- Email: [email protected]
A scientific assessment of traditional knowledge on firewood and fodder values in Sikkim, India
Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Forest Ecology and Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco
A scientific assessment of traditional knowledge on firewood and fodder values in Sikkim, India Nakul Chettri 1,*, Eklabya Sharma 1 G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Sikkim Unit, P.O. Tadong, Sikkim 737102, India
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 11 August 2008 Received in revised form 29 January 2009 Accepted 1 February 2009
Communities in the Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor of Sikkim use a wide variety of plant species as firewood and fodder with species preferences based on their local knowledge. Current practices are increasing harvest pressures on good quality firewood and fodder plants leading to deteriorating forest condition along the trekking corridor. To help develop management strategies and to ensure the long term sustainability of forest resources in this region, it is important to understand local peoples’ basis for their species preferences. In this paper, we compared people’s preferences for species used as firewood and fodder using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools with data on these species’ chemical constituent properties to better understand the rationale for local preferences. Sixteen woody trees species (Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron falconeri, Rhododendron barbatum, Quercus lamellosa, Q. lineate, Schima wallichii, Prunus cerasoides, Prunus nepalensis, Castanopsis hystrix, Beilschmiedia sikkimensis, Acer oblongum, Betula alnoides, Eurya acuminate, Symplocos ramosissima, Alnus nepalensis and Litsaea elongate) and twenty-three fodder plants (including Thysanolaena maxima, Ficus nemoralis, Q. lamellosa, Imperata cylindrical, and Saurauia nepaulensis), the most widely used species in the area, were selected for study. The tree species were evaluated for their wood properties (calorific value, wood density, moisture and ash content) based on the Firewood Value Index (FVI), and fodder species for their nutritional qualities (dry matter, nitrogen and crude protein, and fat content). Most of the highly preferred species were found to have high values for firewood or fodder properties, and a significant correlation was found between the community scores and the FVI and some fodder attributes, namely dry matter and protein content. The study illustrates the applicability of local knowledge in relation to the chemical properties of species used for firewood and fodder. ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Local knowledge Fodder trees Firewood Value Index Chemical properties Sikkim Himalayas
1. Introduction The conversion of natural forests by humans is the largest single cause of biodiversity loss (Lambin et al., 2001). Forest degradation and destruction is increasing throughout the planet and should be minimised as human existence depends greatly on their productivity (FAO, 2007). In the Himalayas, 76% of total natural resource needs are derived from forests and agroforestry systems, mainly because they are free, easy to access and simple to use (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). Communities living in the Himalayas have developed an age old tradition of selectively using a wide variety of forest resources for firewood, fodder and timber based on their
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +977 1 500 3222x323; fax: +977 1 5003299/5003277. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Chettri). URL: http://www.icimod.org 1 Environmental Change and Ecosystem Services, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal. 0378-1127/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.02.002
quality and availability (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Rai et al., 2002). Many of the preferred and higher quality species are under pressure, leading to changes in species compositions and forest succession patterns (Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Chettri et al., 2002). In addition, ever-increasing human and livestock populations are exerting additional pressure on forest resources and livelihoods as a result of resource shortages (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). According to Bawa et al. (2004), over half of the world’s poorest people who live in environmentally fragile lands such as mountains cannot sustain the livelihoods of their large and growing population. It is therefore necessary to have knowledge of the quality of species that are, or could potentially be used for firewood and fodder as a basis for promoting planting and management of such species, especially in mountain areas. However, the criteria which the local people use in the selection of preferred species is often obscure and generally not understood in scientific terms. The state of Sikkim in India has 43% of its total geographical area under forest cover, of which 34% is classified as dense forest (Anonymous, 1994). The majority of rural people in Sikkim depend
2074
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
on forests for firewood, fodder, and timber. A substantial portion of these resources comes from natural forests (Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Maharana et al., 2000a) and, to some extent, from agroforestry systems and farm residues (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). As a result, forests across the state are under immense pressure and changes in species composition are occurring, with secondary species such as Euriya acuminata and Symplocos ramosissima becoming increasingly dominant in many forest areas (see Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Chettri et al., 2002). Although there have been a number of studies on the chemical constituent properties of firewood and fodder plants in the Himalayas (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Balaraman and Golay, 1991; Rai et al., 2002), very few have sought to understand the reasons behind local people’s species preferences (Thapa et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1999). Past research has revealed that these preferences depend upon the quality, season of collection and availability of species (Chettri and Sharma, 2006; Maharana et al., 2000a; Thapa et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1999). However, there could be many other contributing factors such as palatability and other nutritive values as revealed by Walker et al. (1999). In this study, we compare the quality of firewood and fodder species, as measured by their chemical constituent properties, with data collected on local species preferences in an effort to understand the scientific basis for such preferences and their implications for future forest resource management in the Sikkim Himalayas. 2. Study area The 26-km long Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor, which ranges from 1780 to 4000 m in elevation, passes through Sachen, Bakhim and Tshoka in the south-western part of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) in Sikkim, India. Yuksam, a trailhead for this corridor at 1780 m, has 11 settlements with 274 households and a population of 1573, leads to the Base Camp for Mount Khangchendzonga, Dzongri, Thangsing and Gocha La in West Sikkim. Yuksam. One settlement with eight households is located inside the reserve at Tshoka (3000 m) along the trekking trail. The majority of the residents of this corridor are Subbas, followed by Bhutias, Lepchas, Nepalis and Tibetan Refugees. The primary occupation of the people living in this area is farming, and some are engaged in tourism enterprises and work as lodge operators, porters, pack animal operators, cooks and trekking guides. Firewood and fodder collection, interior forest grazing and leaf litter collection are common forest resource use practices among these different ethnic groups. The Yuksam-Dznongri trekking corridor lies within the tourism zone of the Biosphere Reserve where the use of firewood and grazing are restricted. However, in the last decade, tourism has increased at a rapid rate and more people in the area are engaged in these activities (Rai and Sundriyal, 1997; Maharana et al., 2000b; Chettri et al., 2008). Annually, about 2000 domestic and foreign tourists trek in the area, accompanied by more than 150 support staff. In addition, 140 dzo (a cross between a cow and yak) and a dozen horses ply the trekking trail an average of six times annually. The Himalayan Mountaineering Institute (HMI) in Darjeeling, India conducts training for about 500 people in the area each year. Communities living in the area rely on firewood collected from forests for their domestic cooking and heating needs to a greater extent than trekking staff including porters hired by travel agents, and HMI support staff. Due to poor policing and inadequate staffing of forest authorities, firewood harvest activities have become a major factor driving changes in species composition and the destruction of forest along the trail (Chettri et al., 2002; Chettri and Sharma, 2006). The ongoing degradation of forest resources in the area makes it imperative to develop strategies to reduce pressures
on highly value firewood and fodder species and devise mechanisms to promote their cultivation in local agroforestry systems. A total of sixteen firewood species and 23 fodder species were selected for our study. Firewood species included Acer oblongum, Alnus nepalensis, Beilschmiedia sikkimensis, Betula alnoides, Castanopsis hystrix, E. acuminata, Litsea elongata, Prunus cerasoides, Prunus nepalensis, Quercus lamellosa, Quercus lineata, Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron barbatum, Rhododendron falconeri, Schima wallichii and S. ramosissima. The fodder species considered for the study were Aconogonum molle, Artemisia vulgaris, Arundanaria hookeriana, Arundanaria racemosa, Bambusa nutans, Brassaiopsis mitis, Cautleya spicata, Crysopogon gryllus, Elastostemma sessile, Eragrostis tenella, Ficus nemoralis, Ficus roxburghii, Ichnocarpus frutecens, Imperata cylindrical, Leucanthus pedicularis, Litsea elongate, Pentapanax leschenaultii, P. cerasoides, Q. lamellose, Rhaphidophora sp., Saurauia nepaulensis, Solanum aculeatissimum and Thysanolaena maxima. 3. Methods An evaluation of people’s preference ranking for firewood and fodder species was conducted using the pairwise ranking tool for Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) following methods described by Jain et al. (1999) and Pretty et al. (1995). This exercise was conducted with a group of 20 and 30 local individuals in Tshoka and Yuksam, respectively. The groups, who met in informal gatherings, included farmers, tour guides, porters, hoteliers, pack animal operators and forest officials. A matrix table (one each for firewood and fodder species) were drawn up with each group listing the most widely used firewood species along both the vertical and horizontal axes. These matrixes were used to compare species preferences, with group members asked to give reasons why they prefer one species over the others. Discussions on each pairwise species comparison continued until a consensus was reached within the whole group. This process was continued until all the species were compared with all others. Then the number of times each species were listed as preferable to other species was tallied based on their total counts from both the sites. The species with the highest score was interpreted as the most preferred species as firewood or fodder and the lowest as the least preferred one. The scores were also cross-checked with three elderly people having knowledge on fodder and firewood from their experiences for authentication. The majority of the preferred species were found as per the scores with minor deviations on fodder plants, especially between the tree fodder and herbs when they were discussed on the basis of palatability. 3.1. Sample collection Samples of each species included on the list of firewood and fodder developed through the appraisal described above were collected from the study area for physical and chemical analyses. These samples were collected from three individuals of each species and analysed separately. Firewood samples were collected from large branches greater than 12 cm in diameter. For fodder species, samples included only the palatable parts. The samples were stored in airtight polythene bags and brought to the laboratory within 24 h of their collection. 3.2. Firewood analysis The energy value, moisture and ash content, wood density and biomass/ash ratio of the selected firewood species were determined for each of the three replicate samples of each species following the methods outlined by Anderson and Ingram
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
(1993). The moisture content (g/g), used to calculate the Fuelwood Value Index (FVI) for each firewood species, was determined by comparing each sample’s fresh weight against that measured after drying to constant weight in a hot air oven at 70 8C for 24 h. The dried samples were used to determine density using the water displacement method. These samples were again dried, milled in an electric grinder and passed through 2 mm mesh sieve for all subsequent analyses. Ash content (g/g) was determined by burning a weighed sample in a muffle furnace at 550 8C for 3 h. The biomass–ash ratios were calculated by dividing dry weights by ash weights. Energy values for each sample were estimated using an oxygen bomb calorimeter following the method described by Leith (1975). For all parameters, mean values and standard errors were calculated based on the three replicate analyses for each species. The Fuelwood Value Index was estimated using formula of Purohit and Nautiyal (1987). FVI ¼
Energy value ðkJ=gÞ density ðg=cm3 Þ Ash content ðg=gÞ Moisture content ðg=gÞ
2075
4. Results and discussions 4.1. Community preference rankings Chemical analysis can indicate the gross-use value of a species (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Walker et al., 1999). In our study, the chemical analysis has significant implications for local knowledge as they rely on the attributes that determines the quality of fodder (crude protein, dry matter, ash content) and firewood (calorific values, density, moisture and ash content) and can be used for the management of forest resources. Community ranking of species revealed that Q. lineata was the most preferred firewood species, followed by Q. lamellosa, S. wallichii, E. acuminata and B. alnoides. Some of the least preferred firewood species were P. nepalensis, A. nepalensis, L. elongata and S. ramosissima (Table 1). Similarly, among the 23 preferred fodder species selected 35% were tree fodder species, 22% shrubs, 35% herbs and 9% climbers. Of these 23 species, T. maxima was the highest ranked species, followed by F. nemoralis, F. roxburghii, Q. lamellosa and Imperata cylindrica (Table 2). P. cerasoides and A. vulgaris were ranked among the least preferred species.
3.3. Fodder analysis 4.2. Chemical characteristics Similar methods as described above for firewood were used for sample preparation and chemical analysis for fodder species. In addition, crude protein and fat content (ether extraction) of fodder species were estimated based on dry matter following Anderson and Ingram (1993). It was apparent that the quality of any green fodder can be primarily judged on the basis of palatability using these parameters (Saha et al., 1997). Species containing more than 30% dry matter and less than 10% total ash are generally considered to be good fodder (Panday, 1975). Therefore, the fodder qualities were assessed in this study using the values of dry matter, fat content and crude protein. Firewood and fodder attributes were then compared with the community scores which were later ranked as per the total scores of each species. A Pearson Correlation analysis was used to identify the correlation between the local preference scores with the fuelwood value indexes and other measured parameters of the selected firewood and fodder species. In addition, simple regression equations were also developed to evaluate the relationship between the community scores and the chemical attributes. These analyses highlighted the relationship between the local preferences and firewood and fodder characteristics. Statistical analysis was performed using the Windows-based SYSTAT program (SYSTAT, 1996).
Almost all three rhododendron species were found to have high calorific values. Among them, R. arboreum had the highest calorific value (19.7 kJ/g), followed by R. falconeri (19.3 kJ/g) and R. barbatum (17.9 kJ/g). Among the three, R. barbatum showed higher ash content (0.29%) with 0.01% variations among the three. Such variations at a species level are possible as they are found in different altitudes. Among the other species, higher calorific values were found in Q. lamellosa and Q. lineata, followed by B. alnoides, C. hystrix and P. nepaulensis. Ash content among these species was the lowest in S. wallichii (0.22%) followed by Q. lamellosa (0.23%). The highest moisture content was observed in S. ramosissima (76%) followed by A. nepalensis (66.7%) and S. wallichii (58.7%). Overall, the biomass–ash ratio was the highest for S. wallichii (455), followed by Q. lamellosa (435), R. arboreum (417), R. falconeri (400) and B. sikkimensis (400), and the value was the lowest in L. elongata (55). Among the species with high calorific value, Q. lamellosa showed the highest wood density (0.72 g/cm2). R. arboreum showed the highest fuelwood index value (22,678) with its low ash content, high wood density and low moisture content. Among the others, R. falconeri (10,241), S. wallichii (11,365) and Q. lineata (10,596) were found to be highly desirable firewood species based on fuelwood value index. The
Table 1 Firewood Value Index (FVI) and other wood attributes of the firewood species selected from Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor, west Sikkim. Values for energy value, moisture content, density and ash content are means (and standard errors) based on analyses of 3 replicate samples per species. Scientific name (local names in parentheses)
Family
Community rank
Energy value (kJ/g)
Moisture content (%)
Density (g/cm2)
Ash content (%)
Biomass/ash ratio
Fuelwood value index
Quercus lineata (Phalant) Quercus lamellosa (Bajrant) Schima wallichii (Chilaune) Betula alnoides (Saur) Eurya acuminata (Jhiguni) Rhododendron arboreum (Lali guras) Rhododendron barbatum (Lal chimal) Prunus cerasoides (Panyun) Beilschmiedia sikkimensis (Tarsing) Castanopsis hystrix (Jat katus) Rhododendron falconeri (Korling) Acer oblongum (Phirphire) Prunus nepalensis (Arupate) Alnus nepalensis (Uttis) Litsea elongata (Kali pahenli) Symplocos ramosissima (Kharane)
Fagaceae Fagaceae Theaceae Betulaceae Theaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Rosaceae Lauraceae Fagaceae Ericaceae Aceraceae Rosaceae Betulaceae Lauraceae Symplocaceae
1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9
20.2 0.64 20.5 0.44 19.4 0.17 18.9 0.12 16.8 0.07 19.7 0.06 17.9 0.21 17.2 0.24 15.8 0.19 18.8 0.49 19.3 0.70 17.8 0.23 18.5 0.19 16.3 0.07 13.6 0.04 15.2 0.06
46.7 0.90 38.6 1.45 58.7 2.01 56.0 0.58 49.7 0.90 25.3 0.90 47.3 2.03 44.3 2.03 40.7 1.45 42.7 0.90 49.3 0.90 35.0 1.73 47.3 0.90 66.7 0.33 58.0 1.73 76.3 0.33
0.69 0.01 0.72 0.01 0.76 0.01 0.67 0.02 0.72 0.03 0.69 0.02 0.75 0.01 0.73 0.02 0.58 0.02 0.79 0.01 0.65 0.01 0.67 0.01 0.76 0.01 0.45 0.04 0.35 0.01 0.67 0.01
0.28 0.01 0.23 0.01 0.22 0.02 0.47 0.01 0.67 0.01 0.24 0.01 0.29 0.01 0.27 0.03 0.25 0.02 0.38 0.02 0.25 0.01 0.63 0.02 0.33 0.01 1.60 0.15 1.83 0.09 1.30 0.01
357 435 455 213 149 417 345 370 400 263 400 159 303 63 55 77
10,596 16,431 11,365 48,14 3600 22,678 9855 10,538 8935 9080 10,241 5403 9046 692 448 1033
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
2076
Table 2 Calorific value and nutrient composition of 23 widely used fodder species in the Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor. Values for measured parameters are means (and standard errors) based on analyses of 3 replicate samples per species. Scientific name (local names in parentheses)
Family
Life form
Community rank
Dry matter (%)
Ash (%)
Ether extraction (%)
Nitrogen (%)
Crude protein (%)
Thysanolaena maxima (Amliso) Ficus nemoralis (Dudhilo) Ficus roxburghii (Nebaro) Quercus lamellosa (Bajrant) Imperata cylindrica (Seeru) Saurauia nepaulensis (Gagoon) Litsea elongata (Pahenli) Rhaphidophora sp. (Kanchirna) Arundanaria hookeriana (Parang) Eragrostis tenella (Banso) Cautleya spicata (Pani saro) Bambusa nutans (Malla bans) Arundanaria racemosa (Mallingo) Crysopogon gryllus (Salimo) Aconogonum molle (Thotne) Ichnocarpus frutecens (Dudhe lahara) Brassaiopsis mitis (Phutta) Solanum aculeatissimum (Bhede ghans) Pentapanax leschenaultii (Chinde) Elastostemma sessile (Thulo gagleto) Lecanthus pedunicularis (Sanu gagleto) Prunus cerasoides (Panyun) Artemisia vulgaris (Tetey pattey)
Poaceae Moraceae Moraceae Fagaceae Poaceae Actinidiaceae Lauraceae Araceae Poaceae Poaceae Zigiberaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Polygonaceae Apocyanaceae Araliaceae Solanaceae Araliaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Rosaceae Compositae
Herb Tree Tree Tree Herb Tree Tree Climber Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Liana Shrub Herb Shrub Herb Herb Tree Herb
1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 14
37.7 2.60 30.3 0.90 33.2 0.35 65.3 0.90 46.7 0.21 18.9 0.17 42.3 0.15 24.7 2.33 48.3 1.45 15.8 0.23 21.2 0.20 33.7 0.55 56.7 0.61 40.6 1.20 32.5 0.17 35.5 0.40 28.0 1.13 38.3 0.66 36.2 0.58 12.7 0.49 15.5 0.43 32.4 0.58 24.1 0.64
8.9 0.15 11.2 0.38 4.8 0.38 6.4 0.38 7.5 0.08 9.5 0.52 6.6 0.29 12.6 0.14 5.9 0.23 17.5 0.23 11.2 0.20 8.8 0.23 14.5 0.38 8.3 0.12 11.7 0.64 3.8 0.17 5.2 0.03 9.8 0.20 7.5 0.41 8.2 0.64 21.2 0.32 11.3 0.20 11.2 0.23
1.8 0.10 1.9 0.23 3.1 0.18 2.9 0.23 2.5 0.08 2.3 0.14 1.8 0.18 2.4 0.14 2.2 0.17 2.3 0.33 1.3 0.12 2.5 0.23 2.8 0.03 1.8 0.26 1.8 0.14 3.9 0.08 1.4 0.08 2.3 0.08 3.2 0.07 1.4 0.20 1.0 0.12 2.7 0.23 1.9 0.18
2.5 0.25 2.2 0.05 2.4 0.09 1.2 0.07 1.4 0.02 2.1 0.04 2.3 0.07 1.7 0.27 1.4 0.15 1.5 0.20 1.8 0.19 1.4 0.09 1.4 0.05 1.4 0.19 1.8 0.22 1.9 0.18 1.4 0.06 1.3 0.14 1.4 0.04 1.6 0.04 1.9 0.16 1.7 0.27 1.7 0.06
15.8 1.55 14 0.30 14.7 0.56 7.7 0.42 8.5 0.13 13.1 0.27 14.1 0.45 10.6 1.69 8.6 0.95 9.2 1.26 11.2 1.19 8.7 0.59 8.5 0.34 8.8 1.17 11.1 1.38 11.8 1.17 8.6 0.38 7.9 0.88 8.5 0.24 9.7 0.27 12.1 1.01 10.6 1.66 10.6 0.36
least desirable species were L. elongata, A. nepalensis and S. ramosissima, primarily due to their low density and ash content. Accordingly to local people, an ideal firewood species is the one that gives comparatively better heat during combustion and a long-lasting fire; it must be heavy, but with low water content, and must not produce too much ash. Among the high-ranking species, almost all had high energy values and densities, and low moisture and ash contents, supporting the relationships reported by Purohit and Nautiyal (1987). Due to its low ash content, high wood density and low moisture, R. arboreum was found to be the most desirable firewood with the highest FVI value. These preference indicators are very much related to high energy value, high density, low ash content and low moisture content (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987). Among the fodder species, which included trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers (Table 2), those with the highest dry matter content were Q. lamellosa (65.3%), A. racemosa (56.7%), A. hookeriana (48.3) and Imperata cylindrica (46.7%), respectively. Most of the preferred species contained less than 10% ash in dry matter. Nearly 52% of species contained high levels of protein (>10%). Similarly, 43% of these species contained less than 2% fat based on ether extraction results. Among these, all the high-ranking species were found to have high dry matter content, low fat content and high nitrogen, corresponding to the high quality of the fodder as reflected in earlier studies (Saha et al., 1997). However, fodder quality attributes with respect to chemical constituents differed from
the earlier studies where the values recorded for many of the species were significantly less than the present one (Saha et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 1992). Such differences can be attributed to ecological factors including soil and climate, which influence the chemical composition of fodder plants (Wolf, 1972). 4.3. Relationships between local preferences and constituent chemical properties The results of the Pearson Correlation analysis between the community rankings and the firewood and fodder attributes are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Interestingly, all of the higher ranked firewood species according to the community scores had a significant relationship with their chemical attributes, as shown in Table 3. Firewood species energy values were significantly and positively related to the community scores and fuelwood value index, and negatively related to ash content. The relationships such as wood density and biomass–ash ratio were also significantly related to the community scores. As desired, the correlations also support the relationship between the fuelwood value index and energy values, wood density, ash content and moisture content. These relationships are in line with FVI values reported in the Central Himalayas (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987) and the Mamlay watershed in Sikkim (Rai et al., 2002). Since there was no standard available for fodder value assessment in our study, dry matter and crude protein content
Table 3 Pearson Correlation between community preference scores and other firewood attributes and fuelwood value index.
Score Energy value Moisture content Density Ash content Biomass/ash ratio Fuelwood value index * **
P < 0.05. P < 0.01.
Community preference score
Energy value
Moisture content
Density
Ash content
Biomass/ash ratio
Fuelwood value index
1.000 0.666** 0.326 0.421* 0.589** 0.565** 0.486**
1.000 0.493* 0.677** 0.777** 0.709** 0.739**
1.000 0.340 0.641* 0.573* 0.751**
1.000 0.800** 0.560** 0.515*
1.000 0.883** 0.758**
1.000 0.862**
1.000
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
2077
Table 4 Pearson Correlation between community preference scores and other fodder attributes.
Score Calorific value Dry matter Ash content Ether extraction Nitrogen
Community preference score
Calorific value
Dry matter
Ash content
Ether extraction
Nitrogen
1.000 0.550** 0.329 0.278 0.145 0.485**
1.000 0.583** 0.329 0.410* 0.258
1.000 0.421* 0.455* 0.295
1.000 0.393* 0.002
1.000 0.145
1.000
*
P < 0.05. ** P < 0.01.
were considered to be the best indicators for comparison with local preferences. It was observed that most of the preferred fodder species were found to have higher (>30%) dry matter and lower (<10%) ash contents (Table 2), considered to be indicative of good quality fodder as discussed by Thapa et al. (1997), Saha et al. (1997) and Panday (1975). In addition, almost all the high-ranking species were found to have higher nitrogen content in relation to crude protein, another strong indicator of fodder quality. It was found that energy values play an important role in people’s preferences for firewood species. The regression equation developed between the community scores and firewood value index values (Y = 3.30 + 0.48x; R = 0.48, P < 0.05) revealed that local people’s preferences and FVI are significantly correlated. As our participatory appraisal indicated, the local people use the intensity of heat produced by wood as indicator, which is very much related to energy value. Similarly, the regression between community score and crude protein content for fodder species (Y = 1.36 + 0.03x; R = 0.49, P < 0.02) also revealed that the people do have knowledge of feed value, and called those highly ranked species posilo, meaning highly nutritive. Overall, these analyses reveal that there is a strong relationship between the chemical attributes of firewood and fodder and local community ranking of species, which helps to explain their use preferences in the region. Thus, it is evident from this study that resources utilisation in the Himalayas is closely linked to distinctive local knowledge developed through a long history of practice and culture. 5. Conclusion Sustainable utilisation of forest and associated land resources is a complex issue that encompasses societal needs, ethical and cultural values, and economic status of communities. The result of this study strongly suggests that local knowledge combined with scientific knowledge of properties of species could be the basis for in situ conservation and cultivation of high value firewood and fodder species outside the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, based on people’s preferences to meet their present and future demands. Such local knowledge may help to overcome the impending forest resources crisis as the local population (and ecotourism) and demands for domestic energy and fodder resources continue to grow, creating immense pressures on increasingly fragmented and degraded forests in this and other Himalayan regions. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, and The Mountain Institute, USA for facilities, USAID and IDRC for financial support, and Dr. Rita Sharma for assistance in lab-based analysis. The facility provided by ICIMOD, Kathmandu for the preparation of this
paper is highly acknowledged. The authors are also thankful to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and John Parrotta, Editor of this special issue for his inputs. References Anderson, J.M., Ingram, J.S.I., 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. A Handbook of Methods. CAB International, UK. Anonymous, 1994. Forest Cover Mapping Through Digital Image Processing of India Remote Sensing Satellite Data with Special Reference to Sikkim: Procedural Manual and Inventory. Department of Forest, Government of Sikkim, RRSSC (Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre), and ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization). Balaraman, N., Golay, M.M., 1991. Nutritive status of grassland of high altitude in Sikkim. J. Hill Res. 1, 12–17. Bawa, K.S., Seidler, R., Raven, H.P., 2004. Reconciling conservation paradigms. Conserv. Biol. 18 (4), 859–860. Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2006. Assessment of natural resources uses patterns: a case study along a trekking corridor of Sikkim Himalaya, India. Resour. Energy Dev. 3 (1), 21–34. Chettri, N., Kruk, E., Lepcha, R., 2008. Ecotourism development in the Kangchenjunga Landscape: potentials and challenges. In: Chettri, N., Shakya, B., Sharma, E. (Comp.), Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. ICIMOD, Nepal, pp. 123–131. Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Deb, D.C., Sundriyal, R.C., 2002. Effect of firewood extraction on tree structure, regeneration, and woody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of the Sikkim Himalaya. Mt. Res. Dev. 22 (2), 150–158. FAO, 2007. State of the World’s Forests. Rome, Italy. Jain, N., Lama, W., Lepcha, R., 1999. Community Based Tourism for Conservation and Development: A Resource Kit. The Mountain Institute, Franklin, WV, USA. Lambin, E.F., Turner, B.L., Geist, H.J., Agbola, S.B., Angelsen, A., Bruce, J.W., Coomes, O.T., Dirzo, R., Fischer, G., Folke, C., George, P.C., Homewood, K., Imbernon, J., Leemans, R., Li, X., Moran, E.F., Mortimore, M., Ramakrishnan, P.S., Richards, J.F., Skanes, H., Steffen, W., Stone, G.D., Svedin, U., Veldkamp, T.A., Vogel, C., Xu, J., 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environ. Change 11, 261–269. Leith, H., 1975. Measurement of caloric values. In: Leith, H., Whittaker, R.H. (Eds.), Primary Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 119–129. Maharana, I., Rai, S.C., Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2000a. Fuelwood pressure on the natural forests of Khangchendzonga National Park of Sikkim Himalaya. In: Arunachalam, A., Khan, M.L. (Eds.), Sustainable Management of Forest-India. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp. 279–295. Maharana, I., Rai, S.C., Sharma, E., 2000b. Environmental economics of the Khangchendzonga National Park in the Sikkim Himalaya, India. GeoJournal 50, 329–337. Panday, K.K., 1975. Importance of Fodder Trees and Tree Fodders in Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis. Institute of Plant Production, Federal Technology University, Zurich, Switzerland. Pretty, J.N., Guijt, I., Scoones, I., Thomson, J., 1995. A Trainers Guide to Participatory Learning and Action. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) Series, London. Purohit, A.N., Nautiyal, A.R., 1987. Fuelwood value index of Indian mountain tree species. Int. Tree Crops J. 4, 177–182. Rai, S.C., Sundriyal, R.C., 1997. Tourism development and biodiversity conservation: a case study from the Sikkim Himalaya. Ambio 26, 235–242. Rai, Y.K., Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2002. Fuelwood value index of woody tree species from forests of Mamlay Watershed, South Sikkim, India. Forests Trees Livelihoods 12, 209–219. Saha, R.C., Singh, R.B., Saha, R.N., Chaudhary, A.B., 1997. Feed Resources and the Milk Production in the Eastern Region. National Diary Research Institute, ICAR, Karnal (Haryana), India. Sharma, E., Sundriyal, R.C., Rai, S.C., Bhatt, Y.K., Rai, L.K., Sharma, R., Rai, Y.K., 1992. Integrated Watershed Management: A Case Study in Sikkim Himalaya. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India. Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., 1996. Anthropogenic pressure on tree structure and biomass in the temperate forest of Mamlay Watershed in Sikkim. Forest Ecol. Manage. 81, 113–134.
2078
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., Rai, L.K., Rai, S.C., 1994. Tree structure, regeneration and woody biomass removal in a sub-tropical forest of Mamlay Watershed in the Sikkim Himalaya. Vegetatio 113, 53–63. SYSTAT, 1996. Statistics. In: SYSTAT 6.0 for Windows, SPSS Inc., Chicago. Thapa, B., Walker, D.H., Sinclair, F.L., 1997. Indiginous knowledge of the feeding value of tree fodder. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 67, 97–114.
Walker, D.H., Thorne, P.J., Sinclair, F.L., Thapa, B., Wood, C.D., Subba, D.B., 1999. A system approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge: consistency and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of nutritive value of tree fodder. Agric. Syst. 62, 87–103. Wolf, H., 1972. Research on the protein and the mineral content of pasture land at certain stages of growth. Landwritch Foresch 27, 24–32.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Forest Ecology and Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foreco
A scientific assessment of traditional knowledge on firewood and fodder values in Sikkim, India Nakul Chettri 1,*, Eklabya Sharma 1 G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Sikkim Unit, P.O. Tadong, Sikkim 737102, India
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 11 August 2008 Received in revised form 29 January 2009 Accepted 1 February 2009
Communities in the Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor of Sikkim use a wide variety of plant species as firewood and fodder with species preferences based on their local knowledge. Current practices are increasing harvest pressures on good quality firewood and fodder plants leading to deteriorating forest condition along the trekking corridor. To help develop management strategies and to ensure the long term sustainability of forest resources in this region, it is important to understand local peoples’ basis for their species preferences. In this paper, we compared people’s preferences for species used as firewood and fodder using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) tools with data on these species’ chemical constituent properties to better understand the rationale for local preferences. Sixteen woody trees species (Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron falconeri, Rhododendron barbatum, Quercus lamellosa, Q. lineate, Schima wallichii, Prunus cerasoides, Prunus nepalensis, Castanopsis hystrix, Beilschmiedia sikkimensis, Acer oblongum, Betula alnoides, Eurya acuminate, Symplocos ramosissima, Alnus nepalensis and Litsaea elongate) and twenty-three fodder plants (including Thysanolaena maxima, Ficus nemoralis, Q. lamellosa, Imperata cylindrical, and Saurauia nepaulensis), the most widely used species in the area, were selected for study. The tree species were evaluated for their wood properties (calorific value, wood density, moisture and ash content) based on the Firewood Value Index (FVI), and fodder species for their nutritional qualities (dry matter, nitrogen and crude protein, and fat content). Most of the highly preferred species were found to have high values for firewood or fodder properties, and a significant correlation was found between the community scores and the FVI and some fodder attributes, namely dry matter and protein content. The study illustrates the applicability of local knowledge in relation to the chemical properties of species used for firewood and fodder. ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Local knowledge Fodder trees Firewood Value Index Chemical properties Sikkim Himalayas
1. Introduction The conversion of natural forests by humans is the largest single cause of biodiversity loss (Lambin et al., 2001). Forest degradation and destruction is increasing throughout the planet and should be minimised as human existence depends greatly on their productivity (FAO, 2007). In the Himalayas, 76% of total natural resource needs are derived from forests and agroforestry systems, mainly because they are free, easy to access and simple to use (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). Communities living in the Himalayas have developed an age old tradition of selectively using a wide variety of forest resources for firewood, fodder and timber based on their
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +977 1 500 3222x323; fax: +977 1 5003299/5003277. E-mail address: [email protected] (N. Chettri). URL: http://www.icimod.org 1 Environmental Change and Ecosystem Services, International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal. 0378-1127/$ – see front matter ß 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2009.02.002
quality and availability (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Rai et al., 2002). Many of the preferred and higher quality species are under pressure, leading to changes in species compositions and forest succession patterns (Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Chettri et al., 2002). In addition, ever-increasing human and livestock populations are exerting additional pressure on forest resources and livelihoods as a result of resource shortages (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). According to Bawa et al. (2004), over half of the world’s poorest people who live in environmentally fragile lands such as mountains cannot sustain the livelihoods of their large and growing population. It is therefore necessary to have knowledge of the quality of species that are, or could potentially be used for firewood and fodder as a basis for promoting planting and management of such species, especially in mountain areas. However, the criteria which the local people use in the selection of preferred species is often obscure and generally not understood in scientific terms. The state of Sikkim in India has 43% of its total geographical area under forest cover, of which 34% is classified as dense forest (Anonymous, 1994). The majority of rural people in Sikkim depend
2074
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
on forests for firewood, fodder, and timber. A substantial portion of these resources comes from natural forests (Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Maharana et al., 2000a) and, to some extent, from agroforestry systems and farm residues (Chettri and Sharma, 2006). As a result, forests across the state are under immense pressure and changes in species composition are occurring, with secondary species such as Euriya acuminata and Symplocos ramosissima becoming increasingly dominant in many forest areas (see Sundriyal et al., 1994; Sundriyal and Sharma, 1996; Chettri et al., 2002). Although there have been a number of studies on the chemical constituent properties of firewood and fodder plants in the Himalayas (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Balaraman and Golay, 1991; Rai et al., 2002), very few have sought to understand the reasons behind local people’s species preferences (Thapa et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1999). Past research has revealed that these preferences depend upon the quality, season of collection and availability of species (Chettri and Sharma, 2006; Maharana et al., 2000a; Thapa et al., 1997; Walker et al., 1999). However, there could be many other contributing factors such as palatability and other nutritive values as revealed by Walker et al. (1999). In this study, we compare the quality of firewood and fodder species, as measured by their chemical constituent properties, with data collected on local species preferences in an effort to understand the scientific basis for such preferences and their implications for future forest resource management in the Sikkim Himalayas. 2. Study area The 26-km long Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor, which ranges from 1780 to 4000 m in elevation, passes through Sachen, Bakhim and Tshoka in the south-western part of the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve (KBR) in Sikkim, India. Yuksam, a trailhead for this corridor at 1780 m, has 11 settlements with 274 households and a population of 1573, leads to the Base Camp for Mount Khangchendzonga, Dzongri, Thangsing and Gocha La in West Sikkim. Yuksam. One settlement with eight households is located inside the reserve at Tshoka (3000 m) along the trekking trail. The majority of the residents of this corridor are Subbas, followed by Bhutias, Lepchas, Nepalis and Tibetan Refugees. The primary occupation of the people living in this area is farming, and some are engaged in tourism enterprises and work as lodge operators, porters, pack animal operators, cooks and trekking guides. Firewood and fodder collection, interior forest grazing and leaf litter collection are common forest resource use practices among these different ethnic groups. The Yuksam-Dznongri trekking corridor lies within the tourism zone of the Biosphere Reserve where the use of firewood and grazing are restricted. However, in the last decade, tourism has increased at a rapid rate and more people in the area are engaged in these activities (Rai and Sundriyal, 1997; Maharana et al., 2000b; Chettri et al., 2008). Annually, about 2000 domestic and foreign tourists trek in the area, accompanied by more than 150 support staff. In addition, 140 dzo (a cross between a cow and yak) and a dozen horses ply the trekking trail an average of six times annually. The Himalayan Mountaineering Institute (HMI) in Darjeeling, India conducts training for about 500 people in the area each year. Communities living in the area rely on firewood collected from forests for their domestic cooking and heating needs to a greater extent than trekking staff including porters hired by travel agents, and HMI support staff. Due to poor policing and inadequate staffing of forest authorities, firewood harvest activities have become a major factor driving changes in species composition and the destruction of forest along the trail (Chettri et al., 2002; Chettri and Sharma, 2006). The ongoing degradation of forest resources in the area makes it imperative to develop strategies to reduce pressures
on highly value firewood and fodder species and devise mechanisms to promote their cultivation in local agroforestry systems. A total of sixteen firewood species and 23 fodder species were selected for our study. Firewood species included Acer oblongum, Alnus nepalensis, Beilschmiedia sikkimensis, Betula alnoides, Castanopsis hystrix, E. acuminata, Litsea elongata, Prunus cerasoides, Prunus nepalensis, Quercus lamellosa, Quercus lineata, Rhododendron arboreum, Rhododendron barbatum, Rhododendron falconeri, Schima wallichii and S. ramosissima. The fodder species considered for the study were Aconogonum molle, Artemisia vulgaris, Arundanaria hookeriana, Arundanaria racemosa, Bambusa nutans, Brassaiopsis mitis, Cautleya spicata, Crysopogon gryllus, Elastostemma sessile, Eragrostis tenella, Ficus nemoralis, Ficus roxburghii, Ichnocarpus frutecens, Imperata cylindrical, Leucanthus pedicularis, Litsea elongate, Pentapanax leschenaultii, P. cerasoides, Q. lamellose, Rhaphidophora sp., Saurauia nepaulensis, Solanum aculeatissimum and Thysanolaena maxima. 3. Methods An evaluation of people’s preference ranking for firewood and fodder species was conducted using the pairwise ranking tool for Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) following methods described by Jain et al. (1999) and Pretty et al. (1995). This exercise was conducted with a group of 20 and 30 local individuals in Tshoka and Yuksam, respectively. The groups, who met in informal gatherings, included farmers, tour guides, porters, hoteliers, pack animal operators and forest officials. A matrix table (one each for firewood and fodder species) were drawn up with each group listing the most widely used firewood species along both the vertical and horizontal axes. These matrixes were used to compare species preferences, with group members asked to give reasons why they prefer one species over the others. Discussions on each pairwise species comparison continued until a consensus was reached within the whole group. This process was continued until all the species were compared with all others. Then the number of times each species were listed as preferable to other species was tallied based on their total counts from both the sites. The species with the highest score was interpreted as the most preferred species as firewood or fodder and the lowest as the least preferred one. The scores were also cross-checked with three elderly people having knowledge on fodder and firewood from their experiences for authentication. The majority of the preferred species were found as per the scores with minor deviations on fodder plants, especially between the tree fodder and herbs when they were discussed on the basis of palatability. 3.1. Sample collection Samples of each species included on the list of firewood and fodder developed through the appraisal described above were collected from the study area for physical and chemical analyses. These samples were collected from three individuals of each species and analysed separately. Firewood samples were collected from large branches greater than 12 cm in diameter. For fodder species, samples included only the palatable parts. The samples were stored in airtight polythene bags and brought to the laboratory within 24 h of their collection. 3.2. Firewood analysis The energy value, moisture and ash content, wood density and biomass/ash ratio of the selected firewood species were determined for each of the three replicate samples of each species following the methods outlined by Anderson and Ingram
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
(1993). The moisture content (g/g), used to calculate the Fuelwood Value Index (FVI) for each firewood species, was determined by comparing each sample’s fresh weight against that measured after drying to constant weight in a hot air oven at 70 8C for 24 h. The dried samples were used to determine density using the water displacement method. These samples were again dried, milled in an electric grinder and passed through 2 mm mesh sieve for all subsequent analyses. Ash content (g/g) was determined by burning a weighed sample in a muffle furnace at 550 8C for 3 h. The biomass–ash ratios were calculated by dividing dry weights by ash weights. Energy values for each sample were estimated using an oxygen bomb calorimeter following the method described by Leith (1975). For all parameters, mean values and standard errors were calculated based on the three replicate analyses for each species. The Fuelwood Value Index was estimated using formula of Purohit and Nautiyal (1987). FVI ¼
Energy value ðkJ=gÞ density ðg=cm3 Þ Ash content ðg=gÞ Moisture content ðg=gÞ
2075
4. Results and discussions 4.1. Community preference rankings Chemical analysis can indicate the gross-use value of a species (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987; Walker et al., 1999). In our study, the chemical analysis has significant implications for local knowledge as they rely on the attributes that determines the quality of fodder (crude protein, dry matter, ash content) and firewood (calorific values, density, moisture and ash content) and can be used for the management of forest resources. Community ranking of species revealed that Q. lineata was the most preferred firewood species, followed by Q. lamellosa, S. wallichii, E. acuminata and B. alnoides. Some of the least preferred firewood species were P. nepalensis, A. nepalensis, L. elongata and S. ramosissima (Table 1). Similarly, among the 23 preferred fodder species selected 35% were tree fodder species, 22% shrubs, 35% herbs and 9% climbers. Of these 23 species, T. maxima was the highest ranked species, followed by F. nemoralis, F. roxburghii, Q. lamellosa and Imperata cylindrica (Table 2). P. cerasoides and A. vulgaris were ranked among the least preferred species.
3.3. Fodder analysis 4.2. Chemical characteristics Similar methods as described above for firewood were used for sample preparation and chemical analysis for fodder species. In addition, crude protein and fat content (ether extraction) of fodder species were estimated based on dry matter following Anderson and Ingram (1993). It was apparent that the quality of any green fodder can be primarily judged on the basis of palatability using these parameters (Saha et al., 1997). Species containing more than 30% dry matter and less than 10% total ash are generally considered to be good fodder (Panday, 1975). Therefore, the fodder qualities were assessed in this study using the values of dry matter, fat content and crude protein. Firewood and fodder attributes were then compared with the community scores which were later ranked as per the total scores of each species. A Pearson Correlation analysis was used to identify the correlation between the local preference scores with the fuelwood value indexes and other measured parameters of the selected firewood and fodder species. In addition, simple regression equations were also developed to evaluate the relationship between the community scores and the chemical attributes. These analyses highlighted the relationship between the local preferences and firewood and fodder characteristics. Statistical analysis was performed using the Windows-based SYSTAT program (SYSTAT, 1996).
Almost all three rhododendron species were found to have high calorific values. Among them, R. arboreum had the highest calorific value (19.7 kJ/g), followed by R. falconeri (19.3 kJ/g) and R. barbatum (17.9 kJ/g). Among the three, R. barbatum showed higher ash content (0.29%) with 0.01% variations among the three. Such variations at a species level are possible as they are found in different altitudes. Among the other species, higher calorific values were found in Q. lamellosa and Q. lineata, followed by B. alnoides, C. hystrix and P. nepaulensis. Ash content among these species was the lowest in S. wallichii (0.22%) followed by Q. lamellosa (0.23%). The highest moisture content was observed in S. ramosissima (76%) followed by A. nepalensis (66.7%) and S. wallichii (58.7%). Overall, the biomass–ash ratio was the highest for S. wallichii (455), followed by Q. lamellosa (435), R. arboreum (417), R. falconeri (400) and B. sikkimensis (400), and the value was the lowest in L. elongata (55). Among the species with high calorific value, Q. lamellosa showed the highest wood density (0.72 g/cm2). R. arboreum showed the highest fuelwood index value (22,678) with its low ash content, high wood density and low moisture content. Among the others, R. falconeri (10,241), S. wallichii (11,365) and Q. lineata (10,596) were found to be highly desirable firewood species based on fuelwood value index. The
Table 1 Firewood Value Index (FVI) and other wood attributes of the firewood species selected from Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor, west Sikkim. Values for energy value, moisture content, density and ash content are means (and standard errors) based on analyses of 3 replicate samples per species. Scientific name (local names in parentheses)
Family
Community rank
Energy value (kJ/g)
Moisture content (%)
Density (g/cm2)
Ash content (%)
Biomass/ash ratio
Fuelwood value index
Quercus lineata (Phalant) Quercus lamellosa (Bajrant) Schima wallichii (Chilaune) Betula alnoides (Saur) Eurya acuminata (Jhiguni) Rhododendron arboreum (Lali guras) Rhododendron barbatum (Lal chimal) Prunus cerasoides (Panyun) Beilschmiedia sikkimensis (Tarsing) Castanopsis hystrix (Jat katus) Rhododendron falconeri (Korling) Acer oblongum (Phirphire) Prunus nepalensis (Arupate) Alnus nepalensis (Uttis) Litsea elongata (Kali pahenli) Symplocos ramosissima (Kharane)
Fagaceae Fagaceae Theaceae Betulaceae Theaceae Ericaceae Ericaceae Rosaceae Lauraceae Fagaceae Ericaceae Aceraceae Rosaceae Betulaceae Lauraceae Symplocaceae
1 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9
20.2 0.64 20.5 0.44 19.4 0.17 18.9 0.12 16.8 0.07 19.7 0.06 17.9 0.21 17.2 0.24 15.8 0.19 18.8 0.49 19.3 0.70 17.8 0.23 18.5 0.19 16.3 0.07 13.6 0.04 15.2 0.06
46.7 0.90 38.6 1.45 58.7 2.01 56.0 0.58 49.7 0.90 25.3 0.90 47.3 2.03 44.3 2.03 40.7 1.45 42.7 0.90 49.3 0.90 35.0 1.73 47.3 0.90 66.7 0.33 58.0 1.73 76.3 0.33
0.69 0.01 0.72 0.01 0.76 0.01 0.67 0.02 0.72 0.03 0.69 0.02 0.75 0.01 0.73 0.02 0.58 0.02 0.79 0.01 0.65 0.01 0.67 0.01 0.76 0.01 0.45 0.04 0.35 0.01 0.67 0.01
0.28 0.01 0.23 0.01 0.22 0.02 0.47 0.01 0.67 0.01 0.24 0.01 0.29 0.01 0.27 0.03 0.25 0.02 0.38 0.02 0.25 0.01 0.63 0.02 0.33 0.01 1.60 0.15 1.83 0.09 1.30 0.01
357 435 455 213 149 417 345 370 400 263 400 159 303 63 55 77
10,596 16,431 11,365 48,14 3600 22,678 9855 10,538 8935 9080 10,241 5403 9046 692 448 1033
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
2076
Table 2 Calorific value and nutrient composition of 23 widely used fodder species in the Yuksam-Dzongri trekking corridor. Values for measured parameters are means (and standard errors) based on analyses of 3 replicate samples per species. Scientific name (local names in parentheses)
Family
Life form
Community rank
Dry matter (%)
Ash (%)
Ether extraction (%)
Nitrogen (%)
Crude protein (%)
Thysanolaena maxima (Amliso) Ficus nemoralis (Dudhilo) Ficus roxburghii (Nebaro) Quercus lamellosa (Bajrant) Imperata cylindrica (Seeru) Saurauia nepaulensis (Gagoon) Litsea elongata (Pahenli) Rhaphidophora sp. (Kanchirna) Arundanaria hookeriana (Parang) Eragrostis tenella (Banso) Cautleya spicata (Pani saro) Bambusa nutans (Malla bans) Arundanaria racemosa (Mallingo) Crysopogon gryllus (Salimo) Aconogonum molle (Thotne) Ichnocarpus frutecens (Dudhe lahara) Brassaiopsis mitis (Phutta) Solanum aculeatissimum (Bhede ghans) Pentapanax leschenaultii (Chinde) Elastostemma sessile (Thulo gagleto) Lecanthus pedunicularis (Sanu gagleto) Prunus cerasoides (Panyun) Artemisia vulgaris (Tetey pattey)
Poaceae Moraceae Moraceae Fagaceae Poaceae Actinidiaceae Lauraceae Araceae Poaceae Poaceae Zigiberaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Polygonaceae Apocyanaceae Araliaceae Solanaceae Araliaceae Urticaceae Urticaceae Rosaceae Compositae
Herb Tree Tree Tree Herb Tree Tree Climber Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Herb Liana Shrub Herb Shrub Herb Herb Tree Herb
1 2 2 3 4 5 5 6 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 14
37.7 2.60 30.3 0.90 33.2 0.35 65.3 0.90 46.7 0.21 18.9 0.17 42.3 0.15 24.7 2.33 48.3 1.45 15.8 0.23 21.2 0.20 33.7 0.55 56.7 0.61 40.6 1.20 32.5 0.17 35.5 0.40 28.0 1.13 38.3 0.66 36.2 0.58 12.7 0.49 15.5 0.43 32.4 0.58 24.1 0.64
8.9 0.15 11.2 0.38 4.8 0.38 6.4 0.38 7.5 0.08 9.5 0.52 6.6 0.29 12.6 0.14 5.9 0.23 17.5 0.23 11.2 0.20 8.8 0.23 14.5 0.38 8.3 0.12 11.7 0.64 3.8 0.17 5.2 0.03 9.8 0.20 7.5 0.41 8.2 0.64 21.2 0.32 11.3 0.20 11.2 0.23
1.8 0.10 1.9 0.23 3.1 0.18 2.9 0.23 2.5 0.08 2.3 0.14 1.8 0.18 2.4 0.14 2.2 0.17 2.3 0.33 1.3 0.12 2.5 0.23 2.8 0.03 1.8 0.26 1.8 0.14 3.9 0.08 1.4 0.08 2.3 0.08 3.2 0.07 1.4 0.20 1.0 0.12 2.7 0.23 1.9 0.18
2.5 0.25 2.2 0.05 2.4 0.09 1.2 0.07 1.4 0.02 2.1 0.04 2.3 0.07 1.7 0.27 1.4 0.15 1.5 0.20 1.8 0.19 1.4 0.09 1.4 0.05 1.4 0.19 1.8 0.22 1.9 0.18 1.4 0.06 1.3 0.14 1.4 0.04 1.6 0.04 1.9 0.16 1.7 0.27 1.7 0.06
15.8 1.55 14 0.30 14.7 0.56 7.7 0.42 8.5 0.13 13.1 0.27 14.1 0.45 10.6 1.69 8.6 0.95 9.2 1.26 11.2 1.19 8.7 0.59 8.5 0.34 8.8 1.17 11.1 1.38 11.8 1.17 8.6 0.38 7.9 0.88 8.5 0.24 9.7 0.27 12.1 1.01 10.6 1.66 10.6 0.36
least desirable species were L. elongata, A. nepalensis and S. ramosissima, primarily due to their low density and ash content. Accordingly to local people, an ideal firewood species is the one that gives comparatively better heat during combustion and a long-lasting fire; it must be heavy, but with low water content, and must not produce too much ash. Among the high-ranking species, almost all had high energy values and densities, and low moisture and ash contents, supporting the relationships reported by Purohit and Nautiyal (1987). Due to its low ash content, high wood density and low moisture, R. arboreum was found to be the most desirable firewood with the highest FVI value. These preference indicators are very much related to high energy value, high density, low ash content and low moisture content (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987). Among the fodder species, which included trees, shrubs, herbs and climbers (Table 2), those with the highest dry matter content were Q. lamellosa (65.3%), A. racemosa (56.7%), A. hookeriana (48.3) and Imperata cylindrica (46.7%), respectively. Most of the preferred species contained less than 10% ash in dry matter. Nearly 52% of species contained high levels of protein (>10%). Similarly, 43% of these species contained less than 2% fat based on ether extraction results. Among these, all the high-ranking species were found to have high dry matter content, low fat content and high nitrogen, corresponding to the high quality of the fodder as reflected in earlier studies (Saha et al., 1997). However, fodder quality attributes with respect to chemical constituents differed from
the earlier studies where the values recorded for many of the species were significantly less than the present one (Saha et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 1992). Such differences can be attributed to ecological factors including soil and climate, which influence the chemical composition of fodder plants (Wolf, 1972). 4.3. Relationships between local preferences and constituent chemical properties The results of the Pearson Correlation analysis between the community rankings and the firewood and fodder attributes are presented in Tables 3 and 4. Interestingly, all of the higher ranked firewood species according to the community scores had a significant relationship with their chemical attributes, as shown in Table 3. Firewood species energy values were significantly and positively related to the community scores and fuelwood value index, and negatively related to ash content. The relationships such as wood density and biomass–ash ratio were also significantly related to the community scores. As desired, the correlations also support the relationship between the fuelwood value index and energy values, wood density, ash content and moisture content. These relationships are in line with FVI values reported in the Central Himalayas (Purohit and Nautiyal, 1987) and the Mamlay watershed in Sikkim (Rai et al., 2002). Since there was no standard available for fodder value assessment in our study, dry matter and crude protein content
Table 3 Pearson Correlation between community preference scores and other firewood attributes and fuelwood value index.
Score Energy value Moisture content Density Ash content Biomass/ash ratio Fuelwood value index * **
P < 0.05. P < 0.01.
Community preference score
Energy value
Moisture content
Density
Ash content
Biomass/ash ratio
Fuelwood value index
1.000 0.666** 0.326 0.421* 0.589** 0.565** 0.486**
1.000 0.493* 0.677** 0.777** 0.709** 0.739**
1.000 0.340 0.641* 0.573* 0.751**
1.000 0.800** 0.560** 0.515*
1.000 0.883** 0.758**
1.000 0.862**
1.000
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
2077
Table 4 Pearson Correlation between community preference scores and other fodder attributes.
Score Calorific value Dry matter Ash content Ether extraction Nitrogen
Community preference score
Calorific value
Dry matter
Ash content
Ether extraction
Nitrogen
1.000 0.550** 0.329 0.278 0.145 0.485**
1.000 0.583** 0.329 0.410* 0.258
1.000 0.421* 0.455* 0.295
1.000 0.393* 0.002
1.000 0.145
1.000
*
P < 0.05. ** P < 0.01.
were considered to be the best indicators for comparison with local preferences. It was observed that most of the preferred fodder species were found to have higher (>30%) dry matter and lower (<10%) ash contents (Table 2), considered to be indicative of good quality fodder as discussed by Thapa et al. (1997), Saha et al. (1997) and Panday (1975). In addition, almost all the high-ranking species were found to have higher nitrogen content in relation to crude protein, another strong indicator of fodder quality. It was found that energy values play an important role in people’s preferences for firewood species. The regression equation developed between the community scores and firewood value index values (Y = 3.30 + 0.48x; R = 0.48, P < 0.05) revealed that local people’s preferences and FVI are significantly correlated. As our participatory appraisal indicated, the local people use the intensity of heat produced by wood as indicator, which is very much related to energy value. Similarly, the regression between community score and crude protein content for fodder species (Y = 1.36 + 0.03x; R = 0.49, P < 0.02) also revealed that the people do have knowledge of feed value, and called those highly ranked species posilo, meaning highly nutritive. Overall, these analyses reveal that there is a strong relationship between the chemical attributes of firewood and fodder and local community ranking of species, which helps to explain their use preferences in the region. Thus, it is evident from this study that resources utilisation in the Himalayas is closely linked to distinctive local knowledge developed through a long history of practice and culture. 5. Conclusion Sustainable utilisation of forest and associated land resources is a complex issue that encompasses societal needs, ethical and cultural values, and economic status of communities. The result of this study strongly suggests that local knowledge combined with scientific knowledge of properties of species could be the basis for in situ conservation and cultivation of high value firewood and fodder species outside the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, based on people’s preferences to meet their present and future demands. Such local knowledge may help to overcome the impending forest resources crisis as the local population (and ecotourism) and demands for domestic energy and fodder resources continue to grow, creating immense pressures on increasingly fragmented and degraded forests in this and other Himalayan regions. Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to the Director, G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, and The Mountain Institute, USA for facilities, USAID and IDRC for financial support, and Dr. Rita Sharma for assistance in lab-based analysis. The facility provided by ICIMOD, Kathmandu for the preparation of this
paper is highly acknowledged. The authors are also thankful to the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and John Parrotta, Editor of this special issue for his inputs. References Anderson, J.M., Ingram, J.S.I., 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. A Handbook of Methods. CAB International, UK. Anonymous, 1994. Forest Cover Mapping Through Digital Image Processing of India Remote Sensing Satellite Data with Special Reference to Sikkim: Procedural Manual and Inventory. Department of Forest, Government of Sikkim, RRSSC (Regional Remote Sensing Service Centre), and ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization). Balaraman, N., Golay, M.M., 1991. Nutritive status of grassland of high altitude in Sikkim. J. Hill Res. 1, 12–17. Bawa, K.S., Seidler, R., Raven, H.P., 2004. Reconciling conservation paradigms. Conserv. Biol. 18 (4), 859–860. Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2006. Assessment of natural resources uses patterns: a case study along a trekking corridor of Sikkim Himalaya, India. Resour. Energy Dev. 3 (1), 21–34. Chettri, N., Kruk, E., Lepcha, R., 2008. Ecotourism development in the Kangchenjunga Landscape: potentials and challenges. In: Chettri, N., Shakya, B., Sharma, E. (Comp.), Biodiversity Conservation in the Kangchenjunga Landscape. ICIMOD, Nepal, pp. 123–131. Chettri, N., Sharma, E., Deb, D.C., Sundriyal, R.C., 2002. Effect of firewood extraction on tree structure, regeneration, and woody biomass productivity in a trekking corridor of the Sikkim Himalaya. Mt. Res. Dev. 22 (2), 150–158. FAO, 2007. State of the World’s Forests. Rome, Italy. Jain, N., Lama, W., Lepcha, R., 1999. Community Based Tourism for Conservation and Development: A Resource Kit. The Mountain Institute, Franklin, WV, USA. Lambin, E.F., Turner, B.L., Geist, H.J., Agbola, S.B., Angelsen, A., Bruce, J.W., Coomes, O.T., Dirzo, R., Fischer, G., Folke, C., George, P.C., Homewood, K., Imbernon, J., Leemans, R., Li, X., Moran, E.F., Mortimore, M., Ramakrishnan, P.S., Richards, J.F., Skanes, H., Steffen, W., Stone, G.D., Svedin, U., Veldkamp, T.A., Vogel, C., Xu, J., 2001. The causes of land-use and land-cover change: moving beyond the myths. Global Environ. Change 11, 261–269. Leith, H., 1975. Measurement of caloric values. In: Leith, H., Whittaker, R.H. (Eds.), Primary Productivity of the Biosphere. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp. 119–129. Maharana, I., Rai, S.C., Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2000a. Fuelwood pressure on the natural forests of Khangchendzonga National Park of Sikkim Himalaya. In: Arunachalam, A., Khan, M.L. (Eds.), Sustainable Management of Forest-India. International Book Distributors, Dehradun, pp. 279–295. Maharana, I., Rai, S.C., Sharma, E., 2000b. Environmental economics of the Khangchendzonga National Park in the Sikkim Himalaya, India. GeoJournal 50, 329–337. Panday, K.K., 1975. Importance of Fodder Trees and Tree Fodders in Nepal. M.Sc. Thesis. Institute of Plant Production, Federal Technology University, Zurich, Switzerland. Pretty, J.N., Guijt, I., Scoones, I., Thomson, J., 1995. A Trainers Guide to Participatory Learning and Action. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) Series, London. Purohit, A.N., Nautiyal, A.R., 1987. Fuelwood value index of Indian mountain tree species. Int. Tree Crops J. 4, 177–182. Rai, S.C., Sundriyal, R.C., 1997. Tourism development and biodiversity conservation: a case study from the Sikkim Himalaya. Ambio 26, 235–242. Rai, Y.K., Chettri, N., Sharma, E., 2002. Fuelwood value index of woody tree species from forests of Mamlay Watershed, South Sikkim, India. Forests Trees Livelihoods 12, 209–219. Saha, R.C., Singh, R.B., Saha, R.N., Chaudhary, A.B., 1997. Feed Resources and the Milk Production in the Eastern Region. National Diary Research Institute, ICAR, Karnal (Haryana), India. Sharma, E., Sundriyal, R.C., Rai, S.C., Bhatt, Y.K., Rai, L.K., Sharma, R., Rai, Y.K., 1992. Integrated Watershed Management: A Case Study in Sikkim Himalaya. Gyanodaya Prakashan, Nainital, India. Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., 1996. Anthropogenic pressure on tree structure and biomass in the temperate forest of Mamlay Watershed in Sikkim. Forest Ecol. Manage. 81, 113–134.
2078
N. Chettri, E. Sharma / Forest Ecology and Management 257 (2009) 2073–2078
Sundriyal, R.C., Sharma, E., Rai, L.K., Rai, S.C., 1994. Tree structure, regeneration and woody biomass removal in a sub-tropical forest of Mamlay Watershed in the Sikkim Himalaya. Vegetatio 113, 53–63. SYSTAT, 1996. Statistics. In: SYSTAT 6.0 for Windows, SPSS Inc., Chicago. Thapa, B., Walker, D.H., Sinclair, F.L., 1997. Indiginous knowledge of the feeding value of tree fodder. Anim. Feed Sci. Tech. 67, 97–114.
Walker, D.H., Thorne, P.J., Sinclair, F.L., Thapa, B., Wood, C.D., Subba, D.B., 1999. A system approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge: consistency and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of nutritive value of tree fodder. Agric. Syst. 62, 87–103. Wolf, H., 1972. Research on the protein and the mineral content of pasture land at certain stages of growth. Landwritch Foresch 27, 24–32.