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A study of a distaff of the second century A.D. from a necropolis of Boccone D’Aste (Rome, Italy)—tomb 75
Journal of Cultural Heritage 3 (2002) 107–116 www.elsevier.com/locate/culher
A study of a distaff of the second century A.D. from a necropolis of Boccone D’Aste (Roma, Italy)—tomb 75 Carlo Aurisicchio a,*, Daniela Ferro b, Giovanni Martinelli c, Stella Nunziante Cesaro b, Ida Anna Rapinesi d a
Centro Studi per gli Equilibri Sperimentali in Minerali e Rocce, CNR, c/o Dip. Di Scienze della Terra, Facoltà di Scienze Mat. Fis e Nat., Università “La Sapienza”, P.le A. Moro, 5 (00185) Rome, Italy b Centro Studi per la Termodinamica Chimica alle Alte Temperature, CNR, c/o Dip. Chimica, Facoltà di Scienze Mat. Fis. e Nat., Università “La Sapienza”, P.le A. Moro, 5 (00185) Rome, Italy c Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, Piazza S. Francesco di Paola, 9 (00184) Rome, Italy d Soprintendenza di Roma, P.za delle Finanze 1 (00185) Rome, Italy Received 21 June 2001; accepted 12 December 2001
Abstract During the archaeological survey in view of an urbanistic project in the ancient Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (north-eastern area of Rome), an important necropolis dating back to the Roman empire (second century A.D.) came to light. A complete archaeological investigation revealed the existence of 80 tombs. Among them, tomb 75 was particularly interesting, containing the skeleton of a young woman inhumed and several grave goods as a cosmetic trousseau, including a silver lock and a silver object consisting of a metallic cylindrical inner part threading beads, probably a distaff. It appeared to be partially covered with a red residue. Chemical–physical analyses carried out on all the materials constituting the distaff, with particular attention to the red layer, revealed the presence of an iron support threading amber beads. The red pigment, most likely used to decorate a wooden box, resulted to be cinnabar commonly used in the Imperial Age as a colouring material. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. Keywords: Tomb; Necropolis; Distaff; Amber; Cinnabar; SEM-EDS; EMPA; X-ray analysis; FTIR
1. Introduction
red sediment formed layers on the ground embedding the item and but only in a small portion over the artefact itself.
In the present paper, results are given of the investigation on a part of the grave goods found in tomb 75 of the cemetery in Tenuta Boccone D’Aste in Rome, Italy [1] dating back to the Roman empire (second century A.D.). In this grave, a maid was inhumed. Together with the corpse, a number of items embedded in the ground came to light; among them were found a cosmetic container and a lock, both in silver (Fig. 1), suggesting the existence of a box now destroyed, and an object of peculiar shape showing traces of a reddish substance. This last item was constituted of a metal rod of circular section, slightly arched, on which 28 yellow–orange beads were assembled. The residue of a
The object presents strong analogies to those found in the graves of women dating to the first or second century A.D., mainly in places on the Italic peninsula where amber was traded and diffused as in the northern-Adriatic Sea region, mainly in the Aquileia region, or in several areas of Middle Europe involved in the expansion process of Roman provinces during the middle empire period [2–6]. The objects were constituted of an inner core of nearly cylindrical section made of wood, brass, iron, bone or ivory threading elements of different shapes, such as globular, lenticular, cylindrical and reel-shaped, and were made of amber or glass and, sometimes of stones or gems [7].
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Aurisicchio). © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 2 9 6 - 2 0 7 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 1 1 6 8 - 8
The function of these objects has not always been univocally defined. For this reason, they have been differently named in the literature. A number of authors called them “sticks”, others considered them as “sceptres” or
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a
b
c
rectangular graves have been dug. Remains of an imperial villa of a settlement came to light, at the northern and southern sides of the area, respectively. The cemetery was closer to the settlement and probably belonged to it. A complete archaeological investigation revealed the existence of 80 tombs of rectangular shape, all oriented towards the slope of the ground with two roads running across the fields (Fig. 2). The tombs, with the exception of five of them, probably violated, appeared to be partially covered by tiles, bricks or even recycled earthenware or wooden boards, the existence of which is now proved only by the nails hammered in the rocks. The label of clay materials and the presence of 16 brass coins allowed the hypothesis that the necropolis was in use up to the Traian age (98–117 A.D.). The corpses were mainly inhumed without coffins, with the exception of six tombs containing busta sepulchra and tomb 57 where the corpse was found in a clay sarcophagus. Funerary epigraphs were not found and burial goods were scarce: 131 objects in 40 tombs. Among them, tomb 75 is particularly interesting, containing the skeleton of a young woman inhumed with the goods cited above by her feet. Among them, the distaff must be mentioned, which mainly attracted our attention.
Fig. 1. (a) Exploded view of the lock; (b) lock assembly; (c) trousseau.
1.2. Research aim power symbols, as the scipio used by consuls and emperors. Sometimes, they have been considered a part of funeral rites and burned as aromatic rods. In a few cases, they have even been considered as handles of fans. According to recent studies, the most reliable hypothesis assimilates this kind of artefact to distaff widely used in the spinning process [8]. When made of precious or fragile materials, they obviously seem to have had only ritual funerary functions and emphasized the elevated social origin of the deceased woman [7]. An additional problem arises from the existence of the aforementioned red layer, since no linkage has been found, in the available literature, between distaffs and coloured pigments. It must, however, be taken into account that several excavations were not exhaustively documented or that these objects were parts of collections lacking a well-known context. In this paper, characterization of all materials constituting the distaff is given in order to shed some light on their nature, their function and on the possible connections between them. When possible, suggestions on the origin of the materials examined are also presented. 1.1. Description of the site During the archaeological survey in view of an urbanistic project in the ancient Tenuta Boccone D’Aste in Rome, Italy, an important necropolis of the Roman empire period has been found. The area hosting the necropolis was about 2000 m2 wide and located in a rural ground declining eastwards. Below ground level, a firm pyroclastic layer was found in which 80
Among all the items found in tomb 75 of the necropolis in Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (Rome), the distaff (Figs. 3 and 6) has been thoroughly examined in order to determine the nature of its components, and their provenance. The results obtained, compared with historical and archaeological considerations, can give further useful information about the commercial routes of the settlement.
2. Experimental details 2.1. Methodology The distaff has been taken together with the clod embedding it (Fig. 3) in order to preserve its original location in the archaeological deposit. This precaution was preliminary to the micro-excavation. The clod was initially observed using an optical binocular microscope and pictures have been taken. The optical observation allowed samples to be selected of the different materials for further analyses, aiming at their characterization. Then, several fragments have been taken from the inner core which, even lying in situ, presented two breaks, and allowed therefore an analysis of the inner section (Fig. 4). Finally, micro-grains detached from the beads have been taken to be analysed. Strictly non-destructive analytic techniques have been used, such as SEM-EDS (Cambridge-Link Systems), EMPA (Cameca CX 827), X-ray diffractometry (Seifert) and FTIR (Brucker IFS 113 v and Nicolet 510). The reduction of the
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Fig. 2. Map of the necropolis at Tenuta Boccone D’Aste.
micro-analytical data was performed using a ZAF4 software of the Link Analytical. In particular, the laboratory tests were performed on: (i) a series of earth samples, (ii) the inner part of the distaff, (iii) the beads, and (iv) the coloured pigment with its substrate.
2.2. Experimental data and results 2.2.1. Earth The morphological analysis of the clod, using optical and scanning microscopy, revealed the presence of two different aggregation states. The first one appeared granular (Fig. 5a) and yellowish or reddish coloured, containing minerals usually found in the Roman volcanic area [9]. The second one, instead, was a compact clay mixture suggesting the
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Fig. 4. Inner section of the distaff.
a similar composition mainly consisting of illite and montmorillonite which are typical of the Roman soil [9]. X-ray patterns of the two kinds of sample exhibited the presence of the same clay minerals in different ratios. In the case of the clay mixture (sample b), however, sanidine, pyroxenes and phyllosilicates are missing since they were probably discarded during a separation process aimed at the refinement of coarse portions of the soil.
Fig. 3. The distaff embedded in its clod.
result of a pug process (Fig. 5b). Both portions of the soil and clay mixture were analysed by X-ray diffractometry. Minerals mixed with the earth (sample a) were identified (EMPA analyses) as sanidine, pyroxenes (diopside and augite) and phyllosilicates (biotite). In spite of their morphological differences, both samples (a and b) showed quite
2.2.2. Metal core The distaff (237 mm long) is shown in Fig. 6. The core presents several exfoliated fragments along the whole distaff. On some of them, micro-analytical determinations, of very small size, have been performed. The results obtained on all examined samples indicated that iron is the main component with minor amounts of copper and magnesium. Since the total of the analysis is close to 100, we can hypothesize that the distaff core is a three-metal alloy. Other elements present in traces, such as silicon, chlorine, sulphur, calcium, can be attributed to degradation products or to the earth embedding the distaff. As the composition of all the metallic fragments is fairly similar, it is reasonable to assume that the inner part of the distaff is constituted by a unique iron rod. 2.2.3. Beads A preliminary observation of the colour and the consistency of the pearls has without any doubt suggested amber
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a
b Fig. 5. Differences of morphology between (a) the earth and (b) clay mixture.
as their constituent. Pearls did not appear transparent, because of their foggy surface, most likely due to the alteration processes. Micro-fractures were also present provoking the detachment of small fragments. The amber constitution of pearls has been confirmed by infrared investigation and by a comparison between the spectra obtained and the literature data [10]. It is known that the main components of amber are succinic and abietic acids (C12H20O and C40H64O, respectively) and minor amounts of other chemically complex compounds [11,12]. According to previous studies, the amount of succinic acid spectroscopically detectable in the infrared spectrum allows the identification of the geographical origin of the sample [13–16]. Traces, however, of other components present in the sample and surface alterations, producing minor differences in the infrared, can complicate the geographical attribution. The spectra obtained are reported in Fig. 7 and the frequency values are summarized in Table 1 together with the proposed assignment.
Fig. 6. The distaff after the restoration.
The samples examined show an intense absorption at 1740 cm–1 split into two peaks at 1740 and 1710 cm–1. This suggests the presence of unsaturated ketons and sixmembered lactones. The symmetric and asymmetric stretching modes of methylic groups (1469 and 1448 cm–1) and tertiary hydrogen (1380 and 1348 cm–1) are also present. Weak bands at 1061, 1031 and 975 cm–1 probably belong to cycloalcanes. The olephinic components give rise to bands at 2926 and 2845 cm–1. Particular attention has been devoted to the 885 cm–1 band because its behaviour in the infrared is strongly related to the type of amber [17,18].
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Fig. 7. FTIR spectra of amber pearls.
The comparison of our data, even taking into account the presence of polluting agents, with spectra reported in the literature resembles both the wolchowite from BoemiaMoravia, which contains a huge amount of esteric groups with a number of O–H stretchings, or the Samland amber. The first hypothesis, however, seems to be preferred, considering that the band at 885 cm–1 matches that of wolchowite in frequency, intensity and shape. The negligible differences observed might be due to the modification of a fraction of the samples or to the presence of substances in the matrix that do not have a resinic nature (silicates, clays and other organic compounds). 2.2.4. Red pigment As shown in Fig. 8a,b, the red layer covered portions of the clay surrounding the distaff and parts of the beads. The pigment consists of micro-grains with regular dimensions giving a layer approximately 5 µm thick. A biological analysis carried out by stereomicroscopy ruled out its
possible origin from the metabolic cycles of microorganisms [19]. In contrast, the inorganic nature of the red pigment has been proved by X-ray analysis. The pigment showed three main peaks with d (Å): 3.35 (I = 100), 3.165 (I = 30) and 2.86 (I = 35) typical of mercury sulphide (cinnabar). A standard spectrum from a cinnabar specimen of the Earth Science Department at the Museum of the Rome University “La Sapienza” fits very well with our data (Fig. 8c). FTIR spectroscopy supported this result. In fact, the samples analysed showed, in the far infrared, a weak absorption at 346.0 cm–1 readily attributable to red cinnabar. The second band at 282.3 cm–1 was not observed because of its lower intensity even in the spectrum of pure cinnabar used for X-ray analysis (Fig. 9). The chemical composition observed by micro-probe analysis of the upper stratum (see Fig. 8a,b) revealed the presence of Hg and S with a weight percent composition of 79.07 and 12.28 with a stoichiometric ratio Hg/S of 1:1. This result gave further evidence to the identification of cinnabar. The lower stratum, i.e. the clay-like substratum, revealed a silicate composition very rich in iron.
3. Discussion The analyses carried out on the different materials of the distaff revealed that its inner part was made of iron threading amber beads. Next to the distaff, a silver case and a silver lock were found, most likely belonging to a box containing the distaff itself. Traces of cinnabar spread on the compact clay mixture drew the attention of the archaeologists and researchers. The analyses performed on the clod evidenced two different aggregation states of the soil. The first one was raw earth while the second one was a layer of worked and purified clay showing traces of cinnabar. The spectroscopic investigation of the beads was supported by a comparison with the literature data which reasonably suggested that the beads decorating the distaff
Table 1 Frequency values (cm–1) of infrared bands of amber; in parentheses are the reported frequency values of second derivative of the spectrum Observed bands (cm–1)
Assignment
3410 (3617,3540,3428), vs 3070 (3250,3078), w 2970 (2968,2926,2869,2845), s 1732 (1775,1740,1733), vs 1718 (1719,1710), m 1639 (1642,1607), w 1455 (1469,1448), s 1379 (1380,1348), s 1245 (1265,1236,1212), s 1164 (1159), m 1025 (1060,1031,1025), s 887 (975,887,820), w 750 (794,701,657), w
OH, st CH, st, vinyldens, lactams and OH ass. CH, st C=O, st, esters α ins., acid and ring ketones COOH conjucated, st C=C, st CH, bend. C–(CH3) bend. OH, bend., and ethers groups C–OR, st Skeletal bands C=C–(R1R2), bend., and arens C=C–(R1,R2,R3), bend.
a
vs = very strong; s = strong; m = medium; w = weak; st = stretching mode; bend. = bending mode.
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b
c
Fig. 8. Red pigment covering (a) portions of the clay surrounding the distaff (100×), (b) part of the beads (100×), and (c) comparison of X-ray spectra of cinnabar (grey line) and red pigment (black line) showing three peaks at d = 2.86 (2θ = 31.10), 3.165 (2θ = 28.20) and 3.35 (2θ = 26.50).
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Fig. 9. FTIR spectrum of the red pigment partly covering the distaff.
were made of amber (wolchowite) coming from the Boemia-Moravian area. The X-ray, micro-analysis and spectroscopic investigations carried out on the red pigment proved that it was totally constituted of cinnabar, commonly used as a colouring pigment for a number of decorative purposes. The presence of cinnabar posed a number of questions about its use in this context and about its origin. Since the pigment in the grave of Casal Boccone has been found in a restricted area around the iron and amber distaff, it seems reasonable to rule out its ritual use on the whole corpse. Also, the hypothesis of its use as a cosmetic powder does not seem reliable considering that the pigment was found in a thin layer and that it looked intentionally spread on a preparation stratum, constituted by a clay-type material quite well defined from a physical point of view (fine seeding, high purification). In addition, no traces have been found in the silver container. Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that the colour was spread on a support unfortunately lost, e.g. wood. The existence of a wooden box containing the distaff,
probably the same to which the silver lock belongs, can be consequently hypothesized. The recovery of boxes or caskets, in which personal objects including spindles and distaffs are kept, among the goods of deceased women, is not rare in burial sites dated before the Roman empire. Similar wooden artefacts, decorated with one or more colours, have been found in several coeval Egyptian graves where favourable environmental conditions helped the preservation of their organic (wood) parts. In order to verify the possible use of cinnabar in ancient times as a red pigment in relation to the occasion of an exhibition in Rome of Fayum portraits [20] with red painted wood tools 1 compelled us to examine some of them 2 in order to verify if the same techniques were adopted for the Roman goods. In Table 2 are reported the elemental compositions of the red pigments drawn in micro-quantity from the Fayum items. Among them, cinnabar was never found, but lead oxide (“cerussa usta” or “sandaraca”) and a mixture of iron and lead oxides obtained by calcination of “sandyx” have been identified in our observations, in agreement with the literature [21]. More specifically, the sample UC28013 (drawn from an oval wooden box, with painted decorations) presents a high percentage of lead, while a high iron content has been observed in the samples UC28012 (drawn from a wooden box, shape of a pomegranate), UC28008 (from a wooden box with cover) and UC28014 (from wooden bottle, amphora shaped). The last two samples even contain a small percentage of lead. The
1 Several wooden boxes with polychrome decoration are saved at the Petrie Museum of London: UC28013, 28003 (this object had a lock and contained an iron hook), 28012, 28014, 28008. For the bibliography concerning these objects, see Petrie, Hawara, p. 12, tav. XIX, n. 20, n. 14, n. 24, n. 25, n. 26, tav. XIX, n. 25; Petrie, Objects, p. 62, tav. LIV, n. 532, p. 61, tav. LIV, n. 551, n. 557, n. 561 and n. 562. 2 The numbers of the samples examined are: 205, UC28014, UC28008, UC28012.
Table 2 Quantitative microanalyses EDS of samples drawn from Fayum items of the Petrie Museum Samples b
S
UC28013 UC28013 UC28013
4.5 22.0 11.0
1.0 1.5 0
7.5 1.5 20.0
UC28014 UC28014 UC28014 UC28014
5.0 10.0 6.5 3.0
10.0 9.0 30.0 15.5
UC28008 UC28008 UC28008
2.5 4.0 5.0
UC28012 UC28012 UC28012
2.5 4.0 12.0
Na
Al
Si
a
P
Cl
K
Ca
Fe
Pb
3.0 1.5 3.0
3.0 0 0
5.0 28.5 18.0
0 1.5 0
18.5 7.0 18.0
1.0 0.5 1.5
47.0 36.0 33.0
12.0 20.0 13.0 12.0
27.0 17.0 17.0 23.0
0 0 0 16.0
5.0 8.5 7.0 2.0
0 1.5 0.5 0
8.0 5.0 7.5 14.5
29.0 24.5 15.0 12
4.0 4.5 3.5 2.0
43.0 23.5 40.0
4.0 9.0 4.0
8.0 19.0 7.0
6.0 8.0 8.0
5.0 4.5 9.5
0 0 0
7.5 15.5 13.0
22.0 14.0 11.0
2.0 2.5 2.5
22.0 12.0 31.5
7.0 9.0 7.0
14.0 14.0 24.5
0 0 0
3.0 2.0 6.0
1.0 1.0 2.5
5.3 6.0 9.0
44.5 51.0 4.5
1.0 1.0 3.0
a The quantitative content of the elements is reported in at.% with an error of ±0.5% estimated taking into account some limitations such as the scarce amount of the sample drawn in a unique zone of the object. b The samples are cited with the UC number of the relative object conserved at Petrie Museum.1.
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whole composition of samples of red pigment is quite different from one to another, confirming the existence of variations from a general recipe. The observations made with SEM on the small samples do not evidence the presence of a substrate under the red pigment. Ancient sources, however, depict the material called cinnabar [22,23] as a colouring pigment used in Western countries from the fourth century B.C. [23–26], while it was known in China even in the Chang period [27,28]. In fact, scientific investigations with analytic techniques for the identification of colouring substances layered on artefacts from documented excavations, proved the use of mercury sulphide for drawing and writing on different supports, such as wall plaster, wooden tablets and stones from the second millennium B.C. in eastern areas [23,29] and from the fourth century B.C. in western regions [23,30–35]. For further historical details, see footnote 3.
The presence of a silver lock suggested the existence of a wooden box, now destroyed, probably containing the distaff and other silver tools used by women. The cinnabar covering part of the tools, and both kinds of earth, having different morphological aggregation, might have been used to decorate the wooden box.
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[2]
[3]
4. Conclusions [4]
The study of the distaff, a special tool for hand spinning, found in the Roman necropolis at Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (tomb 75) allowed us to recognize the materials used for its making and to formulate some hypotheses about their provenance. The body of knowledge achieved has furnished important elements to evaluate the archaeological, historical and religious aspects of the burial context. The distaff, lying by the feet of a young woman inhumed, had an iron core threading amber beads, most probably coming from an eastern country where Boemia-Moravia was suggested.
[5]
[6]
[7]
3 The high-quality pigment among red pigments (inter pigmenta magnae auctoritatis) was known by the Romans. Plinio [25] refers that Cinnabar was dug in silver mines, mainly in the Iberian peninsula (Almaden), and in the Efeso and Colchide area on the Black Sea. The raw material was imported, and treated for the preparation of the pigment in a very toxic process involving washing and grinding cycles in workshops existing in Rome between “the temples of Flora and Quirino” [26]. As reported also in “Naturalis Historia” a number of red pigments were known by Romans (cerussa usta, sinopia, sandaraca, sandix). Among them cinnabar was considered the most valuable and its working and commercial processes were regulated by law. Romans used cinnabar for a number of purposes as inscriptions or, more often, for obtaining thin layers for wall decoration through the fresco technique. In this case, however, the use of the pure pigment was limited to interiors because of its blackening in the sun light Sometimes it was mixed with waxy substances to preserve the colour [25,26,36–38]. The red coloured layer could be also used for the decoration of wooden objects as boxes or tiny containers or small pieces of furniture, i.e. the so called abaci [22]. An additional use, in case of holy rite and/or celebration connected to the red colour, consisted in mixing red pigments with perfumed oils employed in triumphal ceremonies, besides its direct use on the body or god statues. The red materials were obviously required for the preparation of cosmetic powders, particularly fards, and also cinnabar, properly ground and mixed to other substances was destined to this use [39,40].
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[18] J. Langenheim, C.W. Beck, Infrared spectra as means of determining botanical sources of amber, Science 149 (1965) 52–55. [19] M.P. Nugari, Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, relation Prot. N. 9846/II A1. [20] S. Walker, M. Bierbrier (Eds.), Fayum. Misteriosi volti dall’Egitto, Catalogue of exhibition, 22nd October 1997–28th February 1998 (ed. in Italy by C. Martini). [21] S. Rinaldi (Ed.), La fabbrica dei Colori, Roma, 1986, pp. 89 and passim. [22] A. Jacob, in: Daremberg, Saglio (Eds.), Dictionnaire des Antiques Greques et Romaines, vols. 1, 2, Parigi, 1887, pp. 1183 and passim. [23] R.J. Gettens, R.L. Feller, W.T. Chase, Vermillion and cinnabar, Stud. Conserv. 17 (1972) 45–69. [24] E.R. Caley, J.F. Richards (Eds.), Teofrasto, Liber de Lapidibus graece et latine cum brevis annotationibus, Ohio University, Columbia USA, 1956, pp. 57. [25] Plinio Caio Seniore, Naturalis Historia, lib. XXXIII, 113 and passim. [26] M.P. Vitruvio, De Architectura, libri decem, lib. VII. 8 and passim. [27] R.J. Gettens, Contribution of Chen Te-K’un, Archeology in China, Vol. II Shang China, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1960, pp. 54. [28] A. Waley, Notes in Chinese Alchemy, Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, London University 6 (1932) 1–24. [29] A. Benedetti-Pichler, Microchemical analysis of pigments used in the fossae of the incisions of Chinese oracle bones in industrial and engineering chemistry, Analytical Edition 9 (1937) 149–152.
[30] E. Raehlmann, Uber die Farberstoffe der Malerei, Leipzig, 1914. [31] S.E. Filippakis, B. Perdiktasis, K. Assimenos, X-ray analysis of pigments from Vergina Greece (second tomb), Stud. Conserv. 24 (1979) 48–54. [32] L. Borrelli Vlad, Il distacco delle Tombe Golini I e II di Orvieto, Bollettino dell’Istituto Centrale del Restauro 5–6 (1951) 21–50. [33] L. Borrelli Vlad, Il distacco di due pitture della Domus transitoria con qualche notizia sulla tecnica di Fabullus, Bollettino dell’Istituto Centrale del Restauro 29–30 (1957) 31–37. [34] M. Cagiano De Azevedo, La policromia dei rilievi di Azitawandyia (Karapé), Bollettino dell’Istituto Centrale del Restauro 21–22 (1955) 39–41. [35] H. Bearat, Les pigments à base de plomb en peinture murale romaine, Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage: Proceedings of the 1995 LCP Congress, Montreux, 24–29 September 1995, Lausanne, 1996, pp. 547–555. [36] G. Liberti, Ricerche sulla natura e sull’origine delle alterazioni del cinabro, Bollettino dell’Istituto Centrale del Restauro 3–4 (1950) 45–46. [37] S. Augusti, I colori pompeiani, Roma, 1967, pp. 80. [38] F. Brunello, De arte illuminandi e altri trattati sulla tecnica della miniatura medievale, Vicenza, 1975, pp. 213. [39] Ovidio, Ars amatoria, III, 200. [40] E. Marquardt, Ro˝ mische Privatalterhumer, V, II, p. 369.
A study of a distaff of the second century A.D. from a necropolis of Boccone D’Aste (Roma, Italy)—tomb 75 Carlo Aurisicchio a,*, Daniela Ferro b, Giovanni Martinelli c, Stella Nunziante Cesaro b, Ida Anna Rapinesi d a
Centro Studi per gli Equilibri Sperimentali in Minerali e Rocce, CNR, c/o Dip. Di Scienze della Terra, Facoltà di Scienze Mat. Fis e Nat., Università “La Sapienza”, P.le A. Moro, 5 (00185) Rome, Italy b Centro Studi per la Termodinamica Chimica alle Alte Temperature, CNR, c/o Dip. Chimica, Facoltà di Scienze Mat. Fis. e Nat., Università “La Sapienza”, P.le A. Moro, 5 (00185) Rome, Italy c Istituto Centrale per il Restauro, Piazza S. Francesco di Paola, 9 (00184) Rome, Italy d Soprintendenza di Roma, P.za delle Finanze 1 (00185) Rome, Italy Received 21 June 2001; accepted 12 December 2001
Abstract During the archaeological survey in view of an urbanistic project in the ancient Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (north-eastern area of Rome), an important necropolis dating back to the Roman empire (second century A.D.) came to light. A complete archaeological investigation revealed the existence of 80 tombs. Among them, tomb 75 was particularly interesting, containing the skeleton of a young woman inhumed and several grave goods as a cosmetic trousseau, including a silver lock and a silver object consisting of a metallic cylindrical inner part threading beads, probably a distaff. It appeared to be partially covered with a red residue. Chemical–physical analyses carried out on all the materials constituting the distaff, with particular attention to the red layer, revealed the presence of an iron support threading amber beads. The red pigment, most likely used to decorate a wooden box, resulted to be cinnabar commonly used in the Imperial Age as a colouring material. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. Keywords: Tomb; Necropolis; Distaff; Amber; Cinnabar; SEM-EDS; EMPA; X-ray analysis; FTIR
1. Introduction
red sediment formed layers on the ground embedding the item and but only in a small portion over the artefact itself.
In the present paper, results are given of the investigation on a part of the grave goods found in tomb 75 of the cemetery in Tenuta Boccone D’Aste in Rome, Italy [1] dating back to the Roman empire (second century A.D.). In this grave, a maid was inhumed. Together with the corpse, a number of items embedded in the ground came to light; among them were found a cosmetic container and a lock, both in silver (Fig. 1), suggesting the existence of a box now destroyed, and an object of peculiar shape showing traces of a reddish substance. This last item was constituted of a metal rod of circular section, slightly arched, on which 28 yellow–orange beads were assembled. The residue of a
The object presents strong analogies to those found in the graves of women dating to the first or second century A.D., mainly in places on the Italic peninsula where amber was traded and diffused as in the northern-Adriatic Sea region, mainly in the Aquileia region, or in several areas of Middle Europe involved in the expansion process of Roman provinces during the middle empire period [2–6]. The objects were constituted of an inner core of nearly cylindrical section made of wood, brass, iron, bone or ivory threading elements of different shapes, such as globular, lenticular, cylindrical and reel-shaped, and were made of amber or glass and, sometimes of stones or gems [7].
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (C. Aurisicchio). © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 2 9 6 - 2 0 7 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 1 1 6 8 - 8
The function of these objects has not always been univocally defined. For this reason, they have been differently named in the literature. A number of authors called them “sticks”, others considered them as “sceptres” or
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a
b
c
rectangular graves have been dug. Remains of an imperial villa of a settlement came to light, at the northern and southern sides of the area, respectively. The cemetery was closer to the settlement and probably belonged to it. A complete archaeological investigation revealed the existence of 80 tombs of rectangular shape, all oriented towards the slope of the ground with two roads running across the fields (Fig. 2). The tombs, with the exception of five of them, probably violated, appeared to be partially covered by tiles, bricks or even recycled earthenware or wooden boards, the existence of which is now proved only by the nails hammered in the rocks. The label of clay materials and the presence of 16 brass coins allowed the hypothesis that the necropolis was in use up to the Traian age (98–117 A.D.). The corpses were mainly inhumed without coffins, with the exception of six tombs containing busta sepulchra and tomb 57 where the corpse was found in a clay sarcophagus. Funerary epigraphs were not found and burial goods were scarce: 131 objects in 40 tombs. Among them, tomb 75 is particularly interesting, containing the skeleton of a young woman inhumed with the goods cited above by her feet. Among them, the distaff must be mentioned, which mainly attracted our attention.
Fig. 1. (a) Exploded view of the lock; (b) lock assembly; (c) trousseau.
1.2. Research aim power symbols, as the scipio used by consuls and emperors. Sometimes, they have been considered a part of funeral rites and burned as aromatic rods. In a few cases, they have even been considered as handles of fans. According to recent studies, the most reliable hypothesis assimilates this kind of artefact to distaff widely used in the spinning process [8]. When made of precious or fragile materials, they obviously seem to have had only ritual funerary functions and emphasized the elevated social origin of the deceased woman [7]. An additional problem arises from the existence of the aforementioned red layer, since no linkage has been found, in the available literature, between distaffs and coloured pigments. It must, however, be taken into account that several excavations were not exhaustively documented or that these objects were parts of collections lacking a well-known context. In this paper, characterization of all materials constituting the distaff is given in order to shed some light on their nature, their function and on the possible connections between them. When possible, suggestions on the origin of the materials examined are also presented. 1.1. Description of the site During the archaeological survey in view of an urbanistic project in the ancient Tenuta Boccone D’Aste in Rome, Italy, an important necropolis of the Roman empire period has been found. The area hosting the necropolis was about 2000 m2 wide and located in a rural ground declining eastwards. Below ground level, a firm pyroclastic layer was found in which 80
Among all the items found in tomb 75 of the necropolis in Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (Rome), the distaff (Figs. 3 and 6) has been thoroughly examined in order to determine the nature of its components, and their provenance. The results obtained, compared with historical and archaeological considerations, can give further useful information about the commercial routes of the settlement.
2. Experimental details 2.1. Methodology The distaff has been taken together with the clod embedding it (Fig. 3) in order to preserve its original location in the archaeological deposit. This precaution was preliminary to the micro-excavation. The clod was initially observed using an optical binocular microscope and pictures have been taken. The optical observation allowed samples to be selected of the different materials for further analyses, aiming at their characterization. Then, several fragments have been taken from the inner core which, even lying in situ, presented two breaks, and allowed therefore an analysis of the inner section (Fig. 4). Finally, micro-grains detached from the beads have been taken to be analysed. Strictly non-destructive analytic techniques have been used, such as SEM-EDS (Cambridge-Link Systems), EMPA (Cameca CX 827), X-ray diffractometry (Seifert) and FTIR (Brucker IFS 113 v and Nicolet 510). The reduction of the
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Fig. 2. Map of the necropolis at Tenuta Boccone D’Aste.
micro-analytical data was performed using a ZAF4 software of the Link Analytical. In particular, the laboratory tests were performed on: (i) a series of earth samples, (ii) the inner part of the distaff, (iii) the beads, and (iv) the coloured pigment with its substrate.
2.2. Experimental data and results 2.2.1. Earth The morphological analysis of the clod, using optical and scanning microscopy, revealed the presence of two different aggregation states. The first one appeared granular (Fig. 5a) and yellowish or reddish coloured, containing minerals usually found in the Roman volcanic area [9]. The second one, instead, was a compact clay mixture suggesting the
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Fig. 4. Inner section of the distaff.
a similar composition mainly consisting of illite and montmorillonite which are typical of the Roman soil [9]. X-ray patterns of the two kinds of sample exhibited the presence of the same clay minerals in different ratios. In the case of the clay mixture (sample b), however, sanidine, pyroxenes and phyllosilicates are missing since they were probably discarded during a separation process aimed at the refinement of coarse portions of the soil.
Fig. 3. The distaff embedded in its clod.
result of a pug process (Fig. 5b). Both portions of the soil and clay mixture were analysed by X-ray diffractometry. Minerals mixed with the earth (sample a) were identified (EMPA analyses) as sanidine, pyroxenes (diopside and augite) and phyllosilicates (biotite). In spite of their morphological differences, both samples (a and b) showed quite
2.2.2. Metal core The distaff (237 mm long) is shown in Fig. 6. The core presents several exfoliated fragments along the whole distaff. On some of them, micro-analytical determinations, of very small size, have been performed. The results obtained on all examined samples indicated that iron is the main component with minor amounts of copper and magnesium. Since the total of the analysis is close to 100, we can hypothesize that the distaff core is a three-metal alloy. Other elements present in traces, such as silicon, chlorine, sulphur, calcium, can be attributed to degradation products or to the earth embedding the distaff. As the composition of all the metallic fragments is fairly similar, it is reasonable to assume that the inner part of the distaff is constituted by a unique iron rod. 2.2.3. Beads A preliminary observation of the colour and the consistency of the pearls has without any doubt suggested amber
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a
b Fig. 5. Differences of morphology between (a) the earth and (b) clay mixture.
as their constituent. Pearls did not appear transparent, because of their foggy surface, most likely due to the alteration processes. Micro-fractures were also present provoking the detachment of small fragments. The amber constitution of pearls has been confirmed by infrared investigation and by a comparison between the spectra obtained and the literature data [10]. It is known that the main components of amber are succinic and abietic acids (C12H20O and C40H64O, respectively) and minor amounts of other chemically complex compounds [11,12]. According to previous studies, the amount of succinic acid spectroscopically detectable in the infrared spectrum allows the identification of the geographical origin of the sample [13–16]. Traces, however, of other components present in the sample and surface alterations, producing minor differences in the infrared, can complicate the geographical attribution. The spectra obtained are reported in Fig. 7 and the frequency values are summarized in Table 1 together with the proposed assignment.
Fig. 6. The distaff after the restoration.
The samples examined show an intense absorption at 1740 cm–1 split into two peaks at 1740 and 1710 cm–1. This suggests the presence of unsaturated ketons and sixmembered lactones. The symmetric and asymmetric stretching modes of methylic groups (1469 and 1448 cm–1) and tertiary hydrogen (1380 and 1348 cm–1) are also present. Weak bands at 1061, 1031 and 975 cm–1 probably belong to cycloalcanes. The olephinic components give rise to bands at 2926 and 2845 cm–1. Particular attention has been devoted to the 885 cm–1 band because its behaviour in the infrared is strongly related to the type of amber [17,18].
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Fig. 7. FTIR spectra of amber pearls.
The comparison of our data, even taking into account the presence of polluting agents, with spectra reported in the literature resembles both the wolchowite from BoemiaMoravia, which contains a huge amount of esteric groups with a number of O–H stretchings, or the Samland amber. The first hypothesis, however, seems to be preferred, considering that the band at 885 cm–1 matches that of wolchowite in frequency, intensity and shape. The negligible differences observed might be due to the modification of a fraction of the samples or to the presence of substances in the matrix that do not have a resinic nature (silicates, clays and other organic compounds). 2.2.4. Red pigment As shown in Fig. 8a,b, the red layer covered portions of the clay surrounding the distaff and parts of the beads. The pigment consists of micro-grains with regular dimensions giving a layer approximately 5 µm thick. A biological analysis carried out by stereomicroscopy ruled out its
possible origin from the metabolic cycles of microorganisms [19]. In contrast, the inorganic nature of the red pigment has been proved by X-ray analysis. The pigment showed three main peaks with d (Å): 3.35 (I = 100), 3.165 (I = 30) and 2.86 (I = 35) typical of mercury sulphide (cinnabar). A standard spectrum from a cinnabar specimen of the Earth Science Department at the Museum of the Rome University “La Sapienza” fits very well with our data (Fig. 8c). FTIR spectroscopy supported this result. In fact, the samples analysed showed, in the far infrared, a weak absorption at 346.0 cm–1 readily attributable to red cinnabar. The second band at 282.3 cm–1 was not observed because of its lower intensity even in the spectrum of pure cinnabar used for X-ray analysis (Fig. 9). The chemical composition observed by micro-probe analysis of the upper stratum (see Fig. 8a,b) revealed the presence of Hg and S with a weight percent composition of 79.07 and 12.28 with a stoichiometric ratio Hg/S of 1:1. This result gave further evidence to the identification of cinnabar. The lower stratum, i.e. the clay-like substratum, revealed a silicate composition very rich in iron.
3. Discussion The analyses carried out on the different materials of the distaff revealed that its inner part was made of iron threading amber beads. Next to the distaff, a silver case and a silver lock were found, most likely belonging to a box containing the distaff itself. Traces of cinnabar spread on the compact clay mixture drew the attention of the archaeologists and researchers. The analyses performed on the clod evidenced two different aggregation states of the soil. The first one was raw earth while the second one was a layer of worked and purified clay showing traces of cinnabar. The spectroscopic investigation of the beads was supported by a comparison with the literature data which reasonably suggested that the beads decorating the distaff
Table 1 Frequency values (cm–1) of infrared bands of amber; in parentheses are the reported frequency values of second derivative of the spectrum Observed bands (cm–1)
Assignment
3410 (3617,3540,3428), vs 3070 (3250,3078), w 2970 (2968,2926,2869,2845), s 1732 (1775,1740,1733), vs 1718 (1719,1710), m 1639 (1642,1607), w 1455 (1469,1448), s 1379 (1380,1348), s 1245 (1265,1236,1212), s 1164 (1159), m 1025 (1060,1031,1025), s 887 (975,887,820), w 750 (794,701,657), w
OH, st CH, st, vinyldens, lactams and OH ass. CH, st C=O, st, esters α ins., acid and ring ketones COOH conjucated, st C=C, st CH, bend. C–(CH3) bend. OH, bend., and ethers groups C–OR, st Skeletal bands C=C–(R1R2), bend., and arens C=C–(R1,R2,R3), bend.
a
vs = very strong; s = strong; m = medium; w = weak; st = stretching mode; bend. = bending mode.
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113
b
c
Fig. 8. Red pigment covering (a) portions of the clay surrounding the distaff (100×), (b) part of the beads (100×), and (c) comparison of X-ray spectra of cinnabar (grey line) and red pigment (black line) showing three peaks at d = 2.86 (2θ = 31.10), 3.165 (2θ = 28.20) and 3.35 (2θ = 26.50).
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Fig. 9. FTIR spectrum of the red pigment partly covering the distaff.
were made of amber (wolchowite) coming from the Boemia-Moravian area. The X-ray, micro-analysis and spectroscopic investigations carried out on the red pigment proved that it was totally constituted of cinnabar, commonly used as a colouring pigment for a number of decorative purposes. The presence of cinnabar posed a number of questions about its use in this context and about its origin. Since the pigment in the grave of Casal Boccone has been found in a restricted area around the iron and amber distaff, it seems reasonable to rule out its ritual use on the whole corpse. Also, the hypothesis of its use as a cosmetic powder does not seem reliable considering that the pigment was found in a thin layer and that it looked intentionally spread on a preparation stratum, constituted by a clay-type material quite well defined from a physical point of view (fine seeding, high purification). In addition, no traces have been found in the silver container. Therefore, it is reasonable to suppose that the colour was spread on a support unfortunately lost, e.g. wood. The existence of a wooden box containing the distaff,
probably the same to which the silver lock belongs, can be consequently hypothesized. The recovery of boxes or caskets, in which personal objects including spindles and distaffs are kept, among the goods of deceased women, is not rare in burial sites dated before the Roman empire. Similar wooden artefacts, decorated with one or more colours, have been found in several coeval Egyptian graves where favourable environmental conditions helped the preservation of their organic (wood) parts. In order to verify the possible use of cinnabar in ancient times as a red pigment in relation to the occasion of an exhibition in Rome of Fayum portraits [20] with red painted wood tools 1 compelled us to examine some of them 2 in order to verify if the same techniques were adopted for the Roman goods. In Table 2 are reported the elemental compositions of the red pigments drawn in micro-quantity from the Fayum items. Among them, cinnabar was never found, but lead oxide (“cerussa usta” or “sandaraca”) and a mixture of iron and lead oxides obtained by calcination of “sandyx” have been identified in our observations, in agreement with the literature [21]. More specifically, the sample UC28013 (drawn from an oval wooden box, with painted decorations) presents a high percentage of lead, while a high iron content has been observed in the samples UC28012 (drawn from a wooden box, shape of a pomegranate), UC28008 (from a wooden box with cover) and UC28014 (from wooden bottle, amphora shaped). The last two samples even contain a small percentage of lead. The
1 Several wooden boxes with polychrome decoration are saved at the Petrie Museum of London: UC28013, 28003 (this object had a lock and contained an iron hook), 28012, 28014, 28008. For the bibliography concerning these objects, see Petrie, Hawara, p. 12, tav. XIX, n. 20, n. 14, n. 24, n. 25, n. 26, tav. XIX, n. 25; Petrie, Objects, p. 62, tav. LIV, n. 532, p. 61, tav. LIV, n. 551, n. 557, n. 561 and n. 562. 2 The numbers of the samples examined are: 205, UC28014, UC28008, UC28012.
Table 2 Quantitative microanalyses EDS of samples drawn from Fayum items of the Petrie Museum Samples b
S
UC28013 UC28013 UC28013
4.5 22.0 11.0
1.0 1.5 0
7.5 1.5 20.0
UC28014 UC28014 UC28014 UC28014
5.0 10.0 6.5 3.0
10.0 9.0 30.0 15.5
UC28008 UC28008 UC28008
2.5 4.0 5.0
UC28012 UC28012 UC28012
2.5 4.0 12.0
Na
Al
Si
a
P
Cl
K
Ca
Fe
Pb
3.0 1.5 3.0
3.0 0 0
5.0 28.5 18.0
0 1.5 0
18.5 7.0 18.0
1.0 0.5 1.5
47.0 36.0 33.0
12.0 20.0 13.0 12.0
27.0 17.0 17.0 23.0
0 0 0 16.0
5.0 8.5 7.0 2.0
0 1.5 0.5 0
8.0 5.0 7.5 14.5
29.0 24.5 15.0 12
4.0 4.5 3.5 2.0
43.0 23.5 40.0
4.0 9.0 4.0
8.0 19.0 7.0
6.0 8.0 8.0
5.0 4.5 9.5
0 0 0
7.5 15.5 13.0
22.0 14.0 11.0
2.0 2.5 2.5
22.0 12.0 31.5
7.0 9.0 7.0
14.0 14.0 24.5
0 0 0
3.0 2.0 6.0
1.0 1.0 2.5
5.3 6.0 9.0
44.5 51.0 4.5
1.0 1.0 3.0
a The quantitative content of the elements is reported in at.% with an error of ±0.5% estimated taking into account some limitations such as the scarce amount of the sample drawn in a unique zone of the object. b The samples are cited with the UC number of the relative object conserved at Petrie Museum.1.
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whole composition of samples of red pigment is quite different from one to another, confirming the existence of variations from a general recipe. The observations made with SEM on the small samples do not evidence the presence of a substrate under the red pigment. Ancient sources, however, depict the material called cinnabar [22,23] as a colouring pigment used in Western countries from the fourth century B.C. [23–26], while it was known in China even in the Chang period [27,28]. In fact, scientific investigations with analytic techniques for the identification of colouring substances layered on artefacts from documented excavations, proved the use of mercury sulphide for drawing and writing on different supports, such as wall plaster, wooden tablets and stones from the second millennium B.C. in eastern areas [23,29] and from the fourth century B.C. in western regions [23,30–35]. For further historical details, see footnote 3.
The presence of a silver lock suggested the existence of a wooden box, now destroyed, probably containing the distaff and other silver tools used by women. The cinnabar covering part of the tools, and both kinds of earth, having different morphological aggregation, might have been used to decorate the wooden box.
References [1]
[2]
[3]
4. Conclusions [4]
The study of the distaff, a special tool for hand spinning, found in the Roman necropolis at Tenuta Boccone D’Aste (tomb 75) allowed us to recognize the materials used for its making and to formulate some hypotheses about their provenance. The body of knowledge achieved has furnished important elements to evaluate the archaeological, historical and religious aspects of the burial context. The distaff, lying by the feet of a young woman inhumed, had an iron core threading amber beads, most probably coming from an eastern country where Boemia-Moravia was suggested.
[5]
[6]
[7]
3 The high-quality pigment among red pigments (inter pigmenta magnae auctoritatis) was known by the Romans. Plinio [25] refers that Cinnabar was dug in silver mines, mainly in the Iberian peninsula (Almaden), and in the Efeso and Colchide area on the Black Sea. The raw material was imported, and treated for the preparation of the pigment in a very toxic process involving washing and grinding cycles in workshops existing in Rome between “the temples of Flora and Quirino” [26]. As reported also in “Naturalis Historia” a number of red pigments were known by Romans (cerussa usta, sinopia, sandaraca, sandix). Among them cinnabar was considered the most valuable and its working and commercial processes were regulated by law. Romans used cinnabar for a number of purposes as inscriptions or, more often, for obtaining thin layers for wall decoration through the fresco technique. In this case, however, the use of the pure pigment was limited to interiors because of its blackening in the sun light Sometimes it was mixed with waxy substances to preserve the colour [25,26,36–38]. The red coloured layer could be also used for the decoration of wooden objects as boxes or tiny containers or small pieces of furniture, i.e. the so called abaci [22]. An additional use, in case of holy rite and/or celebration connected to the red colour, consisted in mixing red pigments with perfumed oils employed in triumphal ceremonies, besides its direct use on the body or god statues. The red materials were obviously required for the preparation of cosmetic powders, particularly fards, and also cinnabar, properly ground and mixed to other substances was destined to this use [39,40].
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[8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
[14]
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