A series of Mousterian occupations in a new type of site: The Nesher Ramla karst depression, Israel

Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Human Evolution journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhevol

A series of Mousterian occupations in a new type of site: The Nesher Ramla karst depression, Israel Yossi Zaidner a, b, *, Amos Frumkin c, Naomi Porat d, Alexander Tsatskin a, Reuven Yeshurun a, e, Lior Weissbrod a a

Zinman Institute of Archaeology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Mount Carmel 31905, Israel Institute of Archaeology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91905, Israel Department of Geography, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91905, Israel d Geological Survey of Israel, Jerusalem 95501, Israel e Program in Human Ecology and Archaeobiology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA b c

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 12 February 2013 Accepted 2 June 2013 Available online 7 November 2013

We report the discovery of a new type of hominin site in the Levant, inhabited during MIS 6e5. The site, found within a karst depression at Nesher Ramla, Israel, provides novel evidence for Middle Paleolithic lifeways in an environmental and depositional setting that is previously undocumented in the southern Levant. The carbonate bedrock in the area is characterized by surface depressions formed by gravitational sagging of the rock into underlying karst voids. In one such depression, an 8 m thick sequence comprising rich and well-preserved lithic and faunal assemblages, combustion features, hundreds of manuports and ochre was discovered. Here we focus on the geological and environmental setting and present optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages for the 8 m sequence, aiming to place the site within a firm chronological framework and determine its significance for a more complete reconstruction of cultural developments in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. To that end, preliminary results of the lithic and faunal studies are also presented. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Middle Paleolithic Levant Open-air site OSL dating

Introduction The Middle Paleolithic (MP) in the Levant is particularly known for deeply stratified cave sites that have yielded the remains of both anatomically modern humans and Neandertals. The importance of these finds has placed the Levant at the center of the paleoanthropological debate on the origins of modern humans and their relationships with Neandertals (e.g., Jelinek, 1982; Vandermeersch, 1992; Bar-Yosef and Vandermeersch, 1993; Lieberman and Shea, 1994; Trinkaus, 1995; Wolpoff, 1996; Arensburg and Belfer-Cohen, 1998; Howell, 1998; Lieberman, 1998; Rak, 1998; Bar-Yosef, 1998, 2000; Shea, 1998, 2003; Kaufman, 1999; Hovers, 2006; Klein, 2009; Frumkin et al., 2011). Consequently, many of the MP cave sites in the region have been subjected to extensive excavations, focusing on the establishment of a chronological and cultural framework and on investigation of MP subsistence and environment (Garrod and Bate, 1937; Jelinek, 1977, 1982; Ronen, 1979; Shea, 1993,

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (Y. Zaidner). 0047-2484/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.06.005

2003; Bar-Yosef, 1998; Hovers, 2001, 2009; Weinstein-Evron et al., 2003; Speth, 2004, 2006; Stiner, 2005; Meignen et al., 2006; Speth and Clark, 2006; Bar-Yosef and Meignen, 2007; Yeshurun et al., 2007). The excavated cave sites have yielded long cultural sequences with large clusters of lithic and faunal remains and have been interpreted as repeatedly occupied residential camps (e.g., Hovers, 2001; Meignen et al., 2006; Bar-Yosef and Meignen, 2007). Due to these extensive studies, our current knowledge of the Levantine MP cave occupation is reasonably good. However, we know very little about human adaptations to open-air environments. Only a handful of open-air sites have been excavated, yielding shallow stratigraphic sequences and small lithic and faunal assemblages (Fleisch, 1970; Ronen, 1974; Crew, 1976; Marks, 1976, 1977; Munday, 1977; Gilead and Grigson, 1984; Goren-Inbar, 1990a; Hovers et al., 2008; Sharon et al., 2010). In the semi-arid and arid Levant, the picture is somewhat different (Boëda et al., 2001; Le Tensorer, 2004; Hauck, 2010, 2011). The currently available data suggest that most of the open-air sites in the Mediterranean zone of the Levant represent ephemeral and usually taskspecific localities, connected either to hunting and butchering

2

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

activities (Gilead, 1980; Gilead and Grigson, 1984; Hovers, 1986; Davis et al., 1988; Rabinovich, 1990; Goren-Inbar, 1990a; Sharon et al., 2010) or to raw material acquisition (Ronen, 1974). In the Levantine arid zone, where caves are rare, some of the open-air and rock-shelter sites have been interpreted as ephemeral residential camps (Marks, 1976, 1977; Henry, 2003). The lithic assemblages of the open-air sites differ from cave sites in their low frequency of Levallois products and high heterogeneity of tool-kit compositions (see Gilead and Grigson, 1984; GorenInbar, 1990b; Hovers et al., 2008). These phenomena rule out their assignment to any of the recognized technological phases of the Levantine Mousterian, originally defined on the basis of differences within the Levallois technology (Copeland, 1975; Ronen, 1979; Meignen and Bar-Yosef, 1992; Bar-Yosef, 1998, 2000). The Early Middle Paleolithic (EMP) is distinguished by a high laminar index and the presence of true laminar technology, alongside recurrent unidirectional and bidirectional Levallois flaking methods (Bar-Yosef, 1998; Meignen, 1998, 2011; Shea, 2003; Wojtczak, 2011; Zaidner and Weinstein-Evron, 2013). The postEMP Mousterian is either perceived as a single continuous but variable unit designated ‘later MP’ (Ronen, 1979; Shea, 2003; Hovers and Belfer-Cohen, 2013) or subdivided into two additional phases: middle (Tabun C-type) and late (Tabun B-type) Mousterian (Copeland, 1975; Meignen and Bar-Yosef, 1992; Bar-Yosef, 1998, 2000). The middle Mousterian industries are characterized by the recurrent centripetal and lineal Levallois methods for flake

production, while in the late Mousterian industries the recurrent convergent unipolar Levallois method for the production of points and triangular flakes prevails. The problem of the technological affinities of the open-air sites is further exacerbated by the shortage of published radiometric dates (e.g., Bar-Yosef, 1998; Hovers, 2009), which are available for only three MP open-air sites in the Levantine Mediterranean zone, all yielding ages of the later part of the MP (90e45 ka [thousands of years ago]; Schwarcz et al., 1979; Ziaei et al., 1990; Schwarcz and Rink, 1998). The emerging picture of MP open-air occupation in the Levant is thus partial, and for most of the 200,000-year-long period is entirely missing. In particular, we know very little about the open-air adaptations of the anatomically modern humans that inhabited the Levant during the latter part of MIS 6 and MIS 5 (Schwarcz et al., 1988; Valladas et al., 1988; Stringer, 1989; Mercier et al., 1993; Mercier and Valladas, 2003). In this paper, we present a recently discovered open-air Mousterian site situated in a previously unexplored and unique setting. The site came to light in the limestone quarry of the Nesher cement factory near the modern town of Ramla, close to the eastern border of the Sharon coastal plain of central Israel (Fig. 1). The carbonate rocks in the area are characterized by a number of depressions formed by gravitational sagging of the bedrock into underlying karst voids (Frumkin et al., 2009). In one of the depressions, an 8 m thick Mousterian sequence with extremely rich and well-preserved lithic and faunal assemblages was discovered. The excavations at

Figure 1. Location map, photograph (view from the east) and cross-section of the Nesher Ramla karst depression.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

the site yielded numerous spatially and stratigraphically distinct layers and loci of human activities. The discovery of this deeply stratified open-air site provides a unique opportunity to investigate Mousterian human behavior through time in a previously unknown type of context. In this paper, we present the geological and geoarchaeological setting, optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages and preliminary study of the lithic and faunal assemblages of the new site, and discuss the diachronic changes in the site’s occupation and their implications for current frameworks of the Levantine MP. The site The Nesher Ramla site is located in a funnel-shaped depression that is 34 m deep (120e86 m above sea level [asl]), 40 m wide at the top and 11 m wide at the bottom of the archaeological deposits (Figs. 1 and 2). The depression was formed in Senonian age chalk of the ‘En Zetim Formation’, underlain by Turonian age limestone of the Bina Formation. The chalk is ca. 40 m thick and is commonly covered by indurated calcrete or caliche (known locally as Nari). Dominant soils in the area are brown Rendzina associated with vertic soils in catena (Singer, 2007). The site was excavated during 12 months (MayeOctober 2010 and 2011) of intensive salvage excavation. In total, more than 450 m3 of archaeological deposits were excavated. The hominin occupation layers were found sandwiched between archaeologically sterile infill at an elevation of 107.5e99.5 m asl, 12 m below the rim of the depression. In the upper part of the depression the slopes are relatively gentle (35e 55
), but they become significantly steeper (70e90
) between 102 and 99 m asl. The area available for hominin occupation is ca. 100e 120 m2 in the lower part of the archaeological sequence. This area was probably restricted further by the colluvial nature of the infill and the formation of the talus slope. Indeed, the archaeological remains are concentrated in the 50e70 m2 in the center of the depression, while near the walls they are extremely sparse. The depression is 25e35 m wide at 107e103 m asl, suggesting that a significantly larger area was available during the occupation of the upper levels of the site. Hydrogeological history of the site The formation of surface depressions within the chalk bedrock of the site area is a recently discovered phenomenon, revealed by intensive quarrying activities that have exposed a large number of depressions. The depressions, up to w200 m wide and 50 m deep, are entirely filled with sediments. The formation of the depressions is probably associated with karstic activity in the low- to mid-Bina Formation, ca. 100e130 m below the surface. The geothermal artesian karstic system in the site area has created a large number of underground voids. The morphological features of these voids are associated with dissolution under water-filled conditions by slow-moving rising hydrothermal water from a deep (hypogene) source (Bakalowicz et al., 1987; Dublyansky, 2000). The discrete plumes of water rise through shaft feeders to the upper sub-aquifer, forming chambers that reach a measured diameter of 40 m. Underground voids within the Nesher quarry have been studied by speleologic methods and by detailed records of some 10,000 boreholes, each 25 m deep (Frumkin and Gvirtzman, 2006). The voids have no genetic relationship with the land surface. Cave walls and ceilings are mostly smooth, indicative of slow-moving water that filled the entire space. There is no sign of gravitational (freesurface) or fast flow of water, such as underground rivers. Etching is observed around silicified concretions and fossils, which protrude from the wall. Ceilings are rich in cupola-form solution pockets, having no outlets or inlets that could support groundwater flow

3

into or out of the cave through overlying rocks. Inlet holes are observed at the bottom of the cave passages. The only clastic sediments within the cave passages (apart from breakdown debris) are fine clays. The larger underground voids are susceptible to roof collapse and subsidence of the overburden (Frumkin et al., 2009: Fig. 7), which can also be coeval with continuous dissolution. The gravitational deformation, subsidence and collapse above karst cavities have migrated upward, forming surface depressions. The depression in which the site is located was excavated to the underlying chalk at ca. 86 m asl (Fig. 1), some 50e100 m above the level of underground voids. The depressions are closed basins that during and after their formation act as depositional basins, trapping sediments from the surrounding slopes. Stratigraphy and shifting human use of the site The 8 m thick archaeological sequence is composed of homogeneous brown, gravel-rich clay that does not exhibit clear stratigraphic features in its upper 5 m (Units IeII). The lower 3 m show significantly more pronounced stratigraphic variation associated with denser accumulations of artifacts, bones, manuports and burnt materials (Units IIIeVI; Fig. 2; Table 1). The uppermost stratigraphic unit, Unit I (107.3 m asl to 105.5 m asl), consists of gravel-rich dark brown clay with pronounced soil features (Table 1). Unit I yielded sparse archaeological remains and low-density lithics (Fig. 3). The unit contains two concentrations, each 20e30 cm thick, of numerous complete animal bones, including aurochs (Bos primigenius) and mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella) limb bones and vertebral columns in anatomical articulation, together with lithic artifacts (Fig. 4d). The unit also includes angular chunks of ochre, 5e15 mm in length. The transition to the lower lying unit is gradual. Unit II (105.5e103.0 m asl in the western part of the depression and 102.2 m asl in its center) comprises a clayey deposit subdivided by archaeological features at an elevation of 104.5 m asl into upper and lower parts. In Unit II upper (105.5e104.5 m asl) the archaeological remains are sparse. This unit contains an additional distinct layer that yielded numerous complete and broken animal bones, including the only remains of rhino identified at the site so far. Unit II lower (104.5e102.2 m asl) is characterized by a sharp increase in the density of bones and lithics (Fig. 3) and by repeated occurrences of pebbles, rocks and boulders. The rocks, pebbles and boulders consist of hard limestone and chert, which are absent in the vicinity of the site, and are therefore interpreted as manuports. The rocks and pebbles often occur in dense, spatially and vertically distinct concentrations together with animal bones and chert artifacts (Fig. 4aec). Most of the discovered concentrations are small, less than 1 m in diameter, with a thickness of 10e50 cm. The largest one extends over an area of 4 m2 and is 50e70 cm thick. The concentrations contain up to several hundred broken animal bones, manuports and pebbles/boulders with isolated removals or signs of shattering. Small angular chunks of ochre (<2 cm) were found in some concentrations. Unit II lower is the most heterogeneous unit at the site in terms of lithic densities (Fig. 3). Some of the levels are considerably denser in lithics than others, perhaps indicating fluctuations in the intensity of human use of the site during the accumulation of this unit. The lower contact of unit II is clear and contains unconformities. The underlying Unit III (ca. 102.2e101.9 m asl, in the center of the depression) comprises gravel-rich brown clay. Unlike the overlying units, Unit III was clearly visible in the section and during the excavation as a ca. 20 cm thick layer extremely dense in bones and lithics (Fig. 3). The sediments are rich in ash and contain evidence for combustion features, e.g., ash lenses and a few well-defined

4

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Figure 2. Nesher Ramla: plan and composite stratigraphic section (southern wall, squares LeP/17, QeT/16). Note the scattered blocks of Nari at the bottom of the section that probably represent slope failures and collapse during the earliest period of infill, prior to hominin occupation.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

5

Table 1 The site’s stratigraphy. Southern wall Unit I

Unit II

Unit III

Unit IV

Unit V

Unit VI

107.1 me105.5 m depth, firm, 7.5YR (Munsell) dark brown clayey deposit, mm to cm-sized specimens of archaeological ochre; 57% clay and 25% silt, abundant 2e4 cm maximal size subrounded stones (limestone, Nari, chalk), up to w40% of volume; blocky/prismatic structure, incipient slickensides, no Mn dendrite, fine porosity; occasional CaCO3 lining along pores, on stone and artifact ‘negatives’. OM ranges from 0.17 to 0.21%, carbonates from 8 to 10%. Pronounced soil features, such as darkening (melanization) of upper 20 cm, highest along the sequence MS values. Abundant subvertical and diagonal cracks dipping from top downward at w60
e45
westward and extending to about 1.5e2.0 m depth. The crack walls are lined up with 1e3 mm thick shiny clay coatings. The transition to the lower lying unit is gradual. 105.5 me103.0 m in the west and 102.2 at the center of Southern wall. Upper part is 7.5YR 4/2 brown clay grading to 10YR 4/2 dark gray brown. OM increases to 0.35e0.38%. Calcareousness increases to 18e21%. MS decreases, albeit with several minor spikes. Pronounced spatial heterogeneity from the SW to the WW manifests itself by overall whitening, which is most noticeable on dried-up walls. Colluviated subrounded 0.5e4.0 cm gravel (limestone, Nari, chalk) range within 30e40% of the volume. Discontinuous clusters of large pebbles strikingly different from gravel fromw104.5 m downward. The lower contact of unit II is clear and contains specific unconformities. 102.2e101.9 m in the center of the depression. More heterogeneous than above, 10YR 4/3 to 7.5YR 4/3 brown clay. Minor discontinuous unconformities with abrupt lateral extinction at the western edge of SW. Those unconformities are seen as either w1 cm thick darker or redder deposits, which stand out against the brownish clayey background. Rich in artifacts bones, with lenses of black and gray fine-grained sediments (probable combustion features, Friesem et al., 2013). The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp. 101.9e101.6 m in the center of the depression. Brown clay gravel deposit with sharp decrease in amount of artifacts and bones. The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp. 101.6e101.2 m in the center of the depression. Clayey gravel deposit visible in the section as 20e40 cm thick lens. Rich in artifacts, bones, pebbles and boulders. Some lenses of fine-grained black and gray sediments. The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp. 101.15e99.50 m in the center of the depression. Stony brown clay gravel deposit with sharp decrease in amount of artifacts and bones.

Abbreviations: OM ¼ organic matter; MS ¼ magnetic susceptibility; SW ¼ southern wall; WW ¼ western wall.

concentrations of carbonized bones within black and gray sediments, which according to micromorphological studies probably represent hearths (Friesem et al., 2013). Lithics and bones occur in continuous superimposed surfaces extending over 10 m2 (Fig. 5) in the center of the depression and in a few smaller well-defined concentrations. The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp. Unit IV (ca. 101.9e101.6 m asl, in the center of the depression) consists of brown clay with abundant gravel. The unit shows sharp decrease in the density of artifacts, manuports and bones. Unlike the overlying units, Unit IV contains no concentrations of artifacts or bones and most probably represents a stage in which the site was rarely used by hominins. The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp.

Figure 3. Lithic density curve. Data from a 2 m2 trench (TIII) in the middle of the excavated area.

Unit V (ca. 101.6e101.2 m asl, in the center of the depression) comprises gravel-rich clay rich in anthropogenic debris. Unit V is visible in the section as a 20e40 cm thick layer dense in bones, manuports and lithics. This unit has the highest density of manuports and bones observed in the site. The finds occur in numerous concentrations in the center of the depression and in a continuous concentration along its walls (Fig. 5). The unit contains several 0.5e 1.0 m wide features of black to gray sediments with calcined and carbonized bones (Friesem et al., 2013) and charcoal. The concentrations are 3e5 cm thick and probably represent hearths in situ (Friesem et al., 2013). The transition to the lower lying unit is sharp. Unit VI (ca. 101.2e99.5 m asl, in the center of the depression) consists of brown gravel-rich clay. The unit shows a sharp decrease in the density of artifacts (Fig. 3), manuports and bones. Except for the presence of several near-complete bones and artifacts at 100 m asl, Unit VI contains no concentrations of artifacts or bones

6

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Figure 4. a. Unit II lower during excavation, showing a surface with distinct concentrations of bones, stones and artifacts; b, c. Concentrations of bones, stones and artifacts in Unit II lower; d. Part of a surface with complete bones and vertebral column in anatomic articulation in Unit I.

and most probably represents a stage in which the depression was rarely used by hominins. From the elevation of 99.5 m asl down to the bottom of the depression the sediments are archaeologically sterile and contain numerous large blocks of chalk and Nari representing the earliest phases of the infill. Site formation processes The upper 5 m of the section have been subjected to laboratory analyses that include micromorphology of sediments in thin

sections, magnetic susceptibility (MS), and measurement of organic matter (OM) by wet oxidation and of carbonate content by means of a calcimeter, and particle size distribution by the hydrometer technique. All deposits contain 30e40% small gravel (smaller than 4 cm), composed primarily of calcrete (Nari), which caps the chalk bedrock of the catchment area (Fig. 6). The fine-grained material consists mainly of clay amounting to >50% and a silt fraction that varies between 24% and 28% (Table 2). The gravel and clay were apparently transported through colluviation from the soil- and Nari-covered chalky hillslopes of the depression. Small and uniform

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

7

Figure 6. Distribution of stones and field-based magnetic susceptibility curve for the upper 5 m of the sequence.

Figure 5. a. Southern wall (squares LeP 17) showing Units IIIeV; b. View from above of part of the continuous surface of bones and artifacts in Unit III and the continuous circular concentration of finds along the walls of the depression in Unit V.

sizes of Nari fragments suggest low-energy and slow colluviation throughout the accumulation of the archaeological sequence. The silt is composed of quartz grains originated from distant windblown dust (Yaalon and Ganor, 1973; Yaalon, 1997). Taking into account local geomorphic conditions, this fine material may have been transported into the karst depression by both slope wash and colluviation. Evidence for the slope failure is manifested by some blocks of Nari (sized up to 100 cm) found close to the eastern wall (from 103.0 m asl to bedrock) and at the bottom of the depression (from 99.5 m asl to bedrock; Fig. 2). However, these massive slope failures occurred prior to the hominin occupation at the site, while the archaeological sediments lack evidence for such catastrophic events. Units IIIeVI studied by Friesem et al. (2013) shows an overall similarity in composition and fabric to the upper units. The groundmass is characterized by a calcitic-clay matrix with silt to fine sand sub-angular quartz grains. Nari fragments were also present across the samples. The microstructure is complex, including voids of various types (vesicles, channels, chambers and vughs) indicating bioturbation. The deposits were pedogenically reworked, particularly in the uppermost part of the sedimentary sequence. Thin sections from the uppermost Unit I show well-developed stress cutans in nearly carbonate-free groundmass (Fig. 7), which are characteristic of vertisol soils subjected to swelleshrink processes. It is quite improbable that such ‘fragile’ microscopic features survived dislocation and re-deposition in the depression. Hence, we interpret the aged stress cutans in Unit I as in situ, formed under conditions of sufficient saturation of a soil sediment with water. In Unit II lower

planar voids, sometimes with complex patterning due to several episodes of clayey mass shrinkage, also exist. However, birefringent clay domains as shown in Fig. 7 are completely lacking, probably because of massive accumulation of calcite. The amount of carbonates in Unit II reaches up to 20e25% (Table 2). It is therefore assumed that pedogenic reworking of deposits was penecontemporaneous with deposition and probably short-lived. Yet, pedogenic processes require periods of relative stability. Hence, frequent periods of sediment yield may have alternated with more stable episodes conducive for pedogenic processes as well as hominin activities at the site. The sharp transitions between lower units (IIIeVI) may represent prolonged gaps in colluviation that were not identified in the upper units.

OSL dating Eight samples for OSL dating were collected at intervals of w1 m from the base of the excavated section to its top by drilling horizontally into the sediment and inserting the retrieved material immediately into opaque plastic bags to prevent any exposure to sunlight. In a laboratory equipped with appropriate lighting, quartz in the size range of 88e125 mm was extracted from the samples using routine laboratory procedures (Porat, 2007; see also SOM). The single aliquot regenerative (SAR) protocol was used to measure the equivalent dose (De) on multi-grain aliquots. The

Table 2 Properties of selected samples along the southern wall section. Depths (m) 106.5 105.3 104.2 103.2 102.3

OM, %

CaCO3, %

Sand, %

Silt, %

Clay, %

0.17 0.21 0.35 0.38 0.39

8.0 10.0 18.8 20.8 24.0

16.8 20.8 20.8 16.8 16.8

25.8 23.8 23.8 27.8 27.8

57.5 55.5 55.5 55.5 55.5

Particles sizes: silt e 0.02e0.002 mm, sand 2.00e0.02 mm, clay <0.002 mm.

8

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Figure 7. Microphotograph of silty clay deposit of Unit I at depth 107 m asl. Left, plane polarized light (PPL); right, crossed polarized light (XPL); width of frame 2.4 mm. Note the heterogeneous mass in PPL on the left: dense well-delineated carbonate-free aggregate incorporating opaque organic matter (OM) speckles. In XPL on the right, a porous calcareous groundmass (ca) is composed of micrite and incorporates granules of colluviated calcrete, while thick birefringent stress cutans (sc) are well delineated along a complex planar void that is characteristic for shrink-swell features in vertisol.

different tests carried out to ascertain the quality of the De values indicate that the samples can be reliably measured: preheat tests show a plateau of De values between 200
and 260
C; repeated measurements (recycling ratios) of dose points on the dose response curves (Fig. 8a, b) were mostly within 4% of 1.0; thermal transfer was less than 1%; no significant IRSL signal was detected for any of the samples; and the IR/OSL depletion ratio was usually >0.95. The De values and ages of the multi-grain measurements given in Table 3 are the average of most of the aliquots, without obviously old outliers (for example see Fig. 8c). The ages range from 176  52 ka at the base of the section to 94  18 ka at its top (Fig. 9).

The ages are not in strict stratigraphic order and the oldest age, 208  59 ka, is not at the base of the section, however, there is a general younging-upward trend. The large scatter and the lack of stratigraphic order can be explained by heterogeneous bleaching and subsequent mixing, whereby some quartz grains remained outside the depression for substantial periods and when finally deposited within the depression were not fully bleached and carried a substantial residual signal. Additionally, soil-forming processes possibly brought younger grains deep into the section. To understand the scatter in the ages, resolve individual grain OSL properties and obtain meaningful ages for the site, we undertook measurements of single grains (Murray and Roberts, 1997;

Figure 8. OSL single aliquot and single grain properties and results. a. A natural OSL decay curve for one multi-grain aliquot from sample QRN-104. Note the rapid decay of the signal, indicating that it is dominated by the fast component. Inset: Dose response curve for one aliquot of the same sample. The dose points were fitted with a saturated þ exponential fit. Note that a second measurement of the lowest dose point (carried out at the end of all measurements) falls within 2% of the first measurement (Recycling Ratio ¼ 0.98). De ¼ 176  18 Gy. b. Single grain natural OSL decay curve from sample QRN-104. Inset: Dose response curve for a single grain of the same sample, De ¼ 296  71 Gy. c. Probability density function plot of multiple grain measurements for sample QRN-101, with individual De values (circles) and error bars plotted in order of increasing value. (N ¼ 14, De ¼ 210  34 Gy). Note two outlying aliquots. d. Probability density function plot for all single grains measured for sample QRN-100, with individual De values (circles) and error bars in order of increasing value (n ¼ 176 grains; De ¼ 171  8 Gy). Inset: Radial plot of the same data. The shaded band shows the central age model grain population.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

9

Table 3 Nesher Ramla OSL dating results. Lab No.

QRN-106 SG QRN-105 SG QRN-104 SG QRN-103 SG QRN-102 SG QRN-101a SG QRN-100 SG QRN-99 SG

Ext. a (mGy/a)

Ext. b (mGy/a)

6.4

10

1142

2.3

5.4

9

0.80

2.6

4.9

103.5

0.59

2.3

102.4

0.56

101.3

Total dose (mGy/a)

Aliquots/ grains used

Overdispersion (%)

924*

1786  55

912

775*

1530  49

9

823

577

1409  63

2.9

7

633

537

1177  59

2.4

1.7

6

603

521

1131  59

0.56

2.1

2.7

6

597

537

1140  58

99.9

0.56

2.2

1.6

6

580

438

1024  50

99.3

0.66

2.7

3.6

8

729

522

1259  61

13/16 84/86 13/14 68/69 14/14 99/100 15/15 92/93 16/16 104/104 10/12 186/187 11/11 175/176 12/13 205/206

34 69 18 51 13 52 22 55 20 59 49 64 25 58 35 54

Elevation (m asl)

K (%)

U (ppm)

106.5

1.16

2.3

105.5

0.91

104.5

Th (ppm)

Ext.

gþ Cosmic (mGy/a)

De (Gy)

168 138 261 173 210 162 234 205 254 160 191 193 213 171 221 242

               

31 10 54 13 34 9 58 13 60 10 80 9 59 8 64 10

Age (ka)

94 78 171 113 149 115 198 174 224 142 168 170 208 167 176 193

               

18 6 36 9 25 8 51 14 55 11 71 12 58 11 52 12

Notes: Single grains (SG): 200e400 single grain measurements were done for each sample. The ages were calculated from the accepted grains using the central age model. Water contents estimated at 20% for samples QRN-99-105 and 10% for QRN-106. ‘Aliquots/grains used’ is the number of aliquots or grains used for calculating the average De from those measured. Gamma þ cosmic dose rates were measured in the field using a calibrated gamma scintillator, except for samples marked with *, for which cosmic dose rates were estimated from burial depth and gamma dose rates calculated from the concentration of the radioactive elements. Over-dispersion is an indication of the scatter in the sample. Ages are in thousands of years.

Bøtter-Jensen et al., 2000; see SOM). Of the measured single grains, between 35% and 52% were selected for further data processing using the criteria suggested by Jacobs et al. (2003). All samples from the site contain grains with a large range of ages (Fig. 8d), as well as older grains that are in saturation with respect to the OSL signal and whose natural signal could not be regenerated. Since the site has suffered from the introduction of both younger and older grains, isolating the youngest or oldest grain population would have yielded erroneously young or old ages. Therefore, the central age model (Galbraith et al., 1999) was used to obtain representative De values and errors for each of the samples (Table 3). The calculated single

Figure 9. Ageedepth plot of OSL ages for the site. Note that the multiple grain ages (diamonds, conventional measurements on hundreds of grains) are mostly older and more scattered than the single grain ages (circles). The multiple grain ages are also not in sequence, with age reversals, whereas the single grain ages are in better sequence.

grain ages are an estimate of the time of deposition of the sediments that contain the artifacts and bones. The ages for archaeological layers range from 167  11 ka to 78  6 ka, and are in a better stratigraphic order than the multiple grain ages (Fig. 9). Overall, they suggest a rather rapid accumulation in the lower part of the section and a gradual accumulation in its upper part. Faunal remains Macromammalian remains The excavation of Nesher Ramla yielded a well-preserved macromammalian assemblage composed of several tens of thousands of bones. The studied sample (301 specimens identifiable to at least the genus level, Table 4) is overwhelmingly dominated by ungulate taxa and contains no remains of carnivores. The assemblage also includes remains of spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca). The most abundant taxon is aurochs (Bos primigenius, 39% of the Number of Identified Specimens [NISP]), followed by Mesopotamian fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica, 25%), mountain gazelle (Gazella gazella, 19%) and one or two species of equid (Equus sp., 7%). A caprid (Capra sp.), possibly bezoar goat, and rhino (Rhinocerotidae) are present in small numbers (three and five specimens, respectively). As several complete jaws and postcranial elements were observed, an accurate taxonomic identification of the equid, caprid and rhinocerotid specimens is to be determined in a future study. All together, aurochs, fallow deer and gazelle make up >80% of the total assemblage in terms of NISP. The density of faunal remains and the frequency of burned and green-fractured specimens rise sharply with depth. Hence, while in Unit I many bones are complete, including aurochs limb bones and vertebral columns, the bones in the lower units, associated with the manuport and lithic concentrations, are more ubiquitous and generally more fragmented, displaying large concentrations of aurochs limb bone fragments, some with percussion marks and cut-marks (Fig. 10). Along the sequence all skeletal parts are found, with limb and head parts dominating and axial parts (vertebrae, pelves) often preserved intact. Some anatomical articulations were found in all units, attesting to good in situ preservation.

10

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Table 4 Preliminary species counts for Nesher Ramla. Unit I Bos primigenius Capra sp. Dama mesopotamica Equus sp. Gazella gazella Rhinocerotidae Testudo graeca Total

40 3 23 8 37 1 112

Table 5 Nesher Ramla lithic industry (artifacts larger than 2 cm).

Unit II upper

Unit II lower

10 1 21 3 3 3

39

9

27 5 11 16 98

41

Unit III

Unclear context

Total NISP

%NISP

3 1

18 1 5 3 5

5 18

1 33

116 5 76 22 56 3 23 301

38.5% 1.7% 25.2% 7.3% 18.6% 1.0% 7.6% 100.0%

Unit I Levallois flakes 52 Levallois points 2 Complete flakes 108 Cortical flakes 54 (>25% cortex) Broken flakes 206 Burnt flakes 64 CTE 12 2 Side-scraper rejuvenation flakes Retouched flakes 53 Levallois cores Preferential surface cores Cores-on-flake Other cores Chunks Total

Figure 10. Probable cutmarks observed in the field on an aurochs-sized long bone shaft fragment from Unit II lower.

Micromammalian remains Remains of micromammals occur throughout the deposits of the Nesher Ramla site, showing especially low densities, high dispersion and low number of taxa. Within roughly 50 m3 of sediments analyzed so far we noted 542 identifiable specimens, suggesting a general density of ca. 10 specimens per m3. The assemblage includes the field vole (Microtus guentheri), occurring in 157 of the spits (17.3%), and blind Mediterranean mole rat (Spalax ehrenbergi), occurring in 41 of the spits (4.5%) (Fig. 11). Remains of the two taxa

Unit II upper

Unit II lower

Unit III

8.8% 0.3% 18.3% 9.2%

49 9 139 88

6.6% 1.2% 18.7% 11.8%

182 18 394 256

9.9% 1.0% 21.5% 14.0%

115 1 236 133

10.9% 0.1% 22.3% 12.6%

35.0% 10.9% 2.0% 0.3%

275 40 15 1

36.9% 5.4% 2.0% 0.1%

436 76 36 6

23.8% 4.2% 2.0% 0.3%

217 116 34 7

20.5% 11.0% 3.2% 0.7%

9.0%

96

12.9%

351

19.2%

166

15.7%

4 1

0.7% 0.2%

7 4

0.9% 0.5%

35 9

1.9% 0.5%

9 10

0.8% 0.9%

3 4

0.5% 0.7%

7 6

0.9% 0.8%

13 14

0.7% 0.8%

5 10

0.5% 0.9%

24

4.1%

9

1.2%

5

0.3%

0

0.0%

589 100.0%

745

100.0%

1831 100.0% 1059 100.0%

seem to occur together in samples from different parts of the vertical sequence of the site. The occurrence of a single specimen each of two other species was noted; these are incisors of a shrew (family Soricidae) and Tristram’s jird (Meriones tristrami). The deposits contain additional remains of other microvertebrates, including reptiles (Order Squamata), amphibians (Order Anura) and birds (Aves). Reptile remains occur in 76 of the spits (8.4%) and other groups are represented by sporadic finds. The low-density, species-poor and fragmentary Nesher Ramla assemblage differs markedly in nature from other known micromammalian faunas from Pleistocene sites in southwestern Asia, including both cave and open-air sites (Tchernov, 1981, 1988; Weissbrod et al., 2005; Belmaker and Hovers, 2011; Rabinovich and Biton, 2011). This suggests a unique formation process most likely related to the nature of the depositional environment of the site. The two species dominating the assemblage, voles and mole rats, are two of the most common and widespread species in environments of the low-lying plains of the Mediterranean

Figure 11. Taxonomic composition (a) and skeletal element composition (b) of micromammals based on proportions of occurrence among excavation spits.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

11

Figure 12. Levallois cores e 1, 4; Preferential surface core e 2; Core-on-flake e 3.

vegetation zone of Israel (Mendelssohn and Yom-Tov, 1999). These species also depend extensively on underground burrow systems in their adaptation. One likely possibility is that the remains at the site are from individuals that died within their burrows (Morlan, 1994).

Table 6 Technological and typological indexes of Nesher Ramla industry.

IL IL ty IL p IRe NBK

Unit I

Unit II upper

Unit II lower

Unit III

10.9% 44.8% 14.0% 36.8% 14.0%

11.6% 41.0% 13.0% 32.0% 18.8%

16.8% 44.1% 9.1% 51.9% 15.4%

14.6% 42.8% 1.9% 48.3% 29.7%

Notes: IL e Total Levallois (including retouched and unretouched pieces); IL ty e frequency of the retouched Levallois pieces among retouched flakes; IL p e frequency of retouched and unretouched Levallois points among Levallois blanks. NBK e naturally backed knives.

Lithic industry The Nesher Ramla lithic assemblage comprises ca. 81,000 artifacts larger than 2 cm. The assemblage shows noticeable variations in the amounts of artifacts and the frequencies of different technological and typological groups along the site’s stratigraphic sequence. In the upper part of the sequence (Units I and II upper), the sharp shifts in frequency could be the result of the small size of the assemblages (Fig. 3; Table 5). In Units II lower and III, however, the assemblages are large and the shifts indicate real changes in the mode of site occupation. The number of artifacts clearly increases with depth. The density changes gradually from 10 to 20 artifacts per 10 cm spit in Unit I to 250e300 in Units III and V. The assemblages of all six units are clearly flake-oriented, with the Levallois being the dominant flaking method. The technological and typological study presented here was carried out on a sample of 4224 artifacts deriving from a 2 m2 trench in the southeastern corner of the excavated area (Trench III, Fig. 2) and additional

12

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Figure 13. Levallois flakes e 1, 2; Side-scrapers e 3, 4, 7, 9; Retouched Levallois point e 5; Mousterian point e 6; Levallois point e 8.

assemblages from Units I and II upper. The trench is located in the center of the excavation area and samples the richest part of the site. The sample represents the upper 5 m of the archaeological sequence (107.4e102.2 m asl, Units IeIII). The prevalence of Levallois technology is clearly expressed in the high frequencies of cores exhibiting the Levallois concept of flaking. In addition to identified Levallois cores, many among the numerous cores-onflake and preferential surface cores (Fig. 12: 2, 3; Table 5) show features identifiable with the Levallois reduction strategy. They exhibit a Levallois-like volumetric conception with two hierarchical surfaces and a fracture plane that is generally parallel to the plane of intersection between the debitage and striking surfaces. Unlike Levallois cores, preferential surface cores show no signs of preparation of convexities or of predetermination. These are simple unifacial cores with sketchy preparation of the striking platform. The frequency of Levallois products ranges between 11% and 17% in different stratigraphic units. Units I and II upper exhibit similar Levallois blank frequencies (Tables 5 and 6), which are considerably

lower than the frequencies observed in the lower units. According to the scar pattern on dorsal surfaces of flakes, Levallois centripetal methods prevailed in Units II lower and III (Fig. 13: 1, 2; Fig. 14: 2, 5), while in Units I and II upper the technology shifted toward the unipolar convergent flaking mode (Fig. 15). In contrast, all of the Levallois cores were used for flake production by either the recurrent centripetal or the lineal method of reduction (Fig. 12: 1, 4), while cores reduced by the unipolar convergent method were not recorded in the studied sample. Levallois points are rare in all units. However, among the Levallois products their frequencies are higher in the upper units (Table 6). Almost all unretouched Levallois points originate in Unit II. Retouched points occur in similar frequencies throughout Units I and II but are almost absent in Unit III (Fig. 16). The proportion of retouched flakes in the Nesher Ramla assemblages varies along the sequence. Retouched flakes constitute 9% in Unit I, 13% in Unit II upper, and over 20% in the lowest meter (103.6e102.7 m asl) of Unit II lower. In general, the tool-kit is restricted to a few dominant types, but their frequencies vary along

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

13

Figure 14. Naturally backed knife e 1; Levallois flakes e 2, 5; Side scrapers e 3, 4, 6, 7; Side-scraper rejuvenation flakes e 8, 9.

the sequence (Table 6; Fig. 16). The side-scrapers are by far the most frequent group in Units II lower and III (ca. 50%). They show an especially high degree of curation in Unit II lower, where they are made on the largest, most regular and carefully prepared blanks and retouched by intensive, regular invasive retouch, mostly along the entire length of the edge (Fig. 13: 3, 4, 7, 9; Fig. 14: 3, 4, 6, 7). A number of scraper rejuvenation flakes, similar to those reported from some of the European MP sites (Cornford, 1986; Fonton et al., 1991; Bourguignon, 1992; Roebroeks et al., 1997) were found in Units II lower and Unit III, indicating side-scraper recycling on site (Fig. 14: 8, 9). In contrast to the dominance of side-scrapers in the lower units, Units I and II upper exhibit a prevalence of Types 46e 49 of Bordes’ typology (Bordes, 1961). In addition, denticulates, which are virtually missing from the lower units, represent 10e15% of the assemblages in the upper part of the site. The retouched flake assemblages of all four units are also characterized by high frequencies of raclettes and naturally backed knives and a virtual absence of Upper Paleolithic types.

Discussion The Mousterian site of Nesher Ramla is located in a deep surface depression formed as a result of gravitational deformation, subsidence and collapse above karst cavities. The depression was not physically connected with underground cavities, located tens of meters below its bottom. The site acted as a sedimentary basin in which colluvial deposition was intermittent with in situ human activities. Throughout the sequence there are archaeological indications for minimal post-depositional movement, such as numerous concentrations of stones and artifacts that are laterally and vertically distinct, and animal bones in anatomical articulation. The continuous lens-like appearance of the lower stratigraphic units, without evidence of faults or disconformities, indicates that the site was not disturbed by postdepositional sagging or deformation. Except for soil-forming processes prominent mainly in Unit I, evidence for postdepositional disturbances at the site is minor. This is likely to be a consequence of the unique context of the site,

14

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Figure 15. Modes of Levallois flaking at Nesher Ramla according to the pattern of scars on the dorsal face of the Levallois debitage.

which like caves is closed and protected by surrounding walls, while at the same time not being subjected to the diagenesis that is characteristic of the Levantine caves (e.g., Karkanas et al., 2000). The other probable reason for the good preservation is the fast burial of the remains (Friesem et al., 2013). The massive collapses and slope failures manifested by large block of Nari scattered in the lower part of the depression occurred prior to hominin occupation of the site. After the initial collapses the colluviation was not massive or catastrophic, but rather slow and intermittent. The mode of delivery of the sediments into the site was probably such that short-lived phases of sediment yield alternated with periods of landscape stability. During the gaps in colluviation, humans may have occupied the site and/or pedogenic reworking in situ may have taken place. We suggest that the tempo of colluviation during the accumulation of the archaeological deposits may have been associated with changes in the configuration of the depression. Possible erosion of the chalk may have resulted in gradual slope retreat and widening of the upper part of the depression. This would provide constant low-energy input of Nari fragments and soil particles. The site exhibits pulses of intensive occupation manifested by increases in artifact density and numerous concentrations of manuports and bones. The lower part of the sequence includes the two most prominent phases of occupation (Units III and V), separated by a lowdensity deposit (Unit IV). The transition between units VIeV and IVe

III are sharp and contain unconformities that were not recorded in the upper 5 m of the sequence. Although the nature of disconformities is not yet clear, they may represent gaps in sedimentation during which the site was more intensively used. Units III and V exhibit dense superimposed surfaces extending over large areas and evidence for use of fire, indicating intensive occupation and fire-related activities. Although Unit IV is not sterile, the lack of manuports, large bones, combustion features and microscopic evidence for use of fire (Friesem et al., 2013) indicate that the site was either abandoned or used ephemerally. Unit II lower shows a different intensity and organization of occupation characterized by the presence of small, spatially unconnected concentrations of finds rather than the continuous surfaces seen in the lower part of the site. The densities of the lithics suggest several occupation peaks interfingered with phases of lower occupation intensity. The unit displays high frequencies of retouched tools, especially standardized, intensively retouched and occasionally recycled side-scrapers. Unit II upper and Unit I are characterized by low densities of animal bones and lithics. The lithic assemblage shows a shift toward a more expedient lithic technology, as reflected in lower frequencies of Levallois blanks and retouched tools. The retouched tool assemblage is dominated by informal tool types such as alternately retouched flakes and denticulates. No remains of bedded combustion features were found in Units I and II upper, although the relatively high frequency of burnt flints (Table 5) suggests the use of fire. Since the occupation was probably quasicontemporaneous with pedogenic reworking, the absence of bedded combustion structures is likely related to high rates of pedogenic alteration of the deposits. This may account for obliteration of such anthropogenic features as calcareous ash. However, the lack of structured hearths could be also due to progressively shorter human visits to the site. According to the OSL ages for the 8 m thick archaeological sequence, Nesher Ramla is the earliest known MP open-air site in the Mediterranean Levant and the only one that was repeatedly used during most of MIS 6 and 5. The lithic studies at the site indicate that the entire sequence represents a post-EMP facies of the Levantine Mousterian. The Nesher Ramla industry lacks true laminar and elongated Levallois components and is dominated by short, broad Levallois flakes. The beginning of the Mousterian occupation at Nesher Ramla (Units VI and V) was assigned an OSL age of ca. 170 ka. This age is in line with the earliest ages obtained by the TL method for the ‘later MP’ at Tabun (Tabun C, Unit I) and Hayonim upper E (Mercier and Valladas, 2003; Mercier et al., 2007), further supporting the proposal that the post-EMP phase began at around 170 ka (Bar-Yosef, 1998; Hovers, 2009).

Figure 16. Nesher Ramla typology according to stratigraphic units.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Although the studied lithic sample is relatively small, some conclusions on the place of the industry within the framework of the Levantine Middle Paleolithic already can be made. Despite its clear Levantine Mousterian technological affinities, the Nesher Ramla lithic assemblage differs from the majority of Mousterian assemblages known from both cave and open-air sites in the Levant. The open-air sites commonly exhibit low frequencies of Levallois debitage (IL), a low ratio of unretouched Levallois blanks among tools (ILty) and high technological and typological diversity (Ronen, 1974; Munday, 1977; Goren-Inbar, 1990b; Gilead, 1995; Hovers et al., 2008; Hovers, 2009). It has been suggested that these differences are the result of specific site functions, more intensive lithic reduction and higher expediency of the lithic technology in the open-air sites (Ronen, 1974; Jelinek, 1982; Hovers, 1990, 2009; Gilead, 1995; Meignen et al., 2006; Sharon et al., 2010). Both Levallois indices (IL and ILty) at Nesher Ramla are lower than in most of the cave sites (Jelinek, 1975, 1982; Ronen, 1984; Meignen and Bar-Yosef, 1991; Nishiaki and Copeland, 1992; Hovers, 1998, 2009), but higher than indices calculated for open-air sites (Ronen, 1974; Munday, 1977; Goren-Inbar, 1990b; Gilead, 1995). Moreover, the Nesher Ramla retouched tool assemblage differs sharply in composition from Levantine Mousterian cave and open-air sites alike. The tool-kit is highly standardized and consists of only a few dominant types. The lower levels of the site are characterized by a high frequency of carefully prepared side-scrapers, unprecedented in open-air sites and in the vast majority of caves in the Levant (see Hovers, 2009: Table 8.2, Fig. 8.5a). The presence of scraper rejuvenation flakes indicates on-site recycling and resharpening of side-scrapers, previously unreported from the Levantine Mousterian. Denticulates and notches, on the other hand, which are common types especially in open-air sites (Ronen, 1974; Gilead, 1980; Goren-Inbar, 1990b; Hovers et al., 2008), are virtually absent in the lower levels of Nesher Ramla. Nesher Ramla is the third Levantine Mousterian site in which remains of ochre have been found. Small chunks of ochre were found throughout the sequence. To date, only Skhul and Qafzeh caves (Hovers et al., 2003; d’Errico et al., 2010) have yielded ochre, both sites inhabited during the same time as Nesher Ramla. The small faunal assemblage studied so far allows only general conclusions. Nonetheless, it is already clear at this stage of research that Nesher Ramla differs in the composition of its faunal assemblage from other Levantine Mousterian sites. A dominance of aurochs generally characterizes open-air sites of the Levant. These typically represent ephemeral occupations containing low numbers of specimens and individual animals (e.g., Davis et al., 1988; Hovers et al., 2008; Sharon et al., 2010). In contrast, Levantine cave sites are usually dominated by smaller ungulates (gazelles and fallow deer) in terms of NISP, with aurochs perhaps being under-represented due to transport considerations (e.g., Rabinovich and Hovers, 2004; Stiner, 2005; Speth and Tchernov, 2007; Yeshurun et al., 2007; Yeshurun, 2013). The lower deposits of Nesher Ramla contain unprecedented amounts of faunal material for an open-air site in the Levant (Fig. 5) and are dominated by numerous aurochs individuals. Thus, the density of faunal remains is reminiscent of cave sites, but the dominance of the large ungulate (aurochs) is not. The presence of tortoises in Units II lower and III is unique in an open-air site but frequent in caves (e.g., Stiner, 2005). Similar to the large Levantine cave sites, Nesher Ramla was used repeatedly over a long period of time. Yet, the specific characteristics of the faunal and lithic assemblages suggest that the site was used in a different way from the caves. On the basis of the frequent faunal articulations, presence of complete bones, abundance of aurochs and highly standardized tool-kit, we hypothesize that the site was used as a hunting destination, where initial stages of butchery and some consumption took place as well. This hypothesis

15

will be tested by future detailed studies of the faunal remains and lithics. The clear behavioral changes recorded along the 8-m thick archaeological sequence suggest that the site embraces different types of hunting and consumption activities. Thus, extensive biggame hunting is manifested by the abundance of aurochs in the lower units, while the scarce remains in the upper part of the sequence may represent ephemeral visits. The clear decline in the intensity of human activities toward the upper levels suggests that the site lost its importance around 100 ka BP (thousands of years ago before present). Conclusions The new open-air sequence at Nesher Ramla provides exceptionally rich and variable evidence for open-air Levantine MP adaptations during most of MIS 6 and 5 (170e80 ka). The hominins occupied a karst depression that acted as a sedimentary basin in which hominin occupation was intermittent with low-energy colluvial deposition. The entire 8 m thick sequence represents a post-EMP phase of the Levantine Mousterian, commencing at 170 ka. According to the OSL chronology, the site was most intensively used between 170 and 140 ka and only ephemerally visited after 100 ka. Faunal assemblages show mixed characteristics, matching both open-air (abundance of aurochs) and cave (high density of bones and presence of tortoises) occupations. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a standardized tool-kit with prevalence of intensively retouched and occasionally recycled sidescrapers in the lower units with a shift toward denticulates and irregularly retouched flakes in the upper units. The site shows clear diachronic changes, with pulses of intensive occupation separated by low-density stages and a general tendency toward less intensive occupation and more expedient technology in the upper part of the sequence. Acknowledgments We thank the Nesher Ramla factory for funding the excavations and post-excavation laboratory analyses. During the field work we benefited from the help and support of Bokie Boaz, Yoram Golan and the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, the University of Haifa. Many thanks are due to Anna Belfer-Cohen, Erella Hovers and Mina Weinstein-Evron for their constructive comments on different drafts of this manuscript. The sedimentological analyses were conducted in the Agricultural Laboratory at Nave Ya’ar and the Archaeogeology Laboratory at the Zinman Institute of Archaeology, the University of Haifa. We thank Z. Dolgin for sample preparation for OSL dating and O. Yoffe and D. Shtober for chemical analyses. The lithic drawings were prepared by Elizabeta Maximov. Appendix A. Supplementary data Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.06.005. References Arensburg, B., Belfer-Cohen, A., 1998. Neandertals and moderns: re-thinking the Levantine Middle Paleolithic hominids. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 311e322. Bakalowicz, M.J., Ford, D.C., Miller, T.E., Palmer, A.N., Palmer, M.V., 1987. Thermal genesis of dissolution caves in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 99, 729e738. Bar-Yosef, O., 1998. The chronology of the Middle Palaeolithic of the Levant. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 39e56.

16

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17

Bar-Yosef, O., 2000. The Middle and early Upper Paleolithic in Southwest Asia and neighboring regions. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Pilbeam, D. (Eds.), The Geography of Neandertals and Modern Humans in Europe and the Greater Mediterranean. Peabody Museum Press, Cambridge, pp. 107e156. Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., 1993. Modern humans in the Levant. Sci. Am. 4, 94e100. Bar-Yosef, O., Meignen, L., 2007. Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Archaeology. Peabody Museum Press, Cambridge. Belmaker, M., Hovers, E., 2011. Ecological change and the extinction of the Levantine Neanderthals: implications from a diachronic study of micromammals from Amud Cave Israel. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 30, 3196e3209. Boëda, E., Griggo, C., Noël-Soriano, S., 2001. Différents modes d’occupation du site d’Umm El Tlel au cours du Paléolithique moyen (El Kowm, Syrie centrale). Paléorient 27, 13e27. Bordes, F., 1961. Typologie du Paléolithique Ancien et Moyen. Delmas, Bordeaux. Bøtter-Jensen, L., Bulur, E., Duller, G.A.T., Murray, A.S., 2000. Advances in luminescence instrument systems. Radiat. Meas. 32, 523e528. Bourguignon, L., 1992. Analyse du processus opératoire des coups de tranchet latéraux dans l’industrie moustérienne de l’abri du Musée (Les Eyzies-de-Tayac, Dordogne). Paléo 4, 69e89. Copeland, L., 1975. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic in Lebanon and Syria in the light of recent research. In: Wendorf, F., Close, A. (Eds.), Problems in Prehistory: North Africa and the Levant. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas, pp. 317e350. Cornford, J.M., 1986. Specialised resharpening techniques and evidence of handedness. In: Callow, P., Cornford, J.M. (Eds.), La Cotte de St. Brelade, Jersey. Excavations by C.B.M. McBurney 1961e1978. Geo Books, Norwich, pp. 337e351. Crew, H.L., 1976. The Mousterian site of Rosh Ein Mor. In: Marks, A.E. (Ed.), Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel. Vol. 1: The Avdat/ Aqev Area. SMU Press, Dallas, pp. 75e112. d’Errico, F., Salomon, H., Vignaud, C., Stringer, C., 2010. Pigments from the Middle Palaeolithic levels of Es-Skhul (Mount Carmel, Israel). J. Archaeol. Sci. 37, 3099e3110. Davis, S.J.M., Rabinovich, R., Goren-Inbar, N., 1988. Quaternary extinctions and population increase in Western Asia: the animal remains from Biq’at Quneitra. Paléorient 14, 95e105. Dublyansky, Y.V., 2000. Hydrothermal speleogenesis: its setting and peculiar features. In: Klimchouk, A.B., Ford, D.C., Palmer, A., Dreybrodt, W. (Eds.), Speleogenesis: Evolution of Karst Aquifers. National Speleological Society, Huntsville, pp. 292e297. Fleisch, S.J., 1970. Les habitats du paléolithique moyen à Naamé (Liban). Bull. Mus. Beyrouth 23, 25e93. Fonton, M., Lhomme, V., Christensen, M., 1991. Un cas de ‘réduction’ et de ‘transformation’ d’outil au Paléolithique moyen. Un racloir déjeté de la grotte de Coustal à Noailles (Corrèze). Paléo 3, 43e47. Friesem, D.E., Zaidner, Y., Shahack-Gross, R., 2013. Formation processes and combustion features at the lower layers of the Middle Palaeolithic open-air site of Nesher Ramla, Israel. Quatern. Int.. (in press). Frumkin, A., Gvirtzman, H., 2006. Cross-formational rising groundwater at an artesian karstic basin: the Ayalon Saline Anomaly, Israel. J. Hydrol. 318, 216e333. Frumkin, A., Karkanas, P., Bar-Matthews, M., Barkai, R., Gopher, A., ShahackGross, R., Vaks, A., 2009. Gravitational deformations and fillings of aging caves: the example of Qesem karst system, Israel. Geomorphology 106, 154e164. Frumkin, A., Bar-Yosef, O., Schwarcz, H.P., 2011. Possible paleohydrologic and paleoclimatic effects of human migration and occupation of the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. J. Hum. Evol. 60, 437e451. Galbraith, R.F., Roberts, R.G., Laslett, G.M., Yoshida, H., Olley, J.M., 1999. Optical dating of single and multiple grains of rock from Jinmium Rock Shelter, Northern Australia, Part 1: experimental design and statistical models. Archaeometry 41, 339e364. Garrod, D.A.E., Bate, D.M.A., 1937. The Stone Age of Mount Carmel. Vol. I. Excavations at the Wadi Mughara. Clarendon Press, Oxford. Gilead, I., 1980. A Middle Palaeolithic open-air site near Tell Far’ah, western Negev: preliminary report. Isr. Explor. J. 30, 52e62. Gilead, I., 1995. Problems and prospects in the study of Levallois technology in the Levant: the case of Fara II, Israel. In: Dibble, H.L., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), The Definition and Interpretation of Levallois Technology. Prehistory Press, Ann Arbor, pp. 79e92. Gilead, I., Grigson, C., 1984. Farah II: a Middle Paleolithic open-air site in the northern Negev, Israel. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 50, 71e97. Goren-Inbar, N., 1990a. Quneitra: a Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights. In: Qedem, vol. 31. Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem. Goren-Inbar, N., 1990b. The lithic assemblages. In: Goren-Inbar, N. (Ed.), Quneitra: a Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights, Qedem, vol. 31. Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem, pp. 61e167. Hauck, T., 2010. The Mousterian sequence of Hummal (Syria). Ph.D. Dissertation, Universität Basel. Hauck, T., 2011. The Mousterian sequence of Hummal and its tentative placement in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. In: Le Tensorer, J.-M., Jagher, R., Otte, M. (Eds.), The Lower and Middle Paleolithic of the Middle East and the Neighboring Regions. ERAUL 126, 309e323. Liège. Henry, D.O., 2003. Neanderthals in the Levant: Behavioral Organization and the Beginnings of Human Modernity. Continuum Press, London.

Hovers, E., 1986. The application of geographical models in prehistoric research: a case study from Biq’at Quneitra. J. Isr. Prehist. Soc. 19, 30e42. Hovers, E., 1990. The exploitation of raw material at the Mousterian Site of Quneitra. In: Goren-Inbar, N. (Ed.), Quneitra: a Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights, Qedem, vol. 31. Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem, pp. 150e167. Hovers, E., 1998. The lithic assemblages of Amud Cave: implications for the end of the Mousterian in the Levant. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 143e163. Hovers, E., 2001. Territorial behavior in the Middle Palaeolithic of the southern Levant. In: Conrad, N.J. (Ed.), Settlement Dynamics of the Middle Palaeolithic and the Middle Stone Age. Kerns Verlag, Tubingen, pp. 123e152. Hovers, E., 2006. Neandertals and modern humans in the Middle Paleolithic of the Levant: what kind of interaction? In: Conard, N.J. (Ed.), When Neandertals and Moderns Met. Kerns Verlag, Tubingen, pp. 65e86. Hovers, E., 2009. The Lithic Assemblages of Qafzeh Cave. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Hovers, E., Belfer-Cohen, A., 2013. On variability and complexity: lessons from the Levantine Middle Paleolithic Record. Curr. Anthropol. (in press). Hovers, E., Ilani, S., Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., 2003. An early case of color symbolism: ochre use by early modern humans in Qafzeh Cave. Curr. Anthropol. 44, 491e522. Hovers, E., Buller, A., Ekshtain, R., Oron, M., Yeshurun, R., 2008. Ein Qashish e a new Middle Paleolithic open-air site in northern Israel. J. Isr. Prehist. Soc. 38, 7e40. Howell, F.C., 1998. Evolutionary implications of altered perspectives on hominid demes and populations in the later Pleistocene of western Eurasia. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 5e27. Jacobs, Z., Duller, G.A.T., Wintle, A.G., 2003. Optical dating of dune sand from Blombos Cave, South Africa: II e single grain data. J. Hum. Evol. 44, 613e 625. Jelinek, A., 1975. A preliminary report on some Lower and Middle Paleolithic industries from the Tabun Cave, Mount Carmel (Israel). In: Wendorf, F., Marks, A.E. (Eds.), Problems in Prehistory: North Africa and the Levant. SMU Press, Dallas, pp. 279e316. Jelinek, A., 1977. A preliminary study of flakes from the Tabun Cave, Mt. Carmel. In: Arensburg, B., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Eretz-Israel 13. Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, pp. 87e96. Jelinek, A., 1982. The Middle Paleolithic in the southern Levant, with comments on the appearance of modern Homo sapiens. In: Ronen, A. (Ed.), The Transition from Lower to Middle Palaeolithic and the Origin of Modern Man, BAR International Series 151, pp. 57e104. Oxford. Karkanas, P., Bar-Yosef, O., Goldberg, P., Weiner, S., 2000. Diagenesis in prehistoric caves: the use of minerals that form in situ to assess the completeness of the archaeological record. J. Archaeol. Sci. 27, 915e929. Kaufman, D., 1999. Archaeological Perspectives on the Origins of Modern Humans: a View from the Levant. Bergin and Garvey, Westport. Klein, R.G., 2009. The Human Career. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Le Tensorer, J.-M., 2004. Nouvelles fouilles à Hummal (El Kowm, Syrie Centrale). Premiers résultats (1997e2001). In: Aurenche, O., Le Mière, M., Sanlaville, P. (Eds.), From the River to the Sea. The Palaeolithic and the Neolithic on the Euphrates and in the Northern Levant, Studies in Honour of Lorraine Copeland. BAR, Oxford, pp. 223e239. Lieberman, D.E., 1998. Neandertal and early modern human mobility patterns: comparing archaeological and anatomical evidence. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 263e275. Lieberman, D.E., Shea, J.J., 1994. Behavioral differences between archaic and modern humans in the Levantine Mousterian. Am. Anthropol. 96, 300e332. Marks, A.E., 1976. Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel, vol. 1. SMU Press, Dallas. Marks, A.E., 1977. Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel, vol. 2. SMU Press, Dallas. Meignen, L., 1998. A preliminary report on Hayonim Cave lithic assemblages in the context of the Near Eastern Middle Palaeolithic. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., BarYosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 165e180. Meignen, L., 2011. The contribution of Hayonim cave assemblages to the understanding of the so-called Early Levantine Mousterian. In: Le Tensorer, J.-M., Jagher, R., Otte, M. (Eds.), The Lower and Middle Paleolithic in the Middle East and Neighboring Regions. ERAUL 126, 85e100. Liège. Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., 1991. Les outils lithiques moustériens de Kebara (fouilles 1982e1985). In: Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B. (Eds.), Le Squelette Moustérien de Kebara 2, Cahiers de Paléoanthropologie. CNRS, Paris, pp. 49e85. Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., 1992. Middle Paleolithic variability in Kebara Cave, Israel. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Kimura, T. (Eds.), The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia. Hakusen-Sha, Tokyo, pp. 129e148. Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., Speth, J.D., Stiner, M.C., 2006. Middle Paleolithic settlement patterns in the Levant. In: Hovers, E., Kuhn, S.L. (Eds.), Transitions Before the Transition: Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Springer, New York, pp. 149e169. Mendelssohn, H., Yom-Tov, Y., 1999. Fauna Palestina: Mammalia of Israel. The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Jerusalem. Mercier, N., Valladas, H., 2003. Reassessment of TL age estimates of burnt flints from the Paleolithic site of Tabun Cave, Israel. J. Hum. Evol. 45, 401e409.

Y. Zaidner et al. / Journal of Human Evolution 66 (2014) 1e17 Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., Stringer, C., Joron, J.-L., 1993. Thermoluminescence date for the Mousterian burial site of Es-Skhul, Mt. Carmel. J. Archaeol. Sci. 20, 169e174. Mercier, N., Valladas, H., Froget, L., Joron, J.-L., Reyss, J.-L., Weiner, S., Goldberg, P., Meignen, L., Bar-Yosef, O., Belfer-Cohen, A., Chech, M., Kuhn, S.L., Stiner, M.C., Tillier, A.-M., Arensburg, B., Vandermeersch, B., 2007. Hayonim Cave: a TL-based chronology for the Levantine Mousterian Sequence. J. Archaeol. Sci. 34, 1064e1077. Morlan, R.E., 1994. Rodent bones in archaeological sites. Can. J. Archaeol. 18, 135e142. Munday, F.C., 1977. Nahal Aqev (D35): a stratified, open-air Mousterian occupation in the Avdat/Aqev area. In: Marks, A.E. (Ed.), Prehistory and Palaeoenvironments in the Central Negev, Israel, vol. 2. SMU Press, Dallas, pp. 35e60. Murray, A.S., Roberts, R.G., 1997. Determining the burial time of single grains of quartz using optically stimulated luminescence. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 152, 163e180. Nishiaki, Y., Copeland, L., 1992. Keoue Cave, northern Lebanon, and its place in the context of the Levantine Mousterian. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Kimura, T. (Eds.), The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia. Hakusen-Sha, Tokyo, pp. 107e127. Porat, N., 2007. Analytical Procedures in the Luminescence Dating Laboratory. Geological Survey of Israel Technical Report TR-GSI/2/2007 (in Hebrew). Rabinovich, R., 1990. Taphonomic research of the faunal assemblages from the Quneitra site. In: Goren-Inbar, N. (Ed.), Quneitra: a Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights, Qedem, vol. 31. Institute of Archaeology, Jerusalem, pp. 189e219. Rabinovich, R., Hovers, E., 2004. Faunal analysis from Amud Cave: preliminary results and interpretations. Int. J. Osteoarchaeol. 14, 287e306. Rabinovich, R., Biton, R., 2011. The Early-Middle Pleistocene faunal assemblages of Gesher Benot Ya’aqov e taphonomy and paleoenvironment. J. Hum. Evol. 60, 38e55. Rak, Y., 1998. Does any Mousterian cave present evidence of two hominid species? In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 353e366. Roebroeks, W., Kolen, J., Van Poecke, M., Van Gijn, A., 1997. ‘Site J’: an early Weichselian (Middle Palaeolithic) flint scatter at Maastricht-Belvedere, The Netherlands. Paléo 9, 143e172. Ronen, A., 1974. Tirat Carmel: a Mousterian Open-air Site in Israel. Institute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv. Ronen, A., 1979. Paleolithic industries. In: Horowitz, A. (Ed.), The Quaternary of Israel. Academic Press, New York, pp. 296e307. Ronen, A., 1984. Sefunim Prehistoric Sites, Mount Carmel, Israel. In: BAR 230. Oxford. Schwarcz, H.P., Rink, W.J., 1998. Progress in ESR and U-series chronology of the Levantine Paleolithic. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Bar-Yosef, O. (Eds.), Neandertals and Modern Humans in Western Asia. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 57e67. Schwarcz, H.P., Blackwell, B., Goldberg, P., Marks, A.E., 1979. Uranium series dating of travertine from archaeological sites. Nature 277, 558e560. Schwarcz, H.P., Grün, R., Vandermeersch, B., Bar-Yosef, O., Valladas, H., Tchernov, E., 1988. ESR dates for the hominid burial site of Qafzeh in Israel. J. Hum. Evol. 17, 733e737. Sharon, G., Grosman, L., Fluck, H., Melamed, Y., Rak, Y., Rabinovich, R., 2010. The first two excavation seasons at NMO: a Mousterian site at the bank of the Jordan River. Eurasian Prehist. 7, 135e157. Shea, J.J., 1993. Lithic use-wear evidence for hunting by Neanderthals and early modern humans from the Levantine Mousterian. Arch. Pap. Am. Anthropol. Assoc. 4, 189e197. Shea, J.J., 1998. Neandertal and early modern human behavioral variability: a regional scale approach to lithic evidence for hunting in the Levantine Mousterian. Curr. Anthropol. 39, S45eS78. Shea, J.J., 2003. The Middle Paleolithic of the East Mediterranean Levant. J. World Prehist. 17, 313e394. Singer, A., 2007. The Soils of Israel. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.

17

Speth, J.D., 2004. Hunting pressure, subsistence intensification and demographic change in the Levantine Late Middle Palaeolithic. In: Goren-Inbar, N., Speth, J.D. (Eds.), Human Palaeoecology in the Levantine Corridor. Oxbow Press, Oxford, pp. 149e166. Speth, J.D., 2006. Housekeeping, Neandertal-style: hearth placement and midden formation in Kebara Cave (Israel). In: Hovers, E., Kuhn, S.L. (Eds.), Transitions before the Transition: Evolution and Stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Springer, New York, pp. 171e188. Speth, J.D., Clark, J., 2006. Hunting and overhunting in the Levantine Late Middle Palaeolithic. Before Farming 3, 1e42. Speth, J.D., Tchernov, E., 2007. The Middle Palaeolithic occupations at Kebara Cave: a faunal perspective. In: Bar-Yosef, O., Meignen, L. (Eds.), Kebara Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel. The Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Archaeology, Part 1. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, pp. 165e260. Stiner, M.C., 2005. The Faunas of Hayonim Cave (Israel): a 200,000-Year Record of Paleolithic Diet, Demography and Society. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Cambridge. Stringer, C.B., 1989. Documenting the origins of modern humans. In: Trinkaus, E. (Ed.), The Emergence of Modern Humans: Biocultural Adaptations in the Later Pleistocene. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 67e96. Tchernov, E., 1981. The biostratigraphy of the Near East. In: Cauvin, J., Sanlaville, P. (Eds.), Prehistoire du Levant. CNRS, Paris, pp. 67e97. Tchernov, E., 1988. The paleobiogeographical history of the southern Levant. In: Yom-Tov, Y., Tchernov, E. (Eds.), The Zoogeography of Israel. Junk, Dordrecht, pp. 159e250. Trinkaus, E., 1995. Near Eastern Late Archaic humans. Paléorient 21, 9e24. Valladas, H., Reyss, J.-L., Joron, J.-L., Valladas, G., Bar-Yosef, O., Vandermeersch, B., 1988. Thermoluminescence dating of Mousterian ‘Proto-Cro-Magnon’ remains from Israel and the origin of modern man. Nature 331, 614e616. Vandermeersch, B., 1992. The Near Eastern hominids and the evolution of modern humans in Asia. In: Akazawa, T., Aoki, K., Kimura, T. (Eds.), The Evolution and Dispersal of Modern Humans in Asia. Hakusen-Sha, Tokyo, pp. 29e38. Weinstein-Evron, M., Bar-Oz, G., Zaidner, Y., Tsatskin, A., Druck, D., Porat, N., Hershkovitz, I., 2003. Introducing Misliya Cave: a new continuous Lower/Middle Palaeolithic sequence in the Levant. Eurasian Prehist. 1, 31e55. Weissbrod, L., Dayan, T., Kaufman, D., Weinstein-Evron, M., 2005. Micromammal taphonomy of el-Wad Terrace, Mount Carmel, Israel: distinguishing natural from cultural depositional agents in the Late Natufian. J. Archaeol. Sci. 32, 1e17. Wojtczak, D., 2011. Hummal (Central Syria) and its eponymous industry. In: Le Tensorer, J.-M., Jagher, R., Otte, M. (Eds.), The Lower and Middle Paleolithic in the Middle East and Neighbouring Regions. ERAUL 126, 289e308. Liège. Wolpoff, M.H., 1996. Human Evolution. In: College Custom Series. McGraw-Hill, New York. Yaalon, D.H., 1997. Soils in the Mediterranean region: what makes them different? Catena 28, 157e169. Yaalon, D.H., Ganor, E., 1973. The influence of dust on soils during the Quaternary. Soil Sci. 116, 146e155. Yeshurun, R., 2013. Middle Paleolithic prey-choice inferred from a natural pitfall trap: Rantis Cave, Israel. In: Clark, J.L., Speth, J.D. (Eds.), Zooarchaeology and Modern Human Origins: Human Hunting Behavior During the Later Pleistocene. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series. Springer, Dodrecht, pp. 45e58. Yeshurun, R., Bar-Oz, G., Weinstein-Evron, M., 2007. Modern hunting behavior in the early Middle Paleolithic: faunal remains from Misliya Cave, Mount Carmel, Israel. J. Hum. Evol. 53, 656e677. Zaidner, Y., Weinstein-Evron, M., 2013. Making a point: the early Mousterian toolkit at Misliya Cave, Israel. Before Farming (submitted for publication). Ziaei, M., Schwarcz, H.P., Hall, C.M., Grün, R., 1990. Radiometric dating at the Mousterian site at Quneitra. In: Goren-Inbar, N. (Ed.), Quneitra: a Mousterian Site on the Golan Heights. Institute of Archaeology, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, pp. 232e235.