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A spatial approach for the management of groundwater quality in tourist destinations
Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
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A spatial approach for the management of groundwater quality in tourist destinations Kaique Brito Silva a, Jonatas Batista Mattos b, * a b
Leclig, Institute of Geosciences, State University of Campinas, 250 Carlos Gomes St., Campinas, SP, 13083-855, Brazil PPGeo, Institute of Geosciences, Federal University of Bahia, Bar~ ao de Jeremoabo St., Ondina University Campus, Salvador, BA, 40170-020, Brazil
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Water and tourism Spatial analysis Aquifers Urban pollution GIS Chapada Diamantina
Water resources and tourism need to be thought of in an integrated way, in order to provide urban planners and tourism managers with tools to promote water security and water equity. The objective of this paper was to apply an index capable of identify problems at the water-tourism interface, based on a spatial approach in GIS, meant to support the management of groundwater quality in tourist destinations. This index was applied to a tourist destination in northeastern Brazil, which uses groundwater to maintain its tourism infrastructure. The geographic phenomenon analyzed showed a spatial pattern between water use and tourism, with probable in fluences in hydrochemistry of groundwater. We suggest that the use of the propose index associated to GIS may be part of strategic planning efforts contemplating the interaction between tourism, urban management and water security, thus guaranteeing the infrastructure essential to strengthening the economy of a tourist destination.
1. Introduction
1.1. Water use in tourist destinations
Various economic activities have extensive impact on water re sources, whether they use these resources directly (as in the case of in dustrial, agricultural and urban systems), or secondarily (as in the case of navigation and services). Activities of any sphere of the economy, whether large or small, affect the quality and quantity of water around the world (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2018). Among these, tourism has emerged as an activity of significant growth over the past decades, mainly due to transport and communication system improvements. The results is that, tourist destinations in different parts of the world, whether coastal or continental, have received an increased number of visitors (UNWTO, 2015). To provide and maintain a quality service, tourist destinations need water for direct (food, lodging, leisure) and indirect (virtual water) uses. The use of water in these destinations needs to be managed in a way that ensures fairness among water users (tourist and resident populations), and maintains water security. To this end, new methods need to be formulated and implemented, to elucidate problems and direct management. The main objective of this study is to propose an index based on a spatial approach, to support the manage ment of groundwater quality in tourist destinations. This objective is supported by a case study in the application of the proposed index.
Tourism is currently one of the largest economic sectors in the world, with an estimated market value of US$ 1,245 billion, and has experi enced exponential growth in the last decades (UNWTO, 2015). In addition to moving a large volume of resources, tourism generates numerous investment and employment opportunities (Banerjee, Cico wiez, & Cotta, 2016; Inchausti-Sintes, 2015; Liu & Wall, 2006; Solnet, Ford, Robinson, Ritchie, & Olsen, 2014). Like many human activities, tourism needs water for its operations. Some countries and regions €ssling et al., require large volumes, which are often unavailable (Go 2012). Apart from hygiene and food production, water use in tourism is essential for recreation, landscaping, sports and many other tourism€ssling, 2015; Hadjikakou, Chenoweth, & Miller, related activities (Go 2013; Tortella & Tirado, 2011). In many instances, the efficient man agement of water resources becomes a strategic necessity, guaranteeing the continuity of this important economic segment. The use of water in tourist destinations has been a concern in several regions of the world, since, according to Kent, Newnham, and Essex (2002), Styles, Schoenberger, and Galvez-Martos (2015) and G€ ossling (2015), tourism is responsible for increasing water consumption at local,
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.B. Silva), [email protected] (J.B. Mattos). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104079 Received 8 January 2020; Accepted 13 January 2020 Available online 22 January 2020 0261-5177/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
regional and global levels. When compared to other economic sectors, such as industry and agriculture, tourism’s use of water seems insig €ssling et al. (2012). How nificant on a global scale, as explained by Go ever, this perception does not pass scrutiny, since, according to Emmanuel and Spence (2009) and Hadjikakou et al. (2013), it fails to consider the concentrated spatial-temporal nature of touristic activities. In addition, water distribution in the world is unequal and some tourist destinations already show signs of water depletion either due to climatic change or increased demand in addition to the deterioration of quality by development pressures. Hof and Schmitt (2011), Stonich (1998), Tekken and Kropp (2015) detected problems in the water-tourism interface in the tourist destinations of Mallorca, at the Balearic Islands (Spain), Bay Islands (Honduras) and northeastern Morocco, respectively. The accommodation infrastructure, composed of hotels, inns, swimming pools, water parks, spas, restaurants, among others, con centrates the direct demand for water in tourist destinations (Charara, €ssling et al., 2012). In a global Cashman, Bonnell, & Gehr, 2010; Go market economy, tourism companies are obviously in competition, of fering potential clients more refined services in order to attract them. These additional services often mean higher water consumption. Also, depending on the region, the absence of efficient water management, in addition to water stress, can damage the public image and reputation of a tourist destination (Hadjikakou et al., 2013). Besides the availability of water, its quality is also a determining factor in considering tourism’s impacts. Contaminated water will jeop ardize certain tourist activities, as well as damage the public image of a destination. An example of this was examined by Kent et al. (2002), when addressing issues of water scarcity and water quality in the Balearic Island of Mallorca (Spain). These issues resulted in negative publicity in the German press, and consequently a significant reduction in the number of German tourists, which, according to Buswell (1996), represented about a third of all tourists arriving on the island. In this scenario, without the necessary policies and mechanisms for the adjustment of tourism’s water uses, it is possible to anticipate serious economic and social problems for those who directly depend on the sector.
use, from abstraction to sewage discharge, follows systematic environ mental quality standards. In sectors with high density of hotels and inns, the water consumption as well as discharge of effluents can be over whelmingly larger than in residential areas with similar population. Hence, these distinctions end up camouflaged by the homogenizing metrics of urban water consumption. 1.3. A geographical conception of the problem The emphasis of this research as well as its propositions are the result of observations made by Mattos, Cruz, De Paula, and Sales (2018a) from 15 groundwater wells, used by the tourism infrastructure in the urban area of Lenç� ois city, in northeastern Brazil. Some zones of this urban area showed a deterioration in the quality of groundwater in their aquifers. In their discussion, the authors hypothesized that this deteri oration was associated with tourism. Distances from the wells to the main elements of tourism infrastructure were determinants for varia tions in water quality. There is a spatial overlap of two geographic dimensions: natural groundwater systems, and anthropic tourism infrastructure systems. From a geographical perspective, such as the one proposed in this paper, this relationship can be synthesized in an approach that quantifies, weights and characterizes the influence of a given economic activity on natural systems. A geographical approach, even though it may have as its primary objective the promotion of ways to reestablish the environ ment’s natural balance, has to return to the social sphere in order to stimulate thinking and action in the proper management of natural resources. It is necessary to point out that, in general and over time, tourism has always been perceived by the population as a form of individual enter tainment, rarely being portrayed as an activity that can impact the environment (Liu & Wall, 2006). This narrow framing has the effect of overlooking the consequences of tourism, and failing to provide policies that regulate, for example, the load capacity of the destination and its infrastructure, local consumption patterns, socio-cultural impacts, or the social segregation generated by the massive commercialization of the landscape. The complex praxis of understanding and acting upon society’s re lations and its influence on environmental attributes requires a multi disciplinary effort for decision making that can mitigate impacts, as shown in experiments conducted by Karimi et al. (2015) and Pereira et al. (2015). An example of this effort in Brazil was the development of an index to understand the environmental state of a place and its rela tionship with water use: the Social Development Index (�Indice de Desenvolvimento Social – IDS), which aggregates the variables [1] in come, [2] access to drinking water, [3] sewage, [4] electric power, and [5] number of toilets in the district, to understand how the quality of life of the population (local and temporary) is affected by the presence or absence of drinking water (Cavallieri and Lopes, 2008; Amendola, 2017; ^ncio-Vieira, & Lebbos, Gomes, Sousa, & Hayashi, 2017; Santana, Ama 2017).
1.2. Pressures of urbanization and tourism on groundwater As a vector of urban agglomerates, i.e. cities and metropolises, increasing human numbers is certainly a factor in placing the quality and quantity of surface and watershed hydric resources under pressure. In the case of groundwater, negative impacts on the quality and avail ability of this resource, in urban scenarios, involve several aspects: high demand; continuous discharge of wastewater into soils and river envi ronments, and leaching of already degraded soil profiles (Lapworth et al., 2017; Li, Zhang, Yang, Jing, & Yu, 2016; Sorensen et al., 2015; Vaux, 2011). The magnitude of the effects depends on the size of urban cells (megacities, medium-sized cities, small towns, villages, settle ments) and on major economic activities (industry, agriculture, energy, tourism). In cities, where tourism is an important economic sector, reliance on groundwater to meet consumption needs, given the large flow of visi tors, significantly increases pressures on water availability in aquifers (Kelly and Williams, 2007). Quality-wise, the inadequate management of wastewater and solid waste in cities has been an obstacle to the use of groundwater, due to contamination, mainly by nitrates (Wakida & Lerner, 2005; Wu, Li, Wang, Ren, & Wei, 2019). These problems, besides causing serious environmental damage, can compromise services in tourist destinations, with negative economic and social consequences. The preponderance of these issues is in part due to an absence of regulations from management bodies when it comes to water used by tourist facilities in comparison to other sectors of the community, for example, political and environmental regulations governing water use operations in industrial and agricultural areas. In these instances, water
2. Methods 2.1. Study area �is, a tourist The study area chosen was the urban zone of Lenço destination in northeastern Brazil. It is located in the region of Chapada Diamantina (BA), between the geodesic coordinates 12� 330 12”; 12� 340 2700 S e 41� 230 49”; 41� 220 4300 W (Fig. 1). According to the Coor dination of Population and Social Indicators of the Brazilian Institute of �is, Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2018), the native population of Lenço in 2018, was estimated at 11,315 inhabitants, with approximately 7,000 �is is becoming an who reside in the urban area. Currently, Lenço increasingly popular domestic and international destination, receiving around 150,000 tourists per year. It is a destination with typical 2
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
Fig. 1. Map with location of the study area, spatial distribution of groundwater wells and elements of tourism infrastructure.
characteristics of highland (Almeida, Suguio, & Galv~ ao, 2012, pp. 285–293; Silva, Rego, Mattos, & Santos, 2016; Mattos et al., 2018b), with attractions such as rivers, waterfalls, canyons, caves, valleys and geological heritage (https://www.shutterstock.com/search/Chap adaþDiamantina). The water supply for most of the tourist infrastructure (TI) services in �is is provided from groundwater, using deep the urban area of Lenço wells for water extraction from the aquifers. The demand for water in this economic sector is higher than others, as it requires large volumes to maintain its facilities (food, cleaning, swimming pools, gardens, spas). The area is located in a regional sedimentary basin system (Mag ~es, Scherer, Raja Gabaglia, & Catuneanu, 2015) consisting of sedi alha mentary and meta-sedimentary rocks dating from the Mesoproterozoic era. Quartzite, quartz matrix conglomerates, sandstone, siltstone, are some of the predominant rocks in the region. Detrital covers from the Cenozoic era (river deposition) also occur. Groundwater occurs mainly in fissural, semi-confined and secondary porosity aquifers. In a small zone of the area there are unconfined sandy aquifers of high primary porosity as a result of alluvial surface deposits. Mattos et al. (2018a) report a low water-rock interaction, a low content of dissolved salts in groundwater and an aquifer zone influenced by indirect recharge of wastewater. The mean annual rainfall is 1,105 mm according to his torical series of the National Institute of Meteorology - INMET (1943–2018). �is, it is essential for As tourism is the main economic activity of Lenço a water resources review to be conducted to avoid future imbalances and conflicts over the use of water, as reported in countries such as Indonesia, Tanzania and Nicaragua, and reported by Cole (2012), €ssling (2001) and LaVanchy (2017), respectively. Some similar Go
conflicts also exist in Sri Lanka, Fiji, Egypt and India (Becken, 2014). �is has of spatial occurrences of the relations of environmental Lenço problematic contextualized: the groundwaters are the basis for the water supply of the tourism sector in the municipality, and concomitant to this, it is expected to be a growth of the sector in the coming decades and as a consequence, an imminent increase in the pressure on the availability and quality of these waters. Thus, our proposal and associated discussion is presented as an able alternative of mitigating current and future im pacts on groundwater. 2.2. Analytical approach To determine the relationship between tourism and groundwater quality in the urban area of a tourist destination, we propose a spatial approach that can integrate, by means of an index, areas of dense tourist activity and the use of groundwater from underlying aquifers and their associated chemistry. The data necessary for the development of the index were the number of elements of tourism infrastructure (lodging, restaurants and shops), number of wells to access the aquifers and the water chemistry obtained by sampling the wells. The collected data were introduced into the Geographic Information System (GIS), for spatial analysis and to generate maps capable of spatially representing sectors impacted by tourism. The territorial unit chosen for analysis was the census tract, commonly used by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) established for registry control purposes and formed by a contiguous area inside an urban or rural zone, its dimension is adequate for the collection of census data by field census researchers. The proposed index and the generated maps have the potential to 3
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
support strategic planning of groundwater used in tourist destinations to help decision-makers with a series of issues involving the groundwater effects of tourism. Fig. 2 illustrates the analytical approach, encom passing the formulation of the index, employment of GIS, and implica tions for water resource management. The index is expected to have direct application in policy development regarding monitoring of contamination risk zones, construction and maintenance of efficient urban water systems, adequate disposal of solid waste, water allocation, urban and touristic planning.
Average depth of the wells was 86.5 m. Spatial distribution of the sample stations was conditioned by the availability of the wells. Part of the hydrogeochemical interpretation of the data was performed using multivariate statistics (cluster analysis), which was incorporated in our results in order to corroborate the evidence of influence of the tourism infrastructure on groundwater quality. The cluster analysis included hydrochemical information that distinguishes individual points and provides the means for identifying spatial patterns from GIS. To quantify tourism’s influence, nitrate ion values were incorporated into the proposed index. This ion is an indicator of anthropogenic contamination in groundwater, as shown by the studies of Anayah and Almasri (2009), Nolan, Green, Juckem, Liao, and Reddy (2018) and Li et al. (2019). The structure of the mechanism and the function of this hydrochemical parameter as well as other elements are detailed in Section 2.5.
2.3. Sampling and hydrochemical data To collect groundwater samples, the technical guidelines of the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, 2012) were followed (for water extraction from the wells, and for the storage and transport of samples to the chemical laboratory). Some physical and chemical parameters can be measured in the field using multiparameter probes, such as: electrical conductivity, pH, tempera ture and dissolved oxygen. For this study, secondary data was used from a study conducted by Mattos et al. (2018a) – who interpreted the natural and anthropic processes controlling hydrogeochemistry of groundwater during two climatic periods, in the same area of study. As described by Mattos et al. (2018a), the samples were collected from fifteen deep wells using low-flow pumps. Before each sampling, the wells were purged to discard the stagnant water in the well column.
2.4. Spatial analysis (Geoprocessing) Through GIS, spatial analyses were performed for the processing of the collected data. Kernel estimator was chosen as the procedure for TI element density generation. The Kernel estimator is a non-parametric statistical function that estimates the probability density of a random variable. In spatial statistics, this method estimates density curves that are weighted by distance from a central value. In GIS, on a map, this estimator does not take into account the mean and the standard
Fig. 2. Analytical approach of the index proposed to assist management of groundwater in tourist destinations. 4
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
deviation, but rather the position of control stations or sampling sta tions. Application of the estimator allows for the grouping of informa tion, to generate a thematic map from a cluster, highlighting hot spots in the analyzed area (East, Osborne, Kemp, & Woodfine, 2017; Kilibarda, Tadic, Hengl, Lukovic, & Bajat, 2015).
Table 2 Number of wells and weight of each class.
2.5. Structure of the TGH index On the Cartesian plane, distribution of enterprises making up the tourism infrastructure, such as hotels, restaurants and commerce, demonstrate spatial patterns of economic activity, especially consid ering that such infrastructure is installed mainly in city centers and rarely in peripheral areas (Hadjikakou et al., 2013). Thus, tourism and its degree of influence on the quality of groundwater can be initially investigated through the TI geographical positions and the density of the infrastructure supporting this economic sector. To adapt TGH to any locality, it is proposed that the analysis should consider some territorial boundary (tu). Based on territorial limits at the urban scale, such as neighborhoods, districts or in the case of Brazil census tracts, we can estimate the influence of activities related to tourism visualizing the amount of TI in tu. The amount of TI in a given tu can be understood as weights, ie the more tourism-related structures, greater the weight (Table 1). �is, 122 was the total TI distributed in four census In the case of Lenço tracts. The census tracts that have a value above 40% of the total TI receive maximum weight, that is, the sector above 50 TI is assigned a value of 10. Going downwards, weights encompass a total TI in five weight levels, down to the minimum weight (value 1) which indicates a total TI less than 5% of the total. The arbitrariness of the proposed weights in classes, specifically at 5 levels, is a way of observing how much a given class can represent as a share of the total. This methodo logical approach involving water resources studies is also observed in the research by Moretto et al. (2012). The same mechanism is applied to the number of groundwater wells in the urban area’s four census tracts (Table 2). The higher the number of wells per sector, the greater its weight input to the calculation of the proposed index. Wells represent use of water from aquifers in each sector. If a sector does not have a well, however, groundwater is not used and the index should consider the minimum weight, because the geographic phenomenon discussed here depends on the attributes related to the well. The third index variable is composed of nitrate anion mg l 1 levels (Table 3) and is directly linked to the number of wells, since the samples for analysis are to be extracted from them, and, whenever possible, the nitrate value for each sector is to be associated with the median (statistic), controlled by the number of wells. Definition of nitrate weight ranges was based on standards from the Brazilian Ministry of Health Ordinance Consolidation 5/2017, XX (BRASIL. Minist� erio da Saúde, 2017) establishing 10 mg l 1 as the maximum acceptable value (mav) for groundwater. Thus, any occur rence greater than mav was defined as very high, being associated with the maximum weight input. Each region in the world has their own characteristics and a specific context, so the choice of the hydrochemical parameter for the index is flexible, adapting to the reality of the tourist destination. It can be chloride, sulfate, sodium, iron, or even a micro biological parameter (bacteria, protozoan). However, in order to compose the weight scale of the chosen parameter, we suggest that
Scaled weights
Very high - > 50 High - > 30 � 50 Medium - > 15 � 30 Low - > 5 � 15 Very low - 1 � 5
10 7 5 3 1
Scaled weights
Very high - > 7 High - > 5 � 7 Medium - > 3 � 5 Low - > 1 � 3 Very low - 1
10 7 5 3 1
Table 3 Nitrate content and weight of each class. NO3 content (mg l 1)
Scaled weight
Very high - >10 High - > 5 � 10 Medium - > 3 � 5 Low - > LQM � 3 Very low - < LQM
10 7 5 3 1
reference be made to local regulations from federal or state health and environment agencies or WHO standards (WHO, 2011). The units can also be represented in molar or milliequivalent ratios without any technical implication in the index, given they will be converted into dimensionless weights. The defined weights are combined as an index that interprets the studied geographic phenomenon (tourism’s influence on groundwater quality), projecting it to a scaled index, in which values of 0.7–1.0, 0.4–0.69 and 0.0–0.39 are interpreted as high, medium and low influ ence to hydrochemistry of groundwater, respectively. Viewing the re sults in three levels is a didactic way of translating, in numbers, levels of low, regular and high geographical relationship of the proposed com ponents (Moretto et al., 2012). The structure of the index is described below: TGH ¼
ðQW*2Þ þ ðQI*3Þ þ ðQN*5Þ 100
(1)
In which, TGH indicates the level of influence of TI units on groundwater quality, QI is the weight attributed to the number of TI units per territorial unit, QW is the weight attributed to the number of groundwater wells per territorial unit, and QN is the water hydro chemical variable. The weight 5 for QN is due to being an indicator of well contamination. Weight 2 for QW is because wells are consolidated structures, unlike QI (weight 3) which varies over the years or seasons. In the creation of environmental indexes, the attribution of weights to variables composing the geographic space is a fundamental tech nique, allowing for the visualization of how determinant an environ mental component is in the processes, phenomena and interactions of natural and anthropic systems (Ashbolt, Grabow, & Snozzi, 2001; Kang, Kim, & Lee, 2002; Murena, 2004; Zhou, Ang, & Poh, 2006). Influence weighting requires an effort on the part of the researcher, considering that the challenge is to equate the variables of a given problem, gener ating results that represent reality more effectively. The design of the TGH index is based on parameters related to, above all, the influence of anthropic systems on natural groundwater reser voirs. Specific weights of variables that represent [1] the quantified tourism infrastructure, [2] number of wells per census tract, and [3] NO3 levels were based on studies that created indexes to assess quality of groundwater in regard to anthropization, such as Ramakrishnaiah, Sadashivaiah and Ranganna (2009), Vasanthavigar, Srinivasamoorthy and Vijayaragavan (2010) and Przemyslaw, Anna, and Christine (2016).
Table 1 TI number and weight of each class. (TI/tu)
(Wells/tu)
5
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3. Results and discussion
From the results obtained by the TGH index, we understand that the �is shows a trend already observed in other scenario projected for Lenço tourist destinations around the world, such as Bali (Cole, 2012), Beni dorm (Rico-Amoros, Sauri, Olcina-Cantos, & Vera-Rebollo, 2013) and Gigante (LaVanchy, 2017), which presented evidences of a direct rela tionship between tourism and groundwater environmental impacts. The �is, with influence of tourism on the identification of a sector in Lenço hydrochemistry of groundwater, brings up a series of important ques tions to be considered by managers of other tourist destinations within the scope of urban management. It is important to note that our database is small but still representative for the chosen spatial unit. We encourage the use of a database with more wells and observations of hydro chemistry, as the results will certainly be more robust.
3.1. Tourism and hydrochemistry of groundwater (spatial patterns) Geoprocessing allowed the identification of spatial patterns in each census tract, revealing different hydrochemical contexts. Systematiza tion of urban elements closely linked to tourist activity (Table 4) was based on subdivisions of each census tract. Approximately 120 enter prises use water in ways that may affect local aquifers’ water quality, especially in areas adjacent to the 15 mapped wells. For each sector there is a corresponding nitrate value. Note that the values are extremely low and do not refer to waters unfit for consumption according to WHO standards. However, sector 2 presented a relatively higher value than the others, which represents signs of contamination. Mattos et al. (2018a) shows that at the limits of census tract 2 the natural condition of groundwater may be affected by indirect artificial recharge (wastewater). In this study, the authors represent the data spatially in the form of clusters (multivariate statistics), calculated from the major ions and some physical parameters (pH, electrical conduc tivity). Fig. 3 shows a spatial pattern which suggests that the recharge may be occurring from losses in the urban water system, in an area where there is a greater intensity of tourist activity from TI units. Clusters represented on the map show the hydrochemical patterns of each point. There are significant distinctions between some of them, for example clusters 3 and 4. Clusters 3 and 4 (dry and rainy period, respectively) are composed of groundwater wells with the highest concentrations of dissolved ions, such as nitrate, sulfate and chloride, which are indicative of contami nation by anthropogenic sources. These clusters are situated in Sector 2, where there is the largest hot spot of local tourism and a higher asso ciated risk. Flow of groundwater in the hot spot zone is also directed to clusters 3 and 4 (SE direction), reinforcing the hypothesis of influence of tourism infrastructure over these waters. It is worth noting that the representations of underground flows are optimized for granular (isotropic) aquifers, while the aquifer in the analyzed sector is fissural, thus having anisotropic characteristics that can create uncertainties in the reading of underground flows. Therefore, we present a spatial and indirect alternative (Fig. 4) that may illustrate trends of the analyzed geographic phenomenon. As shown in the map (Fig. 4), according to the TGH index the in fluence of TI over groundwater is low in sector 1 because of the low urban density; use of groundwater and number of TI units were also low. In addition, the zones that use groundwater in this sector are green spaces and peripheral areas, away from any anthropogenic source with potential to contaminate aquifers with nitrates. Sector 2, on the other hand, presents a higher value, since it has a higher number of TI units, greater use of underground water and greater concentration of nitrate in the waters. In this sector, the spatial pattern is clear, and illustrates the influence of an economic sector (with high potential of producing waste and wastewater) over the hydrochemistry of an urban aquifer. Sector 3 has a low influence of TI, since it is a peripheral and residential zone, with the lowest number of TI units among the analyzed sectors. In sector 4, the influence of TI is also low, presenting a similar pattern to sector 3, since it is also a peripheral and residential zone, although containing a greater number of TI units.
3.2. Socioeconomic aspects Analysis of the groundwater quality in Lenç� ois indicates that there is no necessary relationship with socio-environmental indicators. These indicators should, theoretically, reveal variations in water quality due to varying access to sanitary infrastructure depending on socio-economic conditions. Even in neighborhoods that may have better levels of human development, groundwater may have similar contamination levels to more socially vulnerable places. For example, when tracing a longitudinal profile between the SW > NE directions, which allows the visualization of peripheral districts and the city center, areas with lower IDS present a low concentration of nitrate in the groundwater, when compared to central areas of the city (Fig. 5). Central areas, which are more economically active, have higher rates of aquifer pollution in comparison to residential and peripheral areas. This pattern was also observed by Nguyen et al. (2017) and Zheng and Kahn (2017), whose Asian case studies show a necessary relationship between surface water and groundwater pollution, especially in the central areas of cities. IDS considers variables related to income and basic sanitation, such as availability of piped water and the presence of a �is, the IDS mean value in the city center was sewage network. For Lenço 0.665 (values ranged from 0.6 to 0.7), while peripheral areas presented a mean value of 0.603. In case of a necessary relationship between IDS and water quality, the presence of higher-income residences, hotel de velopments, well-maintained streets, among others, should be indica tive, in theory, of a better water sanitation scenario (Gomes et al., 2017; Santana et al., 2017). The variables “income” and “access to basic sanitation”, on the contrary, show a financial and social pattern in which economic pros perity is in complete antagonism to maintenance of groundwater qual ity. It should be emphasized that concerns for environmental sanitation primarily take into account the quality of surface waters, with the relationship between surface water and poor quality of groundwater presenting a double health-risk vector (especially for temporary pop ulations) in places that depend on water wells (Amendola, 2017; Chagas et al., 2017; Diniz & Sequeira, 2016). Concern for travelers’ health has been a highlight in discussions of the World Tourism Organization, since tourism can become an acute vector in the acquisition and dispersion of diseases. The TGH index, when adapted to each regional (hydrochemical) scenario, may present results that show sectors with consumption of inferior-quality
Table 4 Number of wells, TI units and nitrate content per sector. Census tract
Wells
1 2 3 4
1 4 4 6
a
a
Tourism Infrastructure
NO3 (mg l
Accommodation
Restaurants
Trading
Total
Median
10 22 6 11
7 46 – –
3 17 – –
20 85 6 11
< LQM 5.2 1.8 1.2
Sourced from Mattos et al. (2018a). 6
1
)
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
Fig. 3. Overlay map with spatial distribution of hydrochemistry (clusters) of wells, groundwater flow and TI density. Numbers identify census tracts
groundwater, and this may have direct implications for tourist contamination scenarios, as observed in the studies of Teles (2005) in southeast Brazil and Rack et al. (2005) in Europe and Africa.
normalize anomalies in the urban water system. In tourist destinations, public-private partnerships can be a potential alternative to optimize the process of groundwater management, as pointed out by Custodio et al. (2016). Such partnerships can promote dialogue among water users, mitigate and offset impacts, and raise technical, political and economic resources to enable the necessary actions. Traditional and costly engineering interventions are not the only option to solve water problems in an urban territory, as shown by Ivey et al. (2006), who addressed the capacity of the municipality of Wa terloo (Canada) to protect its sources of water supply by integrating land and water management objectives with social and political commit ment. The authors also reiterate the importance of technical, financial and human resources, pointing out that with creativity and leadership in the planning departments, processes for the protection of water re sources have been much more effective. Rico-Amoros et al. (2013), in addressing water management alternatives for mass tourism on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, also presents a scenario based on inno �is, productive capacities, when vation and commitment. Thus, in Lenço associated with the appropriate technical resources and political will, can help develop and implement a municipal master plan to reorganize the tourist space, decentralize activities, establish sanitary standards, protect water sources and, consequently, mitigate impacts on groundwater.
3.3. Implications for groundwater management For effective groundwater management, tourist destination policymakers and managers can use the information generated by the TGH index and GIS to better evaluate decisions related to the water-tourism interface. New methodologies and policies need to be encouraged, allowing for cost-effective solutions, adapted to each regional scenario, as shown by Koç, Bakıs¸, and Bayazit (2017) when analyzing these issues �is, the TGH index in the Bodrum Peninsula, Turkey. In the case of Lenço can help direct an urban infrastructure project, in order to properly allocate wastewater, eliminating a possible source of contamination of the aquifer. �is, measures to guarantee groundwater quality in Similar to Lenço sectors of the Akumal tourist destination in the Caribbean (Quintana Roo, Mexico) were suggested by Hern� andez-Terrones, Null, Ortega-Camacho, and Paytan (2015), who diagnosed contaminants originating from tourism and faults in the sanitary system. According to the authors, the proposed measures had the objective of protecting the �is, the economic coastal ecosystem and the local economy. For Lenço implications of that rationale are obvious, and local management of water resources needs to guarantee that the necessary measures treat the environment as a business partner, and natural resources as a product of great economic value. �is, tourist demand is expected to increase, and there is In Lenço already an increase in the number of water wells. The small urban aquifer, however, presents low or medium hydrogeological potential, thus reinforcing the urgent need to formulate strategies to guarantee �is are private. Their eventual water security. Water wells in Lenço contamination, on the other hand, would be collective. Thus, joint ac tions between enterprises and public agencies are necessary, to
4. Conclusions �is shows The methodological approach applied to the city of Lenço that if TI numbers, number of wells and hydrochemistry are known for a given area, one can estimate the level of influence of tourism activity on the quality of groundwater. The geographic phenomenon analyzed �is, showed a spatial pattern between water use and tourism in Lenço highlighting the identification of a zone with high TI density that probably influences the hydrochemistry of groundwater. Nitrate values are low, and according to WHO standards the waters are not unfit for 7
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
Fig. 4. Map with TGH index classification for each census tract.
destinations across the world. In many instances of higher contamina tion and very high values of an ion, the spatial pattern will be better defined. With the TGH index and GIS, we have shown to the interna tional scientific community that some problems in the water-tourism interface can be solved from a geographical perspective that can pro mote an effective interaction of tourism management with water secu rity, directing groundwater quality control policies, coordinating water allocation actions (when necessary), and executing engineering in terventions that seek urban environmental sanitation. We argue here that our results may encourage future research in this field, to monitor the evolution of groundwater contamination and also to know the level of pressure exerted by TI water consumption on urban aquifers. This is supported by the possibility of an eventual collapse in �is, where the main local eco the availability of groundwater in Lenço nomic sector could be compromised and imminent conflicts between water users may occur. In a crisis scenario, tourism will resort to the small shallow water source responsible for providing water to the native population, which may cause a significant imbalance in the rules of water supply and demand in this tourist destination.
Fig. 5. Relationship between groundwater hydrochemistry and social and economic levels.
Author contributions
consumption. However, there is clearly a deviation in the pattern of local natural hydrochemistry in some sectors, probably due to the mobilization of tourism wastewater. It is worth noting that this study’s results cannot be seen as conclusive. They are, however, consistent with the evidence. In addition, it is very clear that, in the studied urban environment, TI units are the largest wastewater producers. The spatial analyses carried out here help elucidate the geographic phenomenon under discussion, and the generated maps propose numerous alternatives for the management of water resources in tourist
Kaique Brito Silva (KBS) designed the research, Jonatas Batista Mattos (JBM) provided the data and did the fieldwork. KBS developed the methodology. JBM interpreted the results. KBS and JBM wrote and improve the manuscript. Declaration of competing interest None. 8
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
Acknowledgments
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PhD candidate Kaique Brito Silva. The author is Geographer and PhD candidate in Geography from State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), in Campinas City, SP, Brazil. Her research line focuses on Geography and Water Resources, with emphasis on public development policies and the influence of economic sectors on water resources.
PhD candidate Jonatas Batista Mattos. The author is Geog rapher and PhD candidate in Geosciences from Federal Uni versity of Bahia (UFBA), in Salvador city, Brazil. He develops studies at the society-nature interface, interpreting environ mental processes and their implications for geographical space, environment, economy, social welfare and world development. Its main lines of work are committed to solving problems be tween water resources and several economic sectors (food production, tourism, cities, industry).
10
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Tourism Management journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/tourman
A spatial approach for the management of groundwater quality in tourist destinations Kaique Brito Silva a, Jonatas Batista Mattos b, * a b
Leclig, Institute of Geosciences, State University of Campinas, 250 Carlos Gomes St., Campinas, SP, 13083-855, Brazil PPGeo, Institute of Geosciences, Federal University of Bahia, Bar~ ao de Jeremoabo St., Ondina University Campus, Salvador, BA, 40170-020, Brazil
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Water and tourism Spatial analysis Aquifers Urban pollution GIS Chapada Diamantina
Water resources and tourism need to be thought of in an integrated way, in order to provide urban planners and tourism managers with tools to promote water security and water equity. The objective of this paper was to apply an index capable of identify problems at the water-tourism interface, based on a spatial approach in GIS, meant to support the management of groundwater quality in tourist destinations. This index was applied to a tourist destination in northeastern Brazil, which uses groundwater to maintain its tourism infrastructure. The geographic phenomenon analyzed showed a spatial pattern between water use and tourism, with probable in fluences in hydrochemistry of groundwater. We suggest that the use of the propose index associated to GIS may be part of strategic planning efforts contemplating the interaction between tourism, urban management and water security, thus guaranteeing the infrastructure essential to strengthening the economy of a tourist destination.
1. Introduction
1.1. Water use in tourist destinations
Various economic activities have extensive impact on water re sources, whether they use these resources directly (as in the case of in dustrial, agricultural and urban systems), or secondarily (as in the case of navigation and services). Activities of any sphere of the economy, whether large or small, affect the quality and quantity of water around the world (Mekonnen & Hoekstra, 2018). Among these, tourism has emerged as an activity of significant growth over the past decades, mainly due to transport and communication system improvements. The results is that, tourist destinations in different parts of the world, whether coastal or continental, have received an increased number of visitors (UNWTO, 2015). To provide and maintain a quality service, tourist destinations need water for direct (food, lodging, leisure) and indirect (virtual water) uses. The use of water in these destinations needs to be managed in a way that ensures fairness among water users (tourist and resident populations), and maintains water security. To this end, new methods need to be formulated and implemented, to elucidate problems and direct management. The main objective of this study is to propose an index based on a spatial approach, to support the manage ment of groundwater quality in tourist destinations. This objective is supported by a case study in the application of the proposed index.
Tourism is currently one of the largest economic sectors in the world, with an estimated market value of US$ 1,245 billion, and has experi enced exponential growth in the last decades (UNWTO, 2015). In addition to moving a large volume of resources, tourism generates numerous investment and employment opportunities (Banerjee, Cico wiez, & Cotta, 2016; Inchausti-Sintes, 2015; Liu & Wall, 2006; Solnet, Ford, Robinson, Ritchie, & Olsen, 2014). Like many human activities, tourism needs water for its operations. Some countries and regions €ssling et al., require large volumes, which are often unavailable (Go 2012). Apart from hygiene and food production, water use in tourism is essential for recreation, landscaping, sports and many other tourism€ssling, 2015; Hadjikakou, Chenoweth, & Miller, related activities (Go 2013; Tortella & Tirado, 2011). In many instances, the efficient man agement of water resources becomes a strategic necessity, guaranteeing the continuity of this important economic segment. The use of water in tourist destinations has been a concern in several regions of the world, since, according to Kent, Newnham, and Essex (2002), Styles, Schoenberger, and Galvez-Martos (2015) and G€ ossling (2015), tourism is responsible for increasing water consumption at local,
* Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K.B. Silva), [email protected] (J.B. Mattos). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104079 Received 8 January 2020; Accepted 13 January 2020 Available online 22 January 2020 0261-5177/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Tourism Management 79 (2020) 104079
regional and global levels. When compared to other economic sectors, such as industry and agriculture, tourism’s use of water seems insig €ssling et al. (2012). How nificant on a global scale, as explained by Go ever, this perception does not pass scrutiny, since, according to Emmanuel and Spence (2009) and Hadjikakou et al. (2013), it fails to consider the concentrated spatial-temporal nature of touristic activities. In addition, water distribution in the world is unequal and some tourist destinations already show signs of water depletion either due to climatic change or increased demand in addition to the deterioration of quality by development pressures. Hof and Schmitt (2011), Stonich (1998), Tekken and Kropp (2015) detected problems in the water-tourism interface in the tourist destinations of Mallorca, at the Balearic Islands (Spain), Bay Islands (Honduras) and northeastern Morocco, respectively. The accommodation infrastructure, composed of hotels, inns, swimming pools, water parks, spas, restaurants, among others, con centrates the direct demand for water in tourist destinations (Charara, €ssling et al., 2012). In a global Cashman, Bonnell, & Gehr, 2010; Go market economy, tourism companies are obviously in competition, of fering potential clients more refined services in order to attract them. These additional services often mean higher water consumption. Also, depending on the region, the absence of efficient water management, in addition to water stress, can damage the public image and reputation of a tourist destination (Hadjikakou et al., 2013). Besides the availability of water, its quality is also a determining factor in considering tourism’s impacts. Contaminated water will jeop ardize certain tourist activities, as well as damage the public image of a destination. An example of this was examined by Kent et al. (2002), when addressing issues of water scarcity and water quality in the Balearic Island of Mallorca (Spain). These issues resulted in negative publicity in the German press, and consequently a significant reduction in the number of German tourists, which, according to Buswell (1996), represented about a third of all tourists arriving on the island. In this scenario, without the necessary policies and mechanisms for the adjustment of tourism’s water uses, it is possible to anticipate serious economic and social problems for those who directly depend on the sector.
use, from abstraction to sewage discharge, follows systematic environ mental quality standards. In sectors with high density of hotels and inns, the water consumption as well as discharge of effluents can be over whelmingly larger than in residential areas with similar population. Hence, these distinctions end up camouflaged by the homogenizing metrics of urban water consumption. 1.3. A geographical conception of the problem The emphasis of this research as well as its propositions are the result of observations made by Mattos, Cruz, De Paula, and Sales (2018a) from 15 groundwater wells, used by the tourism infrastructure in the urban area of Lenç� ois city, in northeastern Brazil. Some zones of this urban area showed a deterioration in the quality of groundwater in their aquifers. In their discussion, the authors hypothesized that this deteri oration was associated with tourism. Distances from the wells to the main elements of tourism infrastructure were determinants for varia tions in water quality. There is a spatial overlap of two geographic dimensions: natural groundwater systems, and anthropic tourism infrastructure systems. From a geographical perspective, such as the one proposed in this paper, this relationship can be synthesized in an approach that quantifies, weights and characterizes the influence of a given economic activity on natural systems. A geographical approach, even though it may have as its primary objective the promotion of ways to reestablish the environ ment’s natural balance, has to return to the social sphere in order to stimulate thinking and action in the proper management of natural resources. It is necessary to point out that, in general and over time, tourism has always been perceived by the population as a form of individual enter tainment, rarely being portrayed as an activity that can impact the environment (Liu & Wall, 2006). This narrow framing has the effect of overlooking the consequences of tourism, and failing to provide policies that regulate, for example, the load capacity of the destination and its infrastructure, local consumption patterns, socio-cultural impacts, or the social segregation generated by the massive commercialization of the landscape. The complex praxis of understanding and acting upon society’s re lations and its influence on environmental attributes requires a multi disciplinary effort for decision making that can mitigate impacts, as shown in experiments conducted by Karimi et al. (2015) and Pereira et al. (2015). An example of this effort in Brazil was the development of an index to understand the environmental state of a place and its rela tionship with water use: the Social Development Index (�Indice de Desenvolvimento Social – IDS), which aggregates the variables [1] in come, [2] access to drinking water, [3] sewage, [4] electric power, and [5] number of toilets in the district, to understand how the quality of life of the population (local and temporary) is affected by the presence or absence of drinking water (Cavallieri and Lopes, 2008; Amendola, 2017; ^ncio-Vieira, & Lebbos, Gomes, Sousa, & Hayashi, 2017; Santana, Ama 2017).
1.2. Pressures of urbanization and tourism on groundwater As a vector of urban agglomerates, i.e. cities and metropolises, increasing human numbers is certainly a factor in placing the quality and quantity of surface and watershed hydric resources under pressure. In the case of groundwater, negative impacts on the quality and avail ability of this resource, in urban scenarios, involve several aspects: high demand; continuous discharge of wastewater into soils and river envi ronments, and leaching of already degraded soil profiles (Lapworth et al., 2017; Li, Zhang, Yang, Jing, & Yu, 2016; Sorensen et al., 2015; Vaux, 2011). The magnitude of the effects depends on the size of urban cells (megacities, medium-sized cities, small towns, villages, settle ments) and on major economic activities (industry, agriculture, energy, tourism). In cities, where tourism is an important economic sector, reliance on groundwater to meet consumption needs, given the large flow of visi tors, significantly increases pressures on water availability in aquifers (Kelly and Williams, 2007). Quality-wise, the inadequate management of wastewater and solid waste in cities has been an obstacle to the use of groundwater, due to contamination, mainly by nitrates (Wakida & Lerner, 2005; Wu, Li, Wang, Ren, & Wei, 2019). These problems, besides causing serious environmental damage, can compromise services in tourist destinations, with negative economic and social consequences. The preponderance of these issues is in part due to an absence of regulations from management bodies when it comes to water used by tourist facilities in comparison to other sectors of the community, for example, political and environmental regulations governing water use operations in industrial and agricultural areas. In these instances, water
2. Methods 2.1. Study area �is, a tourist The study area chosen was the urban zone of Lenço destination in northeastern Brazil. It is located in the region of Chapada Diamantina (BA), between the geodesic coordinates 12� 330 12”; 12� 340 2700 S e 41� 230 49”; 41� 220 4300 W (Fig. 1). According to the Coor dination of Population and Social Indicators of the Brazilian Institute of �is, Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2018), the native population of Lenço in 2018, was estimated at 11,315 inhabitants, with approximately 7,000 �is is becoming an who reside in the urban area. Currently, Lenço increasingly popular domestic and international destination, receiving around 150,000 tourists per year. It is a destination with typical 2
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Fig. 1. Map with location of the study area, spatial distribution of groundwater wells and elements of tourism infrastructure.
characteristics of highland (Almeida, Suguio, & Galv~ ao, 2012, pp. 285–293; Silva, Rego, Mattos, & Santos, 2016; Mattos et al., 2018b), with attractions such as rivers, waterfalls, canyons, caves, valleys and geological heritage (https://www.shutterstock.com/search/Chap adaþDiamantina). The water supply for most of the tourist infrastructure (TI) services in �is is provided from groundwater, using deep the urban area of Lenço wells for water extraction from the aquifers. The demand for water in this economic sector is higher than others, as it requires large volumes to maintain its facilities (food, cleaning, swimming pools, gardens, spas). The area is located in a regional sedimentary basin system (Mag ~es, Scherer, Raja Gabaglia, & Catuneanu, 2015) consisting of sedi alha mentary and meta-sedimentary rocks dating from the Mesoproterozoic era. Quartzite, quartz matrix conglomerates, sandstone, siltstone, are some of the predominant rocks in the region. Detrital covers from the Cenozoic era (river deposition) also occur. Groundwater occurs mainly in fissural, semi-confined and secondary porosity aquifers. In a small zone of the area there are unconfined sandy aquifers of high primary porosity as a result of alluvial surface deposits. Mattos et al. (2018a) report a low water-rock interaction, a low content of dissolved salts in groundwater and an aquifer zone influenced by indirect recharge of wastewater. The mean annual rainfall is 1,105 mm according to his torical series of the National Institute of Meteorology - INMET (1943–2018). �is, it is essential for As tourism is the main economic activity of Lenço a water resources review to be conducted to avoid future imbalances and conflicts over the use of water, as reported in countries such as Indonesia, Tanzania and Nicaragua, and reported by Cole (2012), €ssling (2001) and LaVanchy (2017), respectively. Some similar Go
conflicts also exist in Sri Lanka, Fiji, Egypt and India (Becken, 2014). �is has of spatial occurrences of the relations of environmental Lenço problematic contextualized: the groundwaters are the basis for the water supply of the tourism sector in the municipality, and concomitant to this, it is expected to be a growth of the sector in the coming decades and as a consequence, an imminent increase in the pressure on the availability and quality of these waters. Thus, our proposal and associated discussion is presented as an able alternative of mitigating current and future im pacts on groundwater. 2.2. Analytical approach To determine the relationship between tourism and groundwater quality in the urban area of a tourist destination, we propose a spatial approach that can integrate, by means of an index, areas of dense tourist activity and the use of groundwater from underlying aquifers and their associated chemistry. The data necessary for the development of the index were the number of elements of tourism infrastructure (lodging, restaurants and shops), number of wells to access the aquifers and the water chemistry obtained by sampling the wells. The collected data were introduced into the Geographic Information System (GIS), for spatial analysis and to generate maps capable of spatially representing sectors impacted by tourism. The territorial unit chosen for analysis was the census tract, commonly used by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) established for registry control purposes and formed by a contiguous area inside an urban or rural zone, its dimension is adequate for the collection of census data by field census researchers. The proposed index and the generated maps have the potential to 3
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support strategic planning of groundwater used in tourist destinations to help decision-makers with a series of issues involving the groundwater effects of tourism. Fig. 2 illustrates the analytical approach, encom passing the formulation of the index, employment of GIS, and implica tions for water resource management. The index is expected to have direct application in policy development regarding monitoring of contamination risk zones, construction and maintenance of efficient urban water systems, adequate disposal of solid waste, water allocation, urban and touristic planning.
Average depth of the wells was 86.5 m. Spatial distribution of the sample stations was conditioned by the availability of the wells. Part of the hydrogeochemical interpretation of the data was performed using multivariate statistics (cluster analysis), which was incorporated in our results in order to corroborate the evidence of influence of the tourism infrastructure on groundwater quality. The cluster analysis included hydrochemical information that distinguishes individual points and provides the means for identifying spatial patterns from GIS. To quantify tourism’s influence, nitrate ion values were incorporated into the proposed index. This ion is an indicator of anthropogenic contamination in groundwater, as shown by the studies of Anayah and Almasri (2009), Nolan, Green, Juckem, Liao, and Reddy (2018) and Li et al. (2019). The structure of the mechanism and the function of this hydrochemical parameter as well as other elements are detailed in Section 2.5.
2.3. Sampling and hydrochemical data To collect groundwater samples, the technical guidelines of the Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (APHA, 2012) were followed (for water extraction from the wells, and for the storage and transport of samples to the chemical laboratory). Some physical and chemical parameters can be measured in the field using multiparameter probes, such as: electrical conductivity, pH, tempera ture and dissolved oxygen. For this study, secondary data was used from a study conducted by Mattos et al. (2018a) – who interpreted the natural and anthropic processes controlling hydrogeochemistry of groundwater during two climatic periods, in the same area of study. As described by Mattos et al. (2018a), the samples were collected from fifteen deep wells using low-flow pumps. Before each sampling, the wells were purged to discard the stagnant water in the well column.
2.4. Spatial analysis (Geoprocessing) Through GIS, spatial analyses were performed for the processing of the collected data. Kernel estimator was chosen as the procedure for TI element density generation. The Kernel estimator is a non-parametric statistical function that estimates the probability density of a random variable. In spatial statistics, this method estimates density curves that are weighted by distance from a central value. In GIS, on a map, this estimator does not take into account the mean and the standard
Fig. 2. Analytical approach of the index proposed to assist management of groundwater in tourist destinations. 4
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deviation, but rather the position of control stations or sampling sta tions. Application of the estimator allows for the grouping of informa tion, to generate a thematic map from a cluster, highlighting hot spots in the analyzed area (East, Osborne, Kemp, & Woodfine, 2017; Kilibarda, Tadic, Hengl, Lukovic, & Bajat, 2015).
Table 2 Number of wells and weight of each class.
2.5. Structure of the TGH index On the Cartesian plane, distribution of enterprises making up the tourism infrastructure, such as hotels, restaurants and commerce, demonstrate spatial patterns of economic activity, especially consid ering that such infrastructure is installed mainly in city centers and rarely in peripheral areas (Hadjikakou et al., 2013). Thus, tourism and its degree of influence on the quality of groundwater can be initially investigated through the TI geographical positions and the density of the infrastructure supporting this economic sector. To adapt TGH to any locality, it is proposed that the analysis should consider some territorial boundary (tu). Based on territorial limits at the urban scale, such as neighborhoods, districts or in the case of Brazil census tracts, we can estimate the influence of activities related to tourism visualizing the amount of TI in tu. The amount of TI in a given tu can be understood as weights, ie the more tourism-related structures, greater the weight (Table 1). �is, 122 was the total TI distributed in four census In the case of Lenço tracts. The census tracts that have a value above 40% of the total TI receive maximum weight, that is, the sector above 50 TI is assigned a value of 10. Going downwards, weights encompass a total TI in five weight levels, down to the minimum weight (value 1) which indicates a total TI less than 5% of the total. The arbitrariness of the proposed weights in classes, specifically at 5 levels, is a way of observing how much a given class can represent as a share of the total. This methodo logical approach involving water resources studies is also observed in the research by Moretto et al. (2012). The same mechanism is applied to the number of groundwater wells in the urban area’s four census tracts (Table 2). The higher the number of wells per sector, the greater its weight input to the calculation of the proposed index. Wells represent use of water from aquifers in each sector. If a sector does not have a well, however, groundwater is not used and the index should consider the minimum weight, because the geographic phenomenon discussed here depends on the attributes related to the well. The third index variable is composed of nitrate anion mg l 1 levels (Table 3) and is directly linked to the number of wells, since the samples for analysis are to be extracted from them, and, whenever possible, the nitrate value for each sector is to be associated with the median (statistic), controlled by the number of wells. Definition of nitrate weight ranges was based on standards from the Brazilian Ministry of Health Ordinance Consolidation 5/2017, XX (BRASIL. Minist� erio da Saúde, 2017) establishing 10 mg l 1 as the maximum acceptable value (mav) for groundwater. Thus, any occur rence greater than mav was defined as very high, being associated with the maximum weight input. Each region in the world has their own characteristics and a specific context, so the choice of the hydrochemical parameter for the index is flexible, adapting to the reality of the tourist destination. It can be chloride, sulfate, sodium, iron, or even a micro biological parameter (bacteria, protozoan). However, in order to compose the weight scale of the chosen parameter, we suggest that
Scaled weights
Very high - > 50 High - > 30 � 50 Medium - > 15 � 30 Low - > 5 � 15 Very low - 1 � 5
10 7 5 3 1
Scaled weights
Very high - > 7 High - > 5 � 7 Medium - > 3 � 5 Low - > 1 � 3 Very low - 1
10 7 5 3 1
Table 3 Nitrate content and weight of each class. NO3 content (mg l 1)
Scaled weight
Very high - >10 High - > 5 � 10 Medium - > 3 � 5 Low - > LQM � 3 Very low - < LQM
10 7 5 3 1
reference be made to local regulations from federal or state health and environment agencies or WHO standards (WHO, 2011). The units can also be represented in molar or milliequivalent ratios without any technical implication in the index, given they will be converted into dimensionless weights. The defined weights are combined as an index that interprets the studied geographic phenomenon (tourism’s influence on groundwater quality), projecting it to a scaled index, in which values of 0.7–1.0, 0.4–0.69 and 0.0–0.39 are interpreted as high, medium and low influ ence to hydrochemistry of groundwater, respectively. Viewing the re sults in three levels is a didactic way of translating, in numbers, levels of low, regular and high geographical relationship of the proposed com ponents (Moretto et al., 2012). The structure of the index is described below: TGH ¼
ðQW*2Þ þ ðQI*3Þ þ ðQN*5Þ 100
(1)
In which, TGH indicates the level of influence of TI units on groundwater quality, QI is the weight attributed to the number of TI units per territorial unit, QW is the weight attributed to the number of groundwater wells per territorial unit, and QN is the water hydro chemical variable. The weight 5 for QN is due to being an indicator of well contamination. Weight 2 for QW is because wells are consolidated structures, unlike QI (weight 3) which varies over the years or seasons. In the creation of environmental indexes, the attribution of weights to variables composing the geographic space is a fundamental tech nique, allowing for the visualization of how determinant an environ mental component is in the processes, phenomena and interactions of natural and anthropic systems (Ashbolt, Grabow, & Snozzi, 2001; Kang, Kim, & Lee, 2002; Murena, 2004; Zhou, Ang, & Poh, 2006). Influence weighting requires an effort on the part of the researcher, considering that the challenge is to equate the variables of a given problem, gener ating results that represent reality more effectively. The design of the TGH index is based on parameters related to, above all, the influence of anthropic systems on natural groundwater reser voirs. Specific weights of variables that represent [1] the quantified tourism infrastructure, [2] number of wells per census tract, and [3] NO3 levels were based on studies that created indexes to assess quality of groundwater in regard to anthropization, such as Ramakrishnaiah, Sadashivaiah and Ranganna (2009), Vasanthavigar, Srinivasamoorthy and Vijayaragavan (2010) and Przemyslaw, Anna, and Christine (2016).
Table 1 TI number and weight of each class. (TI/tu)
(Wells/tu)
5
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3. Results and discussion
From the results obtained by the TGH index, we understand that the �is shows a trend already observed in other scenario projected for Lenço tourist destinations around the world, such as Bali (Cole, 2012), Beni dorm (Rico-Amoros, Sauri, Olcina-Cantos, & Vera-Rebollo, 2013) and Gigante (LaVanchy, 2017), which presented evidences of a direct rela tionship between tourism and groundwater environmental impacts. The �is, with influence of tourism on the identification of a sector in Lenço hydrochemistry of groundwater, brings up a series of important ques tions to be considered by managers of other tourist destinations within the scope of urban management. It is important to note that our database is small but still representative for the chosen spatial unit. We encourage the use of a database with more wells and observations of hydro chemistry, as the results will certainly be more robust.
3.1. Tourism and hydrochemistry of groundwater (spatial patterns) Geoprocessing allowed the identification of spatial patterns in each census tract, revealing different hydrochemical contexts. Systematiza tion of urban elements closely linked to tourist activity (Table 4) was based on subdivisions of each census tract. Approximately 120 enter prises use water in ways that may affect local aquifers’ water quality, especially in areas adjacent to the 15 mapped wells. For each sector there is a corresponding nitrate value. Note that the values are extremely low and do not refer to waters unfit for consumption according to WHO standards. However, sector 2 presented a relatively higher value than the others, which represents signs of contamination. Mattos et al. (2018a) shows that at the limits of census tract 2 the natural condition of groundwater may be affected by indirect artificial recharge (wastewater). In this study, the authors represent the data spatially in the form of clusters (multivariate statistics), calculated from the major ions and some physical parameters (pH, electrical conduc tivity). Fig. 3 shows a spatial pattern which suggests that the recharge may be occurring from losses in the urban water system, in an area where there is a greater intensity of tourist activity from TI units. Clusters represented on the map show the hydrochemical patterns of each point. There are significant distinctions between some of them, for example clusters 3 and 4. Clusters 3 and 4 (dry and rainy period, respectively) are composed of groundwater wells with the highest concentrations of dissolved ions, such as nitrate, sulfate and chloride, which are indicative of contami nation by anthropogenic sources. These clusters are situated in Sector 2, where there is the largest hot spot of local tourism and a higher asso ciated risk. Flow of groundwater in the hot spot zone is also directed to clusters 3 and 4 (SE direction), reinforcing the hypothesis of influence of tourism infrastructure over these waters. It is worth noting that the representations of underground flows are optimized for granular (isotropic) aquifers, while the aquifer in the analyzed sector is fissural, thus having anisotropic characteristics that can create uncertainties in the reading of underground flows. Therefore, we present a spatial and indirect alternative (Fig. 4) that may illustrate trends of the analyzed geographic phenomenon. As shown in the map (Fig. 4), according to the TGH index the in fluence of TI over groundwater is low in sector 1 because of the low urban density; use of groundwater and number of TI units were also low. In addition, the zones that use groundwater in this sector are green spaces and peripheral areas, away from any anthropogenic source with potential to contaminate aquifers with nitrates. Sector 2, on the other hand, presents a higher value, since it has a higher number of TI units, greater use of underground water and greater concentration of nitrate in the waters. In this sector, the spatial pattern is clear, and illustrates the influence of an economic sector (with high potential of producing waste and wastewater) over the hydrochemistry of an urban aquifer. Sector 3 has a low influence of TI, since it is a peripheral and residential zone, with the lowest number of TI units among the analyzed sectors. In sector 4, the influence of TI is also low, presenting a similar pattern to sector 3, since it is also a peripheral and residential zone, although containing a greater number of TI units.
3.2. Socioeconomic aspects Analysis of the groundwater quality in Lenç� ois indicates that there is no necessary relationship with socio-environmental indicators. These indicators should, theoretically, reveal variations in water quality due to varying access to sanitary infrastructure depending on socio-economic conditions. Even in neighborhoods that may have better levels of human development, groundwater may have similar contamination levels to more socially vulnerable places. For example, when tracing a longitudinal profile between the SW > NE directions, which allows the visualization of peripheral districts and the city center, areas with lower IDS present a low concentration of nitrate in the groundwater, when compared to central areas of the city (Fig. 5). Central areas, which are more economically active, have higher rates of aquifer pollution in comparison to residential and peripheral areas. This pattern was also observed by Nguyen et al. (2017) and Zheng and Kahn (2017), whose Asian case studies show a necessary relationship between surface water and groundwater pollution, especially in the central areas of cities. IDS considers variables related to income and basic sanitation, such as availability of piped water and the presence of a �is, the IDS mean value in the city center was sewage network. For Lenço 0.665 (values ranged from 0.6 to 0.7), while peripheral areas presented a mean value of 0.603. In case of a necessary relationship between IDS and water quality, the presence of higher-income residences, hotel de velopments, well-maintained streets, among others, should be indica tive, in theory, of a better water sanitation scenario (Gomes et al., 2017; Santana et al., 2017). The variables “income” and “access to basic sanitation”, on the contrary, show a financial and social pattern in which economic pros perity is in complete antagonism to maintenance of groundwater qual ity. It should be emphasized that concerns for environmental sanitation primarily take into account the quality of surface waters, with the relationship between surface water and poor quality of groundwater presenting a double health-risk vector (especially for temporary pop ulations) in places that depend on water wells (Amendola, 2017; Chagas et al., 2017; Diniz & Sequeira, 2016). Concern for travelers’ health has been a highlight in discussions of the World Tourism Organization, since tourism can become an acute vector in the acquisition and dispersion of diseases. The TGH index, when adapted to each regional (hydrochemical) scenario, may present results that show sectors with consumption of inferior-quality
Table 4 Number of wells, TI units and nitrate content per sector. Census tract
Wells
1 2 3 4
1 4 4 6
a
a
Tourism Infrastructure
NO3 (mg l
Accommodation
Restaurants
Trading
Total
Median
10 22 6 11
7 46 – –
3 17 – –
20 85 6 11
< LQM 5.2 1.8 1.2
Sourced from Mattos et al. (2018a). 6
1
)
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Fig. 3. Overlay map with spatial distribution of hydrochemistry (clusters) of wells, groundwater flow and TI density. Numbers identify census tracts
groundwater, and this may have direct implications for tourist contamination scenarios, as observed in the studies of Teles (2005) in southeast Brazil and Rack et al. (2005) in Europe and Africa.
normalize anomalies in the urban water system. In tourist destinations, public-private partnerships can be a potential alternative to optimize the process of groundwater management, as pointed out by Custodio et al. (2016). Such partnerships can promote dialogue among water users, mitigate and offset impacts, and raise technical, political and economic resources to enable the necessary actions. Traditional and costly engineering interventions are not the only option to solve water problems in an urban territory, as shown by Ivey et al. (2006), who addressed the capacity of the municipality of Wa terloo (Canada) to protect its sources of water supply by integrating land and water management objectives with social and political commit ment. The authors also reiterate the importance of technical, financial and human resources, pointing out that with creativity and leadership in the planning departments, processes for the protection of water re sources have been much more effective. Rico-Amoros et al. (2013), in addressing water management alternatives for mass tourism on the Mediterranean coast of Spain, also presents a scenario based on inno �is, productive capacities, when vation and commitment. Thus, in Lenço associated with the appropriate technical resources and political will, can help develop and implement a municipal master plan to reorganize the tourist space, decentralize activities, establish sanitary standards, protect water sources and, consequently, mitigate impacts on groundwater.
3.3. Implications for groundwater management For effective groundwater management, tourist destination policymakers and managers can use the information generated by the TGH index and GIS to better evaluate decisions related to the water-tourism interface. New methodologies and policies need to be encouraged, allowing for cost-effective solutions, adapted to each regional scenario, as shown by Koç, Bakıs¸, and Bayazit (2017) when analyzing these issues �is, the TGH index in the Bodrum Peninsula, Turkey. In the case of Lenço can help direct an urban infrastructure project, in order to properly allocate wastewater, eliminating a possible source of contamination of the aquifer. �is, measures to guarantee groundwater quality in Similar to Lenço sectors of the Akumal tourist destination in the Caribbean (Quintana Roo, Mexico) were suggested by Hern� andez-Terrones, Null, Ortega-Camacho, and Paytan (2015), who diagnosed contaminants originating from tourism and faults in the sanitary system. According to the authors, the proposed measures had the objective of protecting the �is, the economic coastal ecosystem and the local economy. For Lenço implications of that rationale are obvious, and local management of water resources needs to guarantee that the necessary measures treat the environment as a business partner, and natural resources as a product of great economic value. �is, tourist demand is expected to increase, and there is In Lenço already an increase in the number of water wells. The small urban aquifer, however, presents low or medium hydrogeological potential, thus reinforcing the urgent need to formulate strategies to guarantee �is are private. Their eventual water security. Water wells in Lenço contamination, on the other hand, would be collective. Thus, joint ac tions between enterprises and public agencies are necessary, to
4. Conclusions �is shows The methodological approach applied to the city of Lenço that if TI numbers, number of wells and hydrochemistry are known for a given area, one can estimate the level of influence of tourism activity on the quality of groundwater. The geographic phenomenon analyzed �is, showed a spatial pattern between water use and tourism in Lenço highlighting the identification of a zone with high TI density that probably influences the hydrochemistry of groundwater. Nitrate values are low, and according to WHO standards the waters are not unfit for 7
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Fig. 4. Map with TGH index classification for each census tract.
destinations across the world. In many instances of higher contamina tion and very high values of an ion, the spatial pattern will be better defined. With the TGH index and GIS, we have shown to the interna tional scientific community that some problems in the water-tourism interface can be solved from a geographical perspective that can pro mote an effective interaction of tourism management with water secu rity, directing groundwater quality control policies, coordinating water allocation actions (when necessary), and executing engineering in terventions that seek urban environmental sanitation. We argue here that our results may encourage future research in this field, to monitor the evolution of groundwater contamination and also to know the level of pressure exerted by TI water consumption on urban aquifers. This is supported by the possibility of an eventual collapse in �is, where the main local eco the availability of groundwater in Lenço nomic sector could be compromised and imminent conflicts between water users may occur. In a crisis scenario, tourism will resort to the small shallow water source responsible for providing water to the native population, which may cause a significant imbalance in the rules of water supply and demand in this tourist destination.
Fig. 5. Relationship between groundwater hydrochemistry and social and economic levels.
Author contributions
consumption. However, there is clearly a deviation in the pattern of local natural hydrochemistry in some sectors, probably due to the mobilization of tourism wastewater. It is worth noting that this study’s results cannot be seen as conclusive. They are, however, consistent with the evidence. In addition, it is very clear that, in the studied urban environment, TI units are the largest wastewater producers. The spatial analyses carried out here help elucidate the geographic phenomenon under discussion, and the generated maps propose numerous alternatives for the management of water resources in tourist
Kaique Brito Silva (KBS) designed the research, Jonatas Batista Mattos (JBM) provided the data and did the fieldwork. KBS developed the methodology. JBM interpreted the results. KBS and JBM wrote and improve the manuscript. Declaration of competing interest None. 8
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Acknowledgments
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PhD candidate Kaique Brito Silva. The author is Geographer and PhD candidate in Geography from State University of Campinas (UNICAMP), in Campinas City, SP, Brazil. Her research line focuses on Geography and Water Resources, with emphasis on public development policies and the influence of economic sectors on water resources.
PhD candidate Jonatas Batista Mattos. The author is Geog rapher and PhD candidate in Geosciences from Federal Uni versity of Bahia (UFBA), in Salvador city, Brazil. He develops studies at the society-nature interface, interpreting environ mental processes and their implications for geographical space, environment, economy, social welfare and world development. Its main lines of work are committed to solving problems be tween water resources and several economic sectors (food production, tourism, cities, industry).
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