interfacial bonding composite dissipate lesser energy compared to composite with poor interfacial bonding. Salleh and their coworkers study the effects of extrusion processing temperature on the rheological, dynamic mechanical and tensile properties of kenaf fibre/high-density polyethylene (HDPE) composites for low (LPT) and high (HPT) processing temperatures [58]. At high processing temperature an increase in loss and storage modulus and a decrease in mechanical loss factor were observed for 17.5 wt.% composites. The incorporation of the kenaf fibre at (HPT) reduced the magnitude of (Tan d) maximum values with the increasing fibre loading. 6. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced bio-polymer composites Some of the reported work on the study of dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced bio-polymer composites

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Table 3 Reported work on dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced biopolymer composites. Reinforcement

Matrix

Refs.

Modified jute fibre Kenaf fibre Woven hemp fibre Short ramie fibre Wood-fibre Cotton stalk bast fibre Mercerised kenaf fibre UD and twill 2/2 Flax fibre

Biopol Poly (lactic acid)/Thymol Poly(lactic acid) Poly(lactic acid) Polylactide Poly(butylene succinate) Polylactic acid Polylactic acid

[59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [21] [20]

Unidirectional (UD).

are tabulated in Table 3. A new work by the researchers was made on the investigation of dynamic mechanical properties of surface modified jute fibre reinforced biopol nano-phased green composites [59]. Treated jute–biopol composites with/without nanoclay exhibited better loss and storage modulus compared to untreated jute–biopol composites. Moreover, the properties of the jute based biocomposites get increased with the increase percentage of nanoclay. Recently research work was made to study thermal and viscoelastic behaviour of woven hemp (twill and plain weaves types) fibre reinforced PLA composites [61]. The study shows that composites embedded by twill woven hemp fabrics showed better thermal, mechanical and viscoelastic behaviour compared to composite reinforced by plain woven hemp fabrics. In other work short ramie fibre reinforced poly (lactic acid) (PLA) composites with and without maleic anhydride (MA) was fabricated and their dynamic mechanical properties were investigated [62]. Increase in the storage modulus with the addition of fibre increases due to the enhanced interfacial adhesion supported by the maleic anhydride, which acts as a plasticizing agent. The dynamic mechanical thermal properties of poly (butylene succinate) composites reinforced with cotton stalk bast fibres (CSBF) were studied [64]. The result of analysis revealed that the storage modulus of CSBF/PBS composites is higher than that of pure PBS (Degradable poly (butylene succinate) over the entire temperature range.

pure epoxy. In another research study the nanocomposites with distinct nano reinforcement contents (1, 2 and 5 wt.%) in epoxy were studied. They observed that by the incorporation of epoxycyclohexyl polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (Tg) of the system decreases subsequently, indicating that mobility within the nanocomposite is comparatively higher [15]. DMA analysis of epoxy nanocomposites reinforced with nano-Al2O3 particles, specified that the (Tg) of the nanocomposites is higher than that of the pure epoxy resins. Moreover, the E0 in the glassy region gets decreased with increasing nano-Al2O3 content, whereas the E0 in the rubbery region increased with increasing nano-Al2O3 content [65]. A comprehensive investigation were also carried out in tensile mode of DMA on the effect of interface of polycaprolactone (PCL) diol based polyurethane (PU) or bio-based PU, reinforced by cellulose nanofibres obtained from the rachis of date palm tree [66]. The DMA of cellulose nano-fibre (CNF) reinforced (PLA) fabricated by twin screw extrusion were made to evaluate the viscoelastic properties. They revealed, that the E0 value of PLA get increased with increased nano-fibre content, in rubbery as well as in glassy state compared to pure PLA [67]. The increase in modulus along with positive shift in (Tan d) peak position, attributed to physical interaction between the reinforcements and polymer which perfectly restrict the segmental mobility of the polymer chains in the vicinity of the nano-reinforcements. In other interesting study, the effects of c-Al2O3 nanoparticles on dynamic mechanical and tensile properties of epoxy/c-Al2O3 nano-composites were analysed [68]. One of the important study on the effect of chemical treatment of filler on dynamic mechanical and mechanical properties of composites investigated by Rath and their coworkers [70]. DMA of different clay composites provide idea about the difference in the degree of polymer–filler interaction due to chemical treatment of filler.

8. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid thermoset composites Several research works has been reported for the analysis of dynamic mechanical properties of hybrid fibres/fillers reinforced

7. Dynamic mechanical properties of nanocomposites Polymer nanocomposites are indispensable engineering materials, tailored by adding nanoscale fillers in polymer matrix to meet the growing demands of the specific properties in the versatile industrial and practical applications. Several research work has been conveyed, some of the important research work on DMA studies of nanocomposites are tabulated in Table 4. Pistor and their coworkers study the DMA of epoxy matrix containing 1, 2 and 5% of a polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxane (POSS) in isothermal and non-isothermal conditions to evaluate the interactions between the epoxy/POSS systems [14]. They also observed increase in dynamic properties by the addition of nano POSS compared with

Table 4 Reported work on dynamic mechanical analysis of nanocomposites. Reinforcement

Matrix

Refs.

Epoxy-cyclohexyl-(POSS) Epoxy-cyclohexyl-(POSS) Nano-Al2O3 particles Cellulose nano-fibre Cellulose nano-fibre c-Aluminum oxide Carbon nanotube Fibrous Nano Clay Attapulgite

Epoxy Epoxy Epoxy Bio-based polyurethane Poly lactic acid Epoxy Epoxy Natural rubber

[15] [14] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70]

Polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSS).

Table 5 Reported study on dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced hybrid thermoset polymer composites. Reinforcement

Thermoset Matrix

References

Jute and Kenaf fibre Glass/Ramie fibre Palmyra Palm Leaf Stalk Fibre/Jute fibre Curaua/Glass fibre

Unsaturated polyester Unsaturated polyester Unsaturated Polyester

[71] [72,10] [73]

Unsaturated and accelerated orthophthalic polyester Polyester

[74]

Unsaturated polyester Polyester and Epoxy Unsaturated isophthalic Polyester Polyester Unsaturated polyester Epoxy

[76] [36] [77] [78] [79] [80]

Phenol Formaldehyde Unsaturated polyester resins Epoxy Epoxy Unsaturated and accelerated orthophthalic Polyester Polypropylene Polypropylene Polypropylene

[81] [71] [82] [17] [83]

Mixed short Banana/Sisal fibre Pineapple Leaf/Glass fibre Sisal fibre Curaua/Glass fibre Kenaf/Hemp bast fibre Glass/Sisal fibre E-glass (CSM)/N-glass (CSM)/Woven jute Oil Palm Fibre/Glass fibre Pultruded Jute/Kenaf fibre OPEFB/Woven Jute Jute/OPEFB fibre Intralaminate Curaua/ Glass fibre Short bamboo/Glass fibre Banana/Glass fibre Glass/Sisal fibre

Chopped strand mat (CSM), Oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB).

[75]

[1] [84] [85]

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thermoset polymer composites. Some reported work on the investigation of dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibres based reinforced thermoset hybrid polymer composites are presented in Table 5. Dynamic properties of pultruded jute and kenaf fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester composites using split hopkinson pressure bar technique has been reported by researchers [71]. Under dynamic loading, jute fibre reinforced composites recorded the highest value of dynamic response in terms of compression modulus. The strain rate also affects the value of dynamic compressive properties of both pultruded natural fibre composites. Recently researchers investigate the effect of fibre hybridization on the dynamic mechanical properties of glass/ramie fibrereinforced polyester composites fabricated by resin transfer moulding (RTM) [72]. The loss modulus increased with fibre content over the entire analysed temperature range. All loss modulus curves reach a maximum and then decreases for higher temperatures revealing free movement of the polymer chains at higher temperature. Furthermore, the increase in fibre content showed a decrease in the tan delta peak as the overall interface area within the composite increases. Influence of fibre content on the mechanical and dynamic mechanical properties of glass/ramie polyester polymer composites are studied by researcher [10]. According to results, an enhancement in storage modulus with fibre content was observed over the entire temperature range for all recoverable viscoelastic deformation. All loss modulus curves reaches maximum and then decreases at higher temperatures, caused by the free movement of the polymer chains. Dynamic mechanical and static properties of alkali treated continuous reinforced palmyra palm leaf stalk fibre (PPLSF) and jute fibres in unsaturated polyester matrix were evaluated [73]. The addition of jute fibres to PPLSF and alkali treatment of the fibres increases both loss modulus and storage modulus of the hybrid composites. A positive shift of tan delta peaks to higher temperature and reduction in the peak height of the composites were also observed. DMA revealed that maximum damping behaviour is evident for the composites with higher jute loading. In another interesting study the static and dynamic mechanical analysis of short randomly oriented intimately mixed banana/sisal hybrid fibre reinforced polyester composites deliberated with special reference to the total volume fraction of the fibre and relative volume fraction of the two natural fibres were investigated [75]. The effect of temperature on (E0 ) and mechanical damping (Tan d) were studied. Result analysed that sisal/polyester composite showed highest impact strength and maximum damping behaviour compared with both banana/polyester and hybrid composites. Researcher investigates the DMA of pineapple leaf/glass hybrid fibre reinforced polyester composites [76]. The increase in temperature decreases the storage modulus. Addition of jute fibres to PPLSF and alkali treatment of the fibres enhanced the loss and storage modulus of the hybrid composites. The composite with higher amount of jute content found to have a maximum value of storage modulus in the rubbery region. A decrease in Tan d with increasing the jute content in the composites also been reported. Researchers also investigate the hybridization effect on the dynamic mechanical and mechanical properties of curaua unsaturated isophthalic polyester composites fabricated by hot compression moulding technique [77]. They found that pure polyester resin has considerably lesser E0 compared to the hybrid composites. The E0 of all composites decreased with temperature, but E0 values are higher for the composites with more glass fibres. However with the glass incorporation both storage and loss moduli get increased. Researches also find that incorporation of jute fibre contributes to a lowering in damping factor of the jute/glass fibre reinforced epoxy composite [80]. The incorporation of small amount of glass fibre to oil palm/phenol formaldehyde composite improves the damping factor of the oil palm composites [81]. Jawaid and his

coworkers studied the effect of jute fibre loading on tensile and dynamic mechanical properties of oil palm epoxy composites [17]. The storage modulus increases by the addition of jute fibres to oil palm reinforced epoxy composite, while damping factor shifts towards higher temperature region. E0 value increases with the increase in the weight fraction of jute fibres and a maximum value is obtained for oil palm EFB: jute (1:4) in the glassy region. Moreover the (Tg) from loss modulus shows lower value than that of Tan d curves. They also declared that increase in the jute fibre content slightly decreases the damping factor in rubbery stage. Dynamic mechanical properties of intralaminate Curaua/Glass fibre polyester hybrid composites show no significant trend with glass incorporation in glass transition temperature whereas increase in storage modulus is observed [83]. In the glassy state the storage modulus of the composites increased with glass incorporation. The storage and loss moduli increased for higher glass fibre content due to a greater degree of restriction imposed by the glass fibre to the matrix, which allows a greater stress transfer through the matrix/reinforcement interface. In other study the dynamic mechanical and thermal analysis of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB)/woven jute fibre reinforced epoxy hybrid composites were conceded [86]. The storage modulus is observed to decrease with temperature in all cases. The hybrid composites shows better values of E0 at Tg as compared to OPEFB and epoxy composites. Loss modulus showed shifts in the Tg of the polymer matrix with the addition of fibre as reinforcing phase, indicating the significance of fibre role in case of Tg.

9. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid thermoplastic polymer composites Reported work on the study of dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced thermoplastic hybrid polymer composites are organised in Table 6. DMA were carried out to determine the effect of natural fibres on thermal and mechanical properties of natural fibre polypropylene composites [88]. Composites of polypropylene and various natural fibres including kenaf fibres, rice hulls, wood flour and newsprint fibres were prepared at 25% and 50% (by weight) fibre content levels. All hybrid composites displays higher storage and loss modulus values and lowered mechanical loss or damping factor comparative to pure polypropylene. Moreover, the natural fibre-filled polypropylenes behave more elastically than their pure counterpart. In other interesting study, DMA revealed the real behaviour of the thermoplastic natural rubber (TPNR)-reinforced short carbon fibres and kenaf fibres (CF and KF) hybrid composites [91]. The untreated hybrid composites exhibited higher E0 and E00 values and better Tan d values as compared to the treated composites. An investigation of dynamic mechanical properties of sisal/oil palm hybrid fibre-reinforced natural rubber composites was made [93]. The loss and storage

Table 6 Reported work on dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced hybrid thermoplastic polymer composites. Reinforcement

Thermoplastic matrix

Refs.

Pine/Agave fibre

High density polyethylene Natural rubber Polypropylene

[87]

Polypropylene Polypropylene Natural-Rubber Polypropylenes Polypropylene

[89] [90] [91] [92] [1]

Sisal/Oil palm fibre Kenaf fibre/Wood flour/Rice hulls/ Newsprint fibre Short Hemp Fibre/Glass fibre Kenaf, Hemp, Flax/Glass fibre Short Carbon Fibre/Kenaf fibre Flax/Hemp fibre Short bamboo/Glass fibre

[13] [88]

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modulus increases with increase in fibre loading in the composites leading to a strong and stiff interface. The incorporation of fibres also decreases the damping characteristics of composites as the fibres block the free movement of the macromolecular chain. In other study the alkali treatment of composites increases the crosslinking resulting strong fibre/matrix interface formation and finally triggered higher storage modulus values. Research study the fabrication of polypropylene-bamboo/glass fibre reinforced hybrid composites (BGRP) using maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MAPP) as a coupling agent through intermeshing counter rotating twin screw extruder followed by injection moulding. They find improved dynamic mechanical properties with an increase in (E0 ) indicating higher stiffness and better interfacial interaction between the fibres and matrix in case of hybrid composites as compared with untreated composites and pure matrix [1]. 10. Dynamic mechanical properties of natural fibre reinforced hybrid Biopolymer composites Growing environmental issues and depletion of petrochemical based polymer resources increases the interest of the researchers in bio-based renewable polymer materials [94] and in sustainable green composite reinforced with natural fibres. Table 7 tabulates the research study of natural fibre reinforced hybrid bio matrix composite. From the Table it is evident that very few research studies have been made on the hybrid biodegradable polymer composite to study dynamic properties. DMA analysis of kenaf and hemp bast fibre reinforced cashew nut shell liquid matrix composite, explored that treated fibre composites possess a higher storage modulus E0 and lower Tan d [95]. Lower Tan d value suggests strong interfacial bond strength due to improved adhesion developed between the fibre and matrix as compared with the untreated composites. 11. Dynamic mechanical properties of hybrid nanocomposites Reported work on the study of DMA of nano filler reinforced hybrid polymer composites are shown in Table 8. Thermomechanical property of nano-Al2O3 particles filled epoxy nanocomposite were investigated by DMA [65]. DMA of the nanocomposite specifies that the E0 increases in both the rubbery and glassy regions of composites with increasing the filler content. Researcher found that the coefficient of thermal expansion of composites decreases at the glassy and rubbery regions with increasing filler content. Results also suggest that by the addition of nano-Al2O3 particles the (T g) of the epoxy resin get improved by 11 °C, whereas the thermal stability are similar to that of pure epoxy. In another research study, the dynamic properties of sandwich beams with MWNT/polymer nanocomposites as core materials

Table 7 Dynamic mechanical analysis of natural fibres based reinforced hybrid biopolymer composites. Reinforcement

Bio-matrix

Ref.

Kenaf/Hemp bast fibre

Cashew nut shell liquid matrix (CNSL)

[95]

Table 8 Reported work on dynamic mechanical analysis of hybrid nano polymer composites. Nano-reinforcement

Matrix

Refs.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes(MWNTs) Nano-Al2O3 particles Nano-Al2O3 particles

Epoxy and Phenolic Epoxy Polyester/Epoxy

[96] [65] [97]

Table 9 Dynamic mechanical analysis in Industrial applications. Applications of DMA Polymer properties & characterisation
Polymer blends and phase morphology
Polymer–polymer compatibility.
Polymer rheological and thermal properties
Effect of orientation on the mechanical properties of solid polymers
Rate and extent of curing properties of thermoset resins
Melting point of semi-crystalline polymers
Polymer glass transition temperature (T g’s)
Polymer damping properties
Polymer storage and loss moduli

Polymer composite characterisation
Storage and loss moduli of polymer composite
Evaluation of the interfacial bonding in polymer composites
Investigation of an ideal curing schedule of fibre reinforced polymer composites
Sol gel transformation in polymer composite
Characterisation of the thermo-rheological properties of gel systems
Mechanical, viscoelastic properties, melting point, vulcanization in elastomeric polymer composite
Evaluation of composite structure and performance

Industrial applications
Chemical industry
Melting point, dynamic modulus, glass transitions temperature of chemicals
Paints and lacquers industry
The curing reactions and T g of the materials
Oil and gas industry
Structural pipeline repair
Pharmaceutical and biomedical science
Optimisation of the formulation of pharmaceutical drug delivery systems
Food industry
Glass transition and gelation point
Automotive industry
Curing reactions, damping behaviour, dynamic modulus of auto and aerospace components

with epoxy and phenolic resin were examined [96]. Researchers found that increasing the thickness of the cores increases both the natural frequencies and loss factors of the sandwich beams. Damping characteristics of the sandwich structure are also found to be dominated by the core materials Researchers also characterised the dynamic mechanical properties of novel nano-Al2O3 particles/polyester/epoxy resin ternary composites [97].

12. Applications The applications of DMA were summarised and illustrated in Table 9. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis is far greater sensitive to both molecular relaxation and macroscopic processes than thermal analysis techniques based only on temperature investigation. The applications of dynamic mechanical analysis show extreme importance in every field from polymer industries to auto industries and hence it is potentially useful tool for designing materials for specific applications. Furthermore DMA provide remarkable insight into the different chemistries associated with film formation of the solvent-based and water dispersible formulations. In the military applications, nowadays effect of dry time on the viscoelastic properties of the coatings are also been investigated by DMA [98]. Moreover, DMA offers an important test method to study mechanical behaviour of interlayer materials in the temperature and strain rate ranges of interest for commercial aircraft windshield applications. This analysis can also aid in material formulation and quality control. Currently, In North America Exova, the global testing, calibration and advisory services provider, granted air bus authorisation by DMA testing including recent investments in new DMA equipment for reflector antenna and morphing wing shown in Fig. 6(a). The DMA analysis also showed profound applications in auto industries in different ways shown in Fig. 6(b).

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157

Fig. 6. (a-b). Showing the application of DMA in air bus and automotive industries.

13. Conclusion

References

Currently in the polymer composite industry DMA thermal analysis technique is the most accepted, dominant and widely preferable tool by the academicians/researchers to evaluate polymer characterisation to reveal the facts about the heterogeneous polymeric systems and polymeric composite materials.

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DMA technique allows in detecting phase transitions and relaxation processes in a variety of materials to measures the material behaviour at the current moment and in future over a wide range of frequencies and temperature.
DMA is highly effective method to study the relaxations in pure polymer and fibre filled polymer with various types of fibres, fibres dimensions, fibres content, plasticizing and coupling agent like MA-PP.
The effect of addition of nano sized filler in the pure polymer on the dynamic properties (E0 , E00 and Tg) having weight percent (0–5%) can also be investigated through DMA.
Moreover this technique also determines the relevant damping factors and stiffness characteristic of unfilled and fibre-filled reinforced composite materials for various applications.
The DMA method found to be very sensitive tool for generating data that define the dynamic mechanical properties of polymers and polymeric composites in order to support product development particularly in construction and automotive industries, to replace concrete, steel, wood and glass as the primary starting materials. This review paper provide valuable information for further investigations and in the elaborative application of DMA for evaluating the natural fibre reinforced polymeric composites/hybrid composite properties compared to synthetic fibres based composites. The future work would be the production of fully green composite and nanocomposites materials from natural fibre as filler with biodegradable resin polymeric matrix having improved dynamic thermal properties. Acknowledgments The first author acknowledges the International Graduate Research Fellowship (IGRF) UPM-Malaysia grant to support this work. The authors also thankful to the Universiti Putra Malaysia for supporting this research funding through Putra Grant Vot No. 9420700.

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