A second life: Recycling production waste during the Middle Palaeolithic in layer L at Grotta del Cavallo (Lecce, Southeast Italy)

Quaternary International 361 (2015) 200e211

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A second life: Recycling production waste during the Middle Palaeolithic in layer L at Grotta del Cavallo (Lecce, Southeast Italy) Francesca Romagnoli a, b, * a
degli Studi di Firenze, Via S. Egidio 21, IT50122 Dipartimento di Storia, Archeologia, Geografia, Arte e Spettacolo, Cattedra di Paletnologia, Universita Firenze, Italy b Museo Fiorentino di Preistoria “Paolo Graziosi”, Via S. Egidio 21, IT50122 Firenze, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online 6 August 2014

This paper presents the modalities of recycling in lithic assemblage in layer L at Grotta del Cavallo (Middle Palaeolithic, Southeast Italy). The layer exhibits a high diversity of exogenous (>50 km) and local (<5 Km) raw material, including marine shells for producing retouched tools. Recycling is attested in local raw material and in shell valves. I identified four recycling modalities, related to four object categories, and analysed each one separately: lithic retouched tools, macro tools, short products with sharp edges, and marine-shell tools with two orthogonal edges. I interpreted this behaviour in relation to a time-cost model. The aim was to evaluate the role of recycling in changing technological costs and to investigate if recycling was a planned strategy and how it was incorporated into the techno-economic organisation of the human group. The lithic assemblage displays a high spatio-temporal segmentation of productive sequences based on discoidal methods, the production of small flakes, the majority less than 3 cm in length, and a high technical investment in retouch. The results of the recycling cost-benefit analysis suggest that this behaviour was integrated into an economic setting regulated by time constrictions during tasks performed at the site within a logistic mobility. In this layer, recycling was an occasional behaviour, which allowed humans to respond to unplanned needs, and was facilitated by the low degree of volumetric constraints in the productive methods applied and by the short dimensions of the tools used. Recycling was an element that contributed to define the cultural entity, appearing as a specific trait in a given human group. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Neanderthal Lithic tools Techno-cultural variability Scavenging Time-cost model Raw material provisioning

1. Introduction Recycling involves a time gap between two use events (Baker, 2007), meaning that an object has finished its life history and is dumped and considered waste before being picked up again and transformed into a new tool. Within this definition, some authors have argued that an artefact's radical transformation between two use events provides evidence of recycling (e.g., Camilli and Ebert, 1992; Amick, 2007) and allows researchers to distinguish between resharpening (or re-use) and recycling. In many archaeological cases (e.g., considering retouched tools dumped and then retouched again), the change of function is only detectable through use-wear analysis. This paper focuses on a technological

* Dipartimento di Storia, Archeologia, Geografia, Arte e Spettacolo, Cattedra di
degli Studi di Firenze, Via S. Egidio 21, IT50122 Firenze, Paletnologia, Universita Italy. E-mail address: [email protected]. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.033 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

perspective and uses the broadest definition, considering a time gap between two use events as a proxy for recycling. During this temporal lapse, the object has lost its original value and can be considered a waste. The reuse of previously discarded waste is repeatedly reported in contemporary hunter-gatherer human groups (Kelly, 1964; Gould, 1968; Smith, 1974; Binford, 1977; Wandsnider, 1989; Fowler, 1992). Widespread findings of lithic scavenging in ethnographic contexts suggest recycling to have been a diffuse provisioning strategy during prehistoric times, and recent studies have attested that recycling was widespread and spanned a large chronological range during Prehistory (e.g., Almeida, 2008; baut, 2010). Thie In technological studies on stone tool assemblages, the time gap can be highlighted through two data categories: stone tool transformations (both chemical and mechanical) and spatial distribution of linked artefacts. The clearest clue of a temporal lapse is the presence of alterations on artefact surfaces. The patina is a chemical alteration that develops on the external surface of a stone tool, and each tool can show several different patinas, due to the

F. Romagnoli / Quaternary International 361 (2015) 200e211

transformation sequence to which it has been subjected. Archaeological lithic recycling has been detected from patina due to air exposure (Mora et al., 2004; Amick, 2007; Barkai et al., 2009) or thermal alteration (Sergant et al., 2006; Vaquero et al., 2012). Within the mechanical transformations that help identify recycling, we can consider core transformed into tools and flake (which could or not be retouched) transformed into core. Both cases describe two distinct life histories of an artefact, between and after the recycling event. In the first case, a previous technical event in which the core was used as a volume to product blanks is followed by a phase in which the core itself was used as a blank and recycled into a functional tool. This case is clearly detectable if retouching precedes its use as a tool. A flake transformed into core is usually an expedient way to obtain a few short products. This recycling clue is more difficult to identify because short flake extractions can also occur when finishing the tool (e.g., for the regularisation of the shape for hafting). The temporal shift defining recycling can also be detected through the spatial analysis of intrasite anthropic transport events of stone tools identified through refitting analysis (Vaquero, 2008, 2011; Vaquero et al., 2015). The interpretation of this behaviour is still uncertain. Published studies attempt to explain recycling as it relates to a single factor. Recycling is usually assumed to be a response to a scarcity of raw material (Kelly, 1988; Dibble and Rolland, 1992; Close, 1996; Amick, 2007; Galup, 2007; Hiscock, 2009); it is also sometimes explained as an economic strategy related to “microproduction” (Cuartero, 2007). It is considered an aspect of curated technology (Binford, 1977; Bamforth, 1986) or, alternatively, of expedient technology (Vaquero et al., 2012). It is explained as related to the long duration of site occupation (Rolland, 1981; Kelly, 2001) or, alternatively, to high human group mobility (Kuhn, 1995). These interpretations may not be mutually exclusive. The above cited literature has pointedly revealed that recycling was part of the technical choices of Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities. Analysing this behaviour could be an interesting approach to investigate how and why prehistoric hunter-gatherers structured their technical strategies and could improve our understanding of past technical behaviours. Tools were clearly produced to fulfil needs in relation to subsistence strategies in a specific environment and played a societal role. Therefore, described as the combination of human activities that have been finalised to produce tools, technology must be analysed as it relates to the overall economic strategies and cultural traditions of the group that has produced and used these tools. In this analysis, we must also consider that the environment is a dynamic entity, which changes due to climate, ecosystems and biodiversity. This dynamicity influenced human choices, which also depended on many other factors, such as group size, gender organisation of activities, individual or group hunting strategies, and restricted resource access. Lithic data are limited and have to be integrated into a holistic and multidisciplinary analysis to interpret why prehistoric huntergatherers organised their technology as they did. Despite this limitation, a detailed technological analysis, including geoarchaeological data, human mobility and the technological costbenefit evaluation, could allow us to propose a technological model for the comprehension of recycling. This “time-cost” model is integrated with foraging theory and provides a framework that helps link the strategies for the creation and use of stone tools and waste products to hunter-gatherer behaviours. Foraging models consider the costs and benefits of acquiring different resources and are normally applied to subsistence activities, such as acquiring and handling food (Winterhalder, 1981; Stephens and Krebs, 1986; Jochim, 1988; Lowe, 1990). According to Bousman (1993), handling costs (i.e., time spent in providing, preparing and consuming food) should also include the costs of

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technological production and tool transportation (e.g., the costs of procuring and knapping raw materials and maintaining tools). Palaeolithic evidence suggests that technological costs influenced human economic strategies and that resource availability and abundance in turn influenced technological strategies. Changes in land use and mobility seem to be reflected pattern changes in stone tool manufacture and use. The two extreme strategies relating to technological costs are as follows: (1) using expensive technological gears or (2) using inexpensive ones. Hunter-gatherers show a mix and different degrees of these opposing strategies depending on the risks associated with different activities (e.g., Binford, 1979; Shott, 1986; Torrence, 1989; Cashdan, 1990; Nelson, 1991; Bousman, 1993; Bamforth and Bleed, 1997). A technological cost evaluation could be performed according to Bleed tool design theory (1986), which considers (a) production time (both time in raw material procurement and the complexity of the knapping method used); (b) the tool's use-life (from potential to resharpening); (c) the tool's efficiency (the highest investment in the functional cutting edge); and (d) the productivity of the applied knapping method (considering the number of products per a given volume of raw material). In relation to which parameters they considered the most important, hunter-gatherers produced (a) expedient tools, (b) maintainable tools, (c) reliable tools, or (d) a highly productive technology. Because these options are not mutually exclusive in the toolkit, technological costs and strategies must be evaluated separately within each tool category. Analysing recycling in this perspective helps to evaluate its role in changing technological costs (e.g., reducing production costs or raw material procurement costs) and to develop a hypothesis to account for the expediency of this behaviour. This approach helps to investigate if recycling was a planned strategy and how it was incorporated into the technological organisation of the human group, as discussed later. The Middle Palaeolithic evidence presented here from layer L at Grotta del Cavallo hints to recycling as a technological behaviour integrated into the economic context and influenced by many factors (e.g., task time restrictions, dimensional production standards, and occupation duration). The data suggest that recycling was part of a rich technology and represented a specific strategy of the human group. 2. Material and methods 2.1. Grotta del Cavallo: geological setting Grotta del Cavallo is a karst cave located on the west coast of Salento in southern Apulia (southeast Italy; Fig. 1). The cave is a single circular cavity approximately 9 m in diameter. The entrance faces northwest and opens in Cretaceous limestone on the Baia di Uluzzo, approximately 15 m above present day sea level. The southwest coast of Salento is rich in karst caves with archaeological deposits related to the Middle Palaeolithic (Palma di Cesnola, 2001). As is the case in most of the Apulia region, Salento's geology is composed of limestone units (Serre Salentine) that crop out in long ridges arranged northwest to southeast. These units depend on tectonic events that occurred during the Cretaceous and early Pleistocene. The lithostratigraphy of the cliff where the cave opens is related to one of these units, denominated locally as “Calcari di Melissano”. The Calcari di Melissano formation is composed of fine or medium-fine grained microcrystalline limestone and dolomitic limestone, both with conchoidal fractures with variable degrees of regularity; marlstone layers are also observed (Martinis, 1968; Largaiolli et al., 1969; Commissione Italiana di Stratigrafia, 2003). All along the formation, joint sets split the rock into quite regular blocks of dimensions variable between few centimetres and more than 30 cm. It means that the blocks were big

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Fig. 1. Location of Grotta del Cavallo on the western coast of Salento, in South Apulia, around 90 km south of Taranto (A), and stratigraphic sequence of the deposit in the cave (B; from Palma di Cesnola, 2001; modified).

enough to undertake any type of debitage, as is also attested by many abrupt changes along the sequence of Grotta del Cavallo to the modalities of exploitation of these resources and to the dimensions of the products knapped (Carmignani, 2010; Romagnoli, 2012; Romagnoli et al., in press; Sarti et al., in press). 2.2. Grotta del Cavallo: archaeological stratigraphy and layer L archaeological assemblage A. Palma di Cesnola, who directed the archaeological excavation on a small surface area of the deposit from 1963 to 1966, discovered the cave in 1961 (Palma di Cesnola, 1963, 1964, 1965a, 1965b, 1966a, 1966b). The site preserves a long stratigraphic sequence (Fig. 1) and represents one of the most important Middle Palaeolithic archaeological series in south Italy. After a long break, the Universities of Siena and Florence resumed stratigraphical excavations in the cave. Starting in 1986, Lucia Sarti directed the investigation of the Middle Palaeolithic deposit on a surface area of approximately 12 m2. Based on sediments, each layer was divided into levels. The archaeological sequence is based on a marine interglacial beach conglomerate, related to the Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5e (layer O; Sarti et al., in press). The 4 m-long Middle Palaeolithic sequence is directly superimposed on the Tyrrhenian beach and covers a chronological range between MIS 5 and MIS 3 (layers N-F; Sarti et al., 1998-2000, 2002). Above the layer F, a thin layer of volcanic ash (level Fa) sits underneath the Uluzzian layers (E-D). The base of the Uluzzian layers (level EIII) is dated at 47,530e43,000 cal yr BP (radiocarbon analysis on shell remains; Benazzi et al., 2011). On top, the stratigraphic sequence ends with layer C of sterile tephra, which is empirically related to Campanian Ignimbrite eruption (Giaccio et al., 2006), and layer B, which is related to local facies of final Epigravettian. Faunal association and sedimentary data suggest a chronological attribution of layer L at the end of MIS 5 to the beginning of MIS 4 (Palma di Cesnola, 2001). The faunal remains attest to the presence of Cervus elaphus, Bos primigenius and Dama dama in the lower

part of the layer (level L2) and of Equus ferus, possibly related to a dry climatic fluctuation, in the upper part (level L1). Layer L has a thickness of approximately 30 cm, and its interface is located approximately 1.50 m above the Tyrrhenian beach (layer O) and 1.80 m below the base of Uluzzian layer E. In Grotta del Cavallo, the lithic industry of layer L is well preserved from invasive taphonomic processes. Discoidal methods and small blank production characterise the productive sequences. Are attested both uni- and bifacial schemes, with variability in the organisation of removals due to the morphological variability of the block exploited. The lithic industry reported here was collected during the stratigraphic excavations in 1990s that were directed by Lucia Sarti. This collection amounts to more than 1900 elements. The micro-stratigraphic excavation and sifting all of the sediment also allowed excavators to retrieve little fragments and debris. Excluding indeterminable fragments, the lithic assemblage consists of 1031 elements (Table 1). In association with lithic remains, the assemblage is composed of 126 retouched tools on valve fragments of Callista chione, a large marine mollusc (Romagnoli et al., 2014).

Table 1 General technological composition of the lithic assemblage.

Cores Fragmented cores Retouched tools Un-retouched blanks Retouched tools on natural blanks Fragmented hammers Flakes of retouch (>10 mm) Hammers Total

Without

Counting

Callista chione

Callista chione

Number

%

Number

%

22 7 302 484 21 15 28 26 905

2.4% 0.8% 33.4% 53.5% 2.3% 1.6% 3.1% 2.9% 100%

22 7 428 484 21 15 28 26 1031

2.1% 0.7% 41.6% 46.9% 2.0% 1.5% 2.7% 2.5% 100%

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2.3. Lithic analysis The whole industry was studied from a technological perspective, reconstructing the production processes from finding the raw material to discarding the tools (chaîne op eratoire; Inizan et al., 1999). The total collection was analysed with a diacritical approach, which reconstructed the chronology and direction of each previous removal for each artefact (e.g., flakes, retouched tools and cores) and is widely used in lithic technology. This approach allows us to go beyond the classical morphological analysis of lithic artefacts and to reconstruct the scar organisation (Baena et al., 2010). The diacritical reading is based on the analysis of (i) presence or absence of percussion cone; (ii) superimposition of removals; (iii) presence and orientation of percussion ripples and hackles; (iv) morphology of the arrises of removal. Taphonomic analyses (Prost, 1989; baut, 2007) were applied to retouched tools to identify Thie manufacturing retouch from latter damages. Retouched tools were analysed in keeping with the Analytical Typology of Laplace (1964). Retouched artefacts were also classified by the tool's technical characteristics according to a techno-functional analysis that was finalised to identify each tool's technical elements (i.e., gripping and active parts) and to identify each part's €da, 2011; Romagnoli et al., 2014). In technological attribute (Boe an effort to determine material transfer distances and the characteristics of the artefact's life history, special attention was given to the spatio-temporal segmentation of the chaîne op eratoire. The archaeological remains were classified in Raw Material Units (RMU; Roebroeks, 1988) to evaluate the degree of raw material modification introduced at the site. All lithotype variability presented in the Calcari di Melissano formation were surveyed, positioned, collected, and tested (Romagnoli et al., in press; Trenti et al., in press). These artefacts are now conserved in the geo-archaeological mineral collection of the Museo Fiorentino di Preistoria “Paolo Graziosi” in Florence. Geological surveys were also finalised to localise sources of good quality raw material (e.g., chert, radiolarite and quartzite) that was absent in the local formation (Fig. 2). Callista chione tools were analysed according to Romagnoli (2012; Romagnoli et al., 2014). In relation to recycling, taphonomy (Claassen, 1998) and the temporal relations between retouch and breaks were analysed, using a light microscope at overview and high magnifications (20, 40, 100). In accordance with diacritical analysis, the superimposition of a break surface onto a retouched edge was considered a clue of the anteriority of

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the retouch. Similarly, analysing superimposition of retouch removals between two retouched edges reveals the temporal relations between these two retouch events. 2.4. Recycling Although these study approaches are mainly qualitative, the analysed sample is considered representative. Furthermore, integrating these approaches allows us to construct a framework that helps to isolate and interpret recycling behaviour in the general organisation of lithic technology. Evidence of a tool's discard before finalising re-manufacturing for a new use event was assumed to indicate recycling. The discard phase between two use events was identified through the following features: i) Tools manufactured on patinated blanks. The presence of an alteration with the same intensity to the flake's upper and lower surfaces, associated with a fresh retouch, shows that the flake displayed climatic alterations before being picked up and reinserted into the technological context as a functional tool. ii) Core transformed into tool. This transformation was identified through the diacritical analysis of retouched core at the end of its productive life history. iii) Flake (which could be retouched) transformed into core. At Grotta del Cavallo, this feature is highly questionable in many cases. The assemblage is characterised by a great number of retouched tools. According to Bernard-Guelle and Porraz (2001), in the case of a flake with ventral removals, the presence of at least one retouched cutting edge has to be considered a hint of a tool (outils amincies), rather than coreon-flake. Therefore the ventral removals of the outils amincies are part of the manufacturing process and are not linked to a new use as core of discarded tools. In layer L of Grotta del Cavallo, this definition often does not help determine artefact category assignments. This uncertainty is due to a general high investment in intentional blank transformation aimed at regularising shape, which could likely relates to hafting (Fig. 3). To track recycling, which is only referred to core-onflake, only undeniable elements were considered, with an awareness that only future use-wear data could give definitive evidence. iv) A new retouched cutting edge on a broken tool made of shell. To be considered a recycling clue, instead of evidence of re-

Fig. 2. Raw material sources used in the site. (n.1-2 and 5): local lithotypes (silicified limestone); (n. 3-4, 6e7): exogenous good quality chert and radiolarite.

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Fig. 3. Retouched tools with inverse proximal removals to finish the tool, likely for hafting (outils amincies).

use or resharpening, the new cutting edge has to change the volumetric structure of the original tool and has to include a technical procedure outside the standard. 3. Results The technical investment in retouch is high (the retouched tools ratio is 41.6% when also considering shell tools and 33.4% when only considering stone tools), and side scrapers are the largest typological group (58.6%). Most lithic artefacts (86.8%) are obtained from local lithotypes (Table 2, Fig 2 n. 1e2, 5) that are very abundant in the Calcari di Melissano formation and hence in the area surrounding the cave (<5 km). During this period of cave occupation, Neanderthals use practically the whole range of siliceous limestone found in this formation. In contrast, 13.2% of the assemblage is composed of finegrained and homogeneous chert and radiolarite (Fig. 2 n. 3e4, 6e7), which is absent in the Salento area and most likely relates to distant (>50 Km) geological sources (Romagnoli et al., in press; Sarti et al. in press). The lithic industry of layer L is characterised by a high segmentation of the productive sequences. The raw material was transported from source to site in many different stages of transformation, independent of the procurement distance (Romagnoli, 2012).

Table 2 Retouched tools subdivided depending on raw material. Without shell tools

Including shell tools

Retouched tools

N

%

N

%

Patinated blanks, exogenous raw material Patinated blanks, local raw material Exogenous raw material Local raw material Callista chione Total

3 25 96 178 e 302

1.0 8.3 31.8 58.9 e 100%

3 25 96 178 126 428

0.7 5.8 22.4 41.7 29.4 100%

Recycling behaviour is shown by several findings. - There are 302 retouched tools, and 9.3% (28 tools) were obtained from patinated flakes. These data indicate a time lapse between obtaining the flake and retouch modification, at which time the flake had to be abandoned outside the site. This condition is suggested by the presence of a reddish patina on both flake surfaces associated with a fresh retouch (Fig. 4), as patina formation within the site would be incoherent with the absence of patina on the rest of the lithic remains. Almost all these recycled tools were made with local raw material (25 tools). Similar reddish patina is commonly observed on raw material blocks in the Calcari di Melissano formation as neo-cortex, due to air

alteration. As with the general typological structure of the assemblage, most recycled tools manufactured on patinated flakes are scrapers. Of these 25 tools, slightly more than half (13 elements) show an asymmetric transversal section and a new retouched cutting edge opposite a patinated back, which could be represented by an ancient fracture (Fig. 4 n. 5) or by the butt and adjacent portion of the striking platform in overflowed flakes (Fig. 4 n. 6). This volumetric construction is well represented in the assemblage, both within retouched and unretouched elements. The presence of ancient patina on the back suggests that the last modification, which occurred after the recycling event, was only localised on the functional cutting edge. The recycling of other scrapers (12) shows a search for a cutting edge. The rest are points, realised through a new bilateral retouch (Fig. 4 n. 7). The dimensions of these recycled tools are coherent with the rest of the lithic assemblage. Considering complete retouched tools (n. 64 made of raw materials from far sources and n. 82 from local sources), 73.4% of artefacts made of exogenous raw materials (flint, radiolarite and rarely quarzite) are between 11 and 24 mm long and 64% of tools made of local raw materials (silicified limestone) are between 13 and 30 mm long (Fig. 5). - Two cores show a retouch modification of the overhang that was finalised to produce a functional cutting edge. This event occurred at the end of the artefact's life as core (i.e., when its productive function was exhausted and the core was turned into a waste). Both cores are the result of the exploitation of local raw material. One is attributable to an unifacial discoidal exploitation. The diacritical analysis and refitting showed that the last removals were not finalised to produce flakes but to configure a large notch (Fig. 6 n. 1). The other recycled core is attributable to a bifacial discoidal exploitation, transforming the core into tool through the creation of two retouched cutting edges (Fig. 6 n. 2). This recycling modality produced large tools, 7 cm and 8 cm long, respectively. They supplement a rare component of the assemblage, which includes five more tools. This group is characterised by bigger size than the rest of the retouched elements. These tools are limestone natural blanks more than 3 cm thick, measuring between 6 and 8 cm in length and between 4 and 9 cm in width and were retouched on an edge (Fig. 6 n. 3e4, Fig. 7). These tools are characterised by a cutting edge with adjacent and opposed surfaces more or less perpendicular to the two faces (back). These backs could be cortical or prepared. In the first core recycled (Fig. 6 n. 1), the lateral back is formed by a break surface, and the back opposed to the notch is part of the core's peripheral striking platform. In the second core recycled, the backs are formed by the butt of the large flake that was exploited as core for the discoidal reduction sequence and by part of the striking platform (Fig. 6 n. 2). - Three flakes seem to show recycling as core. They were used for a short series of extractions (in two cases only one extraction) that were realised on the flake's lower surface to take advantage

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Fig. 4. Recycled tools made on patinated blanks. Flakes were picked up outside the cave and were retouched, as indicated by a fresh retouch, creating scrapers and rarely points (n. 7). In many cases the scrapers had a patinated back opposed to the retouched cutting edge (n. 5 and 6). Tools with a retouched edge opposed to a back are commonly attested also in the rest of the lithic finds.

of its natural convexity. One of these flakes is a tool manufactured on a patinated blank (Fig. 8). The unpatinated surface attests that the recycling event is located on the distal transverse retouch and the proximal ventral negative. The attribution of recycled core-on-flake was determined by the refitting of the ventral product, which showed scars on the distal edge that were most likely related to use. They are little scars visible to a macroscopic analysis, continuous along an extended portion of the edge, with a scaled morphology. Points of impact are visible at low magnification (5, 10). Use wear analysis has not yet been done, but the morpho-technical characters of the scars could be related to use according to taphonomic analysis (Prost, 1989; Thiebaut, 2005, 2007). In this case, recycling was finalised to produce a tool and to use the flake as core. It could be possible that ventral product use was secondary with respect to the flake's function as a tool (i.e., fresh retouch). Similarly, the distal retouch and ventral proximal removal could potentially be related to two distinct recycling events. The result of core-on-flake production is the quick production of short flake with a natural sharp edge, as evidenced in many Middle Palaeolithic sites. An indirect argument for this behaviour is the assemblage presence of eight flakes with double lower faces (“Kombewa” products), which were obtained through the exploitation of flake as core. They were generally used without retouch, as suggested by the presence of scars on one edge similar to the ones preserved on the refitted “Kombewa” flake described above. They measure between 15 and 31 cm in length, 13 and 23 cm in width, 0.3 and 0.8 cm in thickness.

Fig. 5. At the top: techno-morphological and metric attributes of recycled tools made on patinated blanks (black triangles) were similar to the rest of the retouched tools in the assemblage (black circles). At the bottom: length-width ratio of recycled tools made on patinated blanks.

- Recycling is also observed in the chaîne op eratoire finalised for the production of retouched tools of Callista chione valves. The assemblage consists of fragmented valves that present a retouched cutting edge along the valve's external edge, parallel with the growth lines. Along with the analysis of the artefacts with light microscope at overview and high magnifications (20, 40, 100), the taphonomic and morpho-technical tools analyses show that the valve was retouched on the external

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Fig. 6. (n.1): Core of local raw material recycled into a big notch, at the and of its productive life history. In grey the retouch series, corresponding to the recycling event. The photo shows the refitting of a big pseudo-levallois point produced during a previous productive sequence and of the first flake produced during the recycling event. (n.2): Core of local raw material recycled into a retouched tool, at the end of its productive life history. (n.3e4): large tools, comparable to cores recycled into tools. In grey, the cortical surfaces of the blanks.

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Table 4 Recycling modalities at Grotta del Cavallo, layer L. Recycled blanks

Recycling event

Patinated blanks Retouch

Cores Flakes Fragmented shell tools Total Fig. 7. Diagram of big-tools (black triangles) and cores recycled into retouched bigtools (black circles) compared with the rest of the retouched tools (146 complete tools; black squares).

edge when it was almost entirely intact, and the break surfaces were posterior to the retouch. Experimentation has shown that when a break occurs on a Callista chione valve, it could create a very abrupt surface (approximately 90 ) or a languette surface, comparable to languette break surface on lithic tool (Fig. 9). This sloping surface in Callista chione valves revealed the mesostracum, which is the internal part of the shell that has a response to percussion similar to stone. This break surface typology is frequently present on shell tools at Grotta del Cavallo, but it is only rarely exploited to manufacture a cutting edge. Such exploitation occurred in nine cases (7.2% of C. chione tools; Table 3), which serve as evidence of recycling. The diacritical analysis of these recycled items allows us to reconstruct three phases in the life-history of these tools (Fig. 10): Table 3 Retouched tools in Callista chione's valve subdivided according to the localisation of retouch. Tools retouched on both the external and the normal edge are proxies for recycling. Callista chione

N

%

Retouch parallel to the growth lines on the external edge of the valve Retouch parallel to the growth lines near the hinge (umbo) Retouch both parallel to the growth lines on the external edge of the valve and on a normal edge Total

112

88.9

5

3.9

9

7.2

126

100%

1) A retouch was realised on the shell's external edge, parallel to the growth lines (primary retouch). 2) A break occurred to the valve, and two break surfaces developed radial to the growth lines, which interrupted the retouch. 3) One languette break surface, orthogonal to the primary retouch, was exploited for the configuration of a secondary retouched cutting edge. The temporal succession of retouches is displayed by the superimposition of the last retouch on the lateral extremity of the primary one. 4. Discussion and conclusions This layer's recycling seems to represent a technical element that is integrated into the human group's economical behaviour. The concept of recycling wastes into new functional tools requires different modalities, related to four different object categories: lithic retouched tools, “big” tools, short products with a sharp edge, and marine-shell tools with two orthogonal edges (Table 4).

Products Scrapers

Raw material N

Local exogenous Retouch Scrapers opposed to a back Local exogenous Retouch Points Local Retouch big-tools Local Knapping Cores producing short flakes Local with sharp edge Retouch Tools with two orthogonal Local cutting edges

10 2 12 1 3 2 3 9 42

- Lithic retouched tools were realised through dumped flake scavenging. This recycling modality was systematically applied to local raw materials, easily and abundantly available from exploitable sub-prismatic block in the cave's surrounding. Neanderthals collected blanks for their functional potential and their specific shape, as attested by the selection of flakes with patinated backs. These flakes are mostly between 14 and 38 cm long. The morpho-technical and metrical characteristics are comparable to those of other lithic retouched tools, which have short dimensions. Considering 146 complete tools 69% are between 11 and 25 cm long (Fig. 7). The recycled flakes are ascribable, as with the whole industry, to technological strategies with low degrees of predetermination. - Tools measuring more than 6 cm in length were realised through core recycling. This modality was also applied to local raw material, and the recycling outcomes were comparable to a few tools observed in the assemblage: large tools, between 6 and 8 cm long and between 4 and 9 cm wide (Fig. 7). - Short products with a sharp edge were realised by recycling flake as core. This recycling modality allowed Neanderthals to quickly produce a few short tools. The difficulty in identifying this behaviour results from the generally high retouch investment in the assemblage. Tools are often highly modifieddfor example, through ventral removals that most likely relate to hafting (Fig. 3). In the range of most assemblage tools, the double ventral tools produced within this recycling modality are between 15 and 31 cm long and 13e23 cm wide, with a thickness lower than 0.5 cm. The three cores-on-flake are surely attributable to this modality, and the eight double ventral pieces are made of local raw material. - Marine-shell tools with two orthogonal cutting edges were realised by recycling fragmented tools, which were re-worked using non-standard procedures, to create new tools. Analysing the variability of recycling behaviour with a costbenefit approach, it is suggested that hunter-gatherers used lithic recycling to make opportunistic tools. The whole stone tool assemblage was produced with technological strategies with a low degree of predetermination. This methods has fewer morphological constraints than Levallois, which require a more rigid volumetric construction of core and products. This volumetric flexibility is linked to a high adaptability of the operative knapping scheme to the raw material volume to be flaked, which is expressed in many different modes of execution with variable degree of predetermination, including expedient productive schemes. This variability is based on the numbers of surfaces exploited for production and on the organisation of the recurrence of removals. Discoidal knapping could be understood as multipurpose from a functional point of

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Fig. 8. A patinated flake was recycled both to produce a retouched tool (n. 1; distal transversal retouch) and a short proximal ventral flake (n. 2), which shows macro traces on the distal transversal edge.

view (Locht and Swinnen, 1994; Peresani, 1998, 2003; Wallace and Shea, 2006; Slimak, 2008; Vaquero et al., 2008; Arrighi et al., 2009; Baena et al., 2012). Consequently, this technological strategy facilitates the recycling of waste. However, according to Bleed (1986) tool design theory, the abundance of exploitable raw material in the site's proximity and simple knapping methods applied do not explain recycling as an advantageous behaviour in terms of the time and energy costs of toolkit production. It seems instead to be related to expediently used toolsdwhat Gould calls “instant tools” (1980, p. 72). It is an opportunistic behaviour to quickly meet immediate needs. When he described the Nunamiut (1979, p. 266), Binford related a famous ethnographic example of this behaviour and defined these tools as “situational gear”. A hunter lost his knife during a hunt and butchered the prey by making expedient flakes from local stone. Nelson (1991) discussed the distinction between expedient technological strategies (e.g., “simple” knapping methods) and opportunistic technological behaviour (e.g., expedient flakes or “situational gear” sensu Binford). She argued that the former behaviour (i.e., expedient) is a planned technological strategy for an expected task, while the second (i.e., opportunistic)

Fig. 9. Two experimental fragments of fresh Callista chione valves: internal surface (n. 1) and external surface (n. 2). The external view shows a languette (sloping) break surface, highlighting the mesostracum.

is an unplanned technological solution to an unplanned need. At Grotta del Cavallo, as expected for opportunistic behaviours sensu Nelson, recycling was systematically applied to local resources, and artefacts probably related to short period of use, as suggested by the coexistence of (i) the short dimensions, (ii) the low degree of modification, (iii) the lack of resharpening, (iv) the lack of use incidents (e.g., fractures), and (v) their discard at the site. The artefact dimensions are not necessary directly linked to use-life, depending on the task activity. As showed by Eren et al. (2008) in their experimental work, discoidal flakes could have a very long use-life if retouched, due to their resharpening potential. Here, I take into

Fig. 10. Schematic representation of productive sequence of tools made of Callista chione's valve. In grey the recycling episode.

F. Romagnoli / Quaternary International 361 (2015) 200e211

account the co-presence of the multiple technical characters listed above, many of which highlight a low investment in the retouched cutting edge (Fig. 4 n. 2 and n.7; Fig. 6 n. 1-2; Fig. 8 n. 2), as evidence of opportunistic behaviour. This technological behaviour highly reduces time spent on tool manufacture and could be explained hypothesising time constraints for specific tasks, as presented in Binford's example. Layer L is characterised by the chaîne op eratoire segmentation and the high mobility of flakes and tools, in part also of specialised tools (Romagnoli, 2012). This context is typical of curated technology (Binford, 1979), a framework in which recycling would be expected (Binford, 1977; Bamforth, 1986). The expected recycling associated with curated technology is connected with the production of sustainable tools, produced to increase their use-life. Maintainable tools can be multipurpose, usually portable, quickly repairable and easily transformable for other tasks than those for which they were originally produced. Only this last possibility could be defined as recycling, while the repeated repairs are considered resharpening. Within a highly mobile human group, this strategy reduces the costs of raw material acquisition and might result from the site's scarcity of raw material. The high mobility of human groups at Grotta del Cavallo, who potentially travelled more than 50 km to the northwest/southeast, and the segmentation of the productive sequences might relate to this type of logistical mobility, associated with the short duration of site occupation, as is argued for other Italian Middle Palaeolithic settlements (e.g., Kuhn, 1995). However, the recycling observed in layer L was not related to maintenance. Choosing to produce opportunistic or maintainable tools depends on which tool type is the priority in the technological organisation for producing effective tools. The effectiveness could indeed be related to time (e.g., selecting the quickest way to produce tools or producing tools with longest use-life). The opportunistic recycled tools in layer L can be considered specific unplanned options (based on fast production), most likely related to the ways in which people organised their tasks within logistical mobility, and facilitated for the industry's general small metric characters. Recycling shell tools may indeed be interpreted as a time- and energy-saving strategy in tool manufacturing, as the production sequence started with collecting valves of a specific size (approximately 8 cm). This provisioning strategy required time and was most likely also limited by how difficult it was to locate an abundance of valves with the desired dimensional target. The strategy with this resource was to ameliorate the cost of raw material acquisition by extending the tool's use-life. The evidence seems to fit with the definition of a maintainable tool. The human ability to anticipate recycling events allowed the possibility of quickly and easily changing the tool structure to create a new functional cutting edge. This human ability comes from specific cognitive skills and high knowledge of the physical quality and functional potential of the exploited resources (e.g., the high frequency of languette break surfaces and the physical response of mesostracum to percussion). Recycling shell tools was an occasional behaviour (7.2% of C. Chione tools) and this finding, associated with the presence of the chaîne op eratoire in the cave, suggests an opportunistic solution to unplanned needs for tasks performed in the cave rather than a planned strategy within logistic mobility. It would have been a useful solution in an economic setting regulated by time constrictions. As already highlighted by Bousman (1993), this finding suggests that a tool can incorporate elements of more than one design goal in varying degrees, and tool complexity has to be analysed in each tool category to investigate hunter-gatherer technological organisation. In contrast with all other recycled items, tools manufactured on patinated blanks were not collected and used inside the cave. The

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scavenging behaviour of ancient patinated flakes outside the cave and their transport to and use in the site suggest that this recycling feature potentially demonstrates a higher level of planning. This behaviour implies that people have picked up the flake in anticipation of future use. According to Torrence (1983), the strategy of producing tools in advance of use results from time stresses, and at Grotta del Cavallo, this strategy may be related to task organisation at the site, within a logistic mobility among collectors. In sum, the data presented contribute to the discussion on recycling in European Middle Palaeolithic and offer new evidence of recycling modalities. This behavioural analysis highlights variability among groups and allows us to contextualise production and use of tools and product wastes in terms of subsistence strategies and the global socio-economic organisation of a human group. Recycling is a way to minimise technological time costs and provide solutions to scheduling problems. The way to solve time costs can vary greatly between groups, and interpreting this behaviour has to consider all recycling modalities and analyse each one separately. The technological adaptations observed in layer L at Grotta del Cavallo and their time-cost analysis suggest that “collectors”, with high mobility and high toolkit variability, had selected “forager” technological strategies as expedient, rather than investing significant maintenance costs, in relation to task time constraints. The technical human responses to specific constraints are influenced by external factors (e.g., climate) and internal group dynamics (e.g., knowledge shared). Therefore, recycling assumes cultural value, asserting a specific trait on a given human group. Further research on faunal remains, comparisons among different layers and usewear analysis may help to verify this model and to better understand recycling behaviour in past technological organisations.

Acknowledgements The author is very grateful to the organisers of the Recycling Workshop, the Israel Science Foundation and Tel Aviv University for their invitation. The workshop was kindly supported by the Israel Science Foundation and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. Research at Grotta del Cavallo was conducted with the permission of Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Puglia and the financial
degli Studi di Siena, Universita
degli Studi di support of Universita Firenze and Museo Fiorentino di Preistoria “Paolo Graziosi”. The author is very thankful to Lucia Sarti and Fabio Martini that coordinated archaeological excavation in the cave and researches on the Middle Palaeolithic materials and assumed responsibility for the financial support for the investigation in the site. A huge thank you goes to all the students and the interdisciplinary team involved in the researches, in particular to Lorenzo Nannini, Francesco Trenti,  Colonese and Cristina Lemorini. Massimiliano Ghinassi, Andre Thanks also to Manuel Vaquero for the stimulating and useful discussions about this topic and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments that improved the paper. The author has been supported by a doctoral grant from the PhD
del Mondo School of History, International PhD Storia e Civilta
degli Studi di Firenze. Antico, XXIII cycle, of the Universita

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