A study of early metal age crania from Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand

Michael Pietrusewsky Department of Anthropology, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S.A. Received 24 June 1977 and accepted 4 April 1978

A Study of Early Metal Age Crania from Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand Multivariate procedures are applied to metrical and non-metrical data recorded on early metal age crania from Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, for a comparison with prehistoric and more modern samples from Southeast Asia, Mainland East Asia, and the Pacific. While craniometric analyses (Mahalanobis' D z and stepwise discriminant function analysis) fail to show any associations between Ban Chiang and the remaining samples, distances based on the percentage frequencies of discrete traits of the skull suggest a relatively close relationship between Ban Chiang and two other prehistoric samples from Southeast Asia. Slightly different results were obtained when a recently suggested (Green & Suchey, 1976) modification of Berry & Berry (1967) distance statistic was applied to these non-metrical data. Because of the limited size of the present sample and the different results obtained when discrete traits and cranial measurements are used, the continued use of metrical and non-metrical kinds of data is recommended.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n Ban C h i a n g is a prehistoric a r c h a e o l o g i c a l site l o c a t e d in N o n g H a n district o f U d o n T h a n i p r o v i n c e in N o r t h e a s t T h a i l a n d . Systematic e x c a v a t i o n o f the site was b e g u n in 1974 b y a j o i n t e x p e d i t i o n o f the F i n e Arts D e p a r t m e n t o f T h a i l a n d a n d the U n i v e r s i t y M u s e u m o f the U n i v e r s i t y of P e n n s y l v a n i a , c o - d i r e c t e d b y Pisit C h a r o e n w o n g a n d Chester G o r m a n . So far, two seasons o f excavation, o f a b o u t six m o n t h s e a c h in 1974 a n d 1975, have b e e n c o n c e n t r a t e d on the B a n C h i a n g m o u n d (see G o r m a n & C h a r o e n w o n g (1976) for a b r i e f overview of the site's a r c h a e o l o g y ) . T h e m a t e r i a l discussed below derives from a p p r o x i m a t e l y 40 i n h u m a t i o n burials excav a t e d d u r i n g 1974. F u r t h e r skeletons ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 65) were lifted in 1975 a n d a r e r e a d y for r e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d analysis a t the a u t h o r ' s l a b o r a t o r y in H a w a i i . A t b o t h the 1974 a n d 1975 e x c a v a t i o n areas, it seems t h a t i n h u m a t i o n burials, w i t h v a r i e d g r a v e offerings, p r e d o m i n a t e ; there is little suggestion o f h a b i t a t i o n , food p r e p a r a t i o n or o t h e r such activities. T h e d e p t h of deposits is considerable, with u p to four meters of c u l t u r a l m a t e r i a l overlying the n a t u r a l surface o f the m o u n d . This represents a considerable t i m e span, f r o m r o u g h l y the first to f o u r t h m i l l e n i u m B.C. I t is likely t h a t b r o n z e is to b e associated with all phases o f the site, i r o n a p p e a r i n g d u r i n g the l a t e r periods of the site. T h u s , the skeletons u n d e r discussion a p p e a r to derive f r o m a p e r i o d s p a n n i n g n e a r l y three t h o u s a n d years, w h i c h m a y b e d e s c r i b e d as the E a r l y M e t a l A g e o f T h a i l a n d . T h e r e is little d o u b t t h a t the p e o p l e were e n g a g e d in the c u l t i v a t i o n o f rice a n d in some form o f a n i m a l h u s b a n d r y i n v o l v i n g b o v i d species t h r o u g h o u t this p e r i o d ( H i g h a m , 1975). I n this p a p e r m u l t i v a r i a t e p r o c e d u r e s a r e a p p l i e d s e p a r a t e l y to m e t r i c a l a n d n o n * Tables 3 through 8, mentioned (but not published) in this paper, have been deposited with the National Auxililary Publications Service (NAPS). See NAPS document no. 03272 for 14 pages of supplementary material. Order from ASIS/NAPS, c/o Microfiche Publications, P.O. Box 3513, Grand Central Station, New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A.

Journal of Human Evolution (1978) 7, 383-392 0047-2484/78/050383-k I0 $02"00]0 9 1978 Academic Press Inc. (London) Limited

384

M. PIETRUSEWSKY

m e t r i c a l d a t a r e c o r d e d on the r e c o n s t r u c t e d c r a n i a from the 1974 e x c a v a t i o n s a t B a n C h i a n g , o t h e r existing prehistoric s a m p l e s f r o m T h a i l a n d a n d I n d o c h i n a , a n d a n u m b e r o f m o r e r e c e n t samples from Southeast Asia, M a i n l a n d East Asia a n d the Pacific. C o n c e r n i n g t h e analysis o f n o n - m e t r i c a l d a t a , t h e results o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h the a p p l i c a tion o f a frequently used m e a s u r e o f d i v e r g e n c e (Berry & Berry, 1967) a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h results b a s e d o n a n e w l y suggested m o d i f i c a t i o n ( G r e e n & Suchey, 1976) o f this s a m e statistic. F u r t h e r , a c o m p a r i s o n o f measures o f d i s t a n c e b a s e d on two different classes o f d a t a , m e t r i c a n d n o n - m e t r i c , a r e m a d e . 2. M a t e r i a l s

and Methods

T h e n u m b e r o f c r a n i a studied, exact l o c a t i o n o f the m a t e r i a l , a n d g e n e r a l p r o v e n a n c e o f all samples used in this s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 1. A g e a n d sex o f all specimens,

Twenty cranial s a m p l e s f r o m m a i n l a n d East Asia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific

Table 1

Sample (abbreviated)

No. of crania measured .

.

.

.

A .

.

.

Collection and dates examined

Provenance

.

Male Female Thai Fine Arts Department, Bangkok, 1975

Reconstructured remains from early metal age site. Ban Chiang, Northeast Thailand, excavated by Thai Fine Arts Department and University Museum of University of Pennsylvania, 1974.

16

Siriraj Hospital, Dhonburi, Thailand, 1970

Excavated burials from pre-metal (Fourth Millennium B.C.-2700 B.C.) and early bronze-working (2700 B.C.-200 A.D.) periods, from NNT near hamlet of Ban Na Di in Khon Kaen province, Northeastern Thailand (Solheim, Parker & Bayard, 1966). A more complete description of these remains appears in Pietrusewsky (1974a).

10

7

Siriraj Hospital, Dhonhuri, Thailand

Late iron-age (500 B.C.-500 A.D.) burials (Parker, 1968) from the Bang site, Ban Kao, western Thailand excavated by the ThaiDanish Archaeological expedition in 1960-62 (Sorenson & Hatting, 1967). Metrics used were those reported in Sangvichien et al. (1969).

6

11

Mus6e de l'Homme, Neolithic skeletons from several sites in Paris, 1973 and 1975 present-day North and South Vietnam (Mansuy & Colani, 1925; Mansuy, 1925; Vernau, 1909).

Ancient Laos (ALAOS)

5

5

Mus6e de l'Homme, Neolithic skeletons from present-day Laos Paris, 1973 and 1975 (Fromaget, 1938; Fromaget & Saurin, 1936).

Tonkin (TONK)

9

8

Mus6e de l'Homme, Material from various locations in presentParis, 1973 and 1975 day North Vietnam.

Ban Chiang-1 (BANCH)

13

8

Non Nok Tha (NNT)

8

Ban Kao (BKAO)

Ancient Tonkin and Annam (ATONK)

PREHISTORIC CRANIA Fgo~ BAN CHU~NO

385

Annam (ANNAM)

29

27

Mus6e de l'Homme, Material from various locations in CochinParis, 1973 and 1975 china and South Vietnam.

Laos (LAOS)

26

24

Mus~e de l'Homme, Kha tribe and other places collected by Paris, 1973 and 1975 Noel Bernard.

Cambodia (CAMB)

12

6

China (CHINA)

77

19

Mus6e de l'Homme, Mixed sample of North and South Paris, 1973 and 1975 Chinese crania.

Mongolia (MONG)

32

11

Mus6e de l'Homme, Crania mostly attributed to Urga and Paris, 1973 and 1975 Kobdo tribes collected by Chaftanjon and Chazand in late 19th century.

Siberia (SIBER)

38

10

Mus6e de l'Homme, Crania derived from tribes inhabiting Paris, 1973 and 1975 southern, central, and northeastern Siberia.

Java (JAVA)

30

10

Mus6e de l'Homme, Material from several localities. Paris, 1973 and 1975

Thailand (THAI)

75

54

Siriraj Hospital, Modern Thai series from Department of Dhonburi, Thailand, Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Siriraj Hospital, Dhonburi, Thailand. 1970

Sulu (SULU)

36

22

Mus6e de l'Homme, Crania from Sulu archipelago collected by Paris, 1973 and 1975 Montano-Rey in late 19th century.

Philippines (PHIL)

22

10

Musde de l'Homme, Crania of Manobo tribes people of northParis, 1973 and 1975 east Mindinao (near Surigao) and Dinagat Island collected by Montano in the late 19th century.

New Guinea (NGUI)

54

58

Museum of Papua New Guinea, 1971

Fiji (FIJI)

16

24

Various museums (see Sample drawn from, Viti Levu, Vanua Pietrusewsky, 1969a, Levu, Ovalau, and Lau Island 1971) (Pietrusewsky, 1969).

117

159

B.P. Bishop Museum, Prehistoric Hawaiian series from Mokapu, 1970 northeastern Oahu.

53

43

B.P. Bishop Museum, Crania from Guam, Marianas, Micronesia (Pietrusewsky, 1971). 1970

Hawaii (HAWAI) Guam(GUAM)

Mus6e de l'Homme, Material from various localities. Paris, 1973 and 1975

Series of decorated skulls from Dopima Village, Goaribari Island, from Gulf District (Pietrusewsky, 1973).

except those of the Ban K a o sample, were d e t e r m i n e d b y the a u t h o r using criteria described b y A n d e r s o n (1969), Brothwell (1963) a n d K r o g m a n (1962). W i t h the exception of the Ban K a o sample taken from S a n g v i c h i e n et al. (1969), all d a t a were recorded b y the a u t h o r . O n l y substantially complete a d u l t crania were used, b u t the often fragm e n t a r y c o n d i t i o n of the excavated m a t e r i a l regularly necessitated the inclusion of m u c h less well preserved a n d reconstructed c r a n i a i n the f o r m a t i o n of these samples. As a rule, n o n - m e t r i c a l d a t a were recorded o n the same specimens for which metrical observations were m a d e . However, i n a few instances, n o t a b l y in the f o r m a t i o n of the prehistoric samples, d a t a were recorded o n some late adolescent specimens n o t measured.

386

M. P I E T R U S E W S K Y

Metrical variables

Metrical data recorded on male and female crania were analyzed separately. Ten cranial measurements ( L = m a x i m u m cranial length, B = m a x i m u m cranial breadth, B ' = m i n i m u m frontal breadth, G H = u p p e r facial height, O H = o r b i t a l height, OB--orbital breadth, N H = n a s a l height, N B = n a s a l breadth, G~=alveolar breadth, and Gl-=alveolar length), which have been defined by the author (Pietrusewsky, 1969a, b), were used in the distance analyses of the male data. Alveolar breadth was omitted from the analysis of the female data. The number of measurements used represents the largest set of variables shared by all samples utilized in this study. Group means were substituted for missing variables , a procedure explained by Howells (1966:7-8). This latter procedure was adopted more frequently in the formation of the prehistoric samples. Mahalanobis' generalized distance (Mahalanobis, 1936) was applied separately to male and female cranial measurements for determining measures of biological divergence between the groups under consideration. D 2 scores were tested for significance according to a procedure suggested by Talbot & Mulhall (1962:79). Finally, phenetic tree diagrams based on matrices of distances were drawn using the Population Genetics Laboratory, University of Hawaii, computer program A R B O R (Lalouel & Lew, 1973), which uses an average pair-group clustering technique. Non-metrical variables

Data were recorded on 28 non-metrical or discrete traits of the skull. The names of these traits are listed in Table 2. Due to the lack of data for some groups, only 27 variables Table 2

T w e n t y - e i g h t d i s c r e t e t r a i t s of t h e s k u l l

I. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28.

Metopisrn Frontal grooves (RL)* Supraorbital foramen double (RL) Spina trochlea Infraorbital foramen double (RL) Zygomaticofacial foramen single (RL) Infraorbital suture (RL) Nasal-frontal suture-round Nasal bone shape-triangular~ Nasal suture deflection-right Nasal-frontal junction-angle Subnasal--sharp border Palatine torus Posterior condylar canal absent (RL) Precondylar tubercle Ossified apical ligament Paramastoid process Parietal foramina absent Coronal (ossicles) wormian bones Sagittal (ossicles) wormian bones Lambdoidal (ossicles) wormian bones (RL) Os inca Sagittal bregmatic deflection--right Parietal notch (RL) Asterionic bone (RL) (ossicle at asterion) Tympanic thickening (RL) Tympanic dehiscence (RL) Auditory exostoses (RL)

* (RL) indicates a combined incidence of right and left sides was used. Variable deleted from the distance analysiswhich included 19groups.

387

PREHISTORIC CRANIA. FROM BAN CHIANG

were used when the Ban Chiang data were analyzed. A per side incidence was recorded for bilateral traits while all others were scored on a per skull basis. For the majority of eases, male and female incidences were combined since a test of significance (ehi-square) failed to reveal differences between male and female incidences. Following a recent suggestion of two researchers, Green & Suchey (1976), a slightly modified Berry & Berry distance statistic (Berry & Berry, 1967) was applied to the percentage frequencies of discrete traits of the skull for a comparison with distances based on metrical data. 3. R e s u l t s

Mahalanobis' generalizeddistance Mahalanobis' generalized distance (Mahalanobis, 1936) was applied separately to ten male cranial measurements (L,B,B'-,GH, OH, OB, NH, NB, G~,G1) and nine female cranial measurements (G2 omitted). The means and standard deviations for male and female measurements are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively.

Male results (Table 5, Figure 1). The matrix of D ~ results is presented in Table 5. Several patterns of relationship are evident in the dendrogram presented in Figure I. The five prehistoric Southeast Asian samples characteristically branch early to occupy aberrant positions dispersed throughout the diagram. None forms a cluster with any other or with any of the modern populations, hence making positive assessments of their relationships exceedingly difficult. The majority of the remaining groups (i.e. more recent samples) fall into one of two general clusters containing: (1) samples largely from Mainland East Asia: China, Siberia and Mongolia, to which North Vietnam (TONK) and two Pacific samples, Hawaii and Guam, are attached; (2) a cluster consisting of Mainland East and Island Southeast Asian samples: Annam (South Vietnam), Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Sulu, Java and the Philippines. New Guinea and Fiji form a third cluster separated from the above two major constellations.

Female results (Table 6, Figure 2). Again, in this representation (Figure 2) based on the matrix of female D ~ scores (Table 6), the prehistoric samples occupy isolated positions. Notably, the sample of Ban Chiang crania separates in the initial branching of this F i g u r e I. D e n d r o g r a m of m a l e D ~ results (10 metrics).

BANCH BKAO

CHINA

--

SIBER HAWAI

---[~GUAM --MONG ANN~

-- ..{~_JAVA ~'~PHIL F---IL--SULU I L---THAI CAMB --LAOS --[--FIJI \,

A~OS NGUI

~ONK ,NNT

388

M, PIETRUSEWSKY Figure 2. Dendrogram of female D s results (9 metrics).

i I

BANCH NNT BKAO ALAOS

ATONK FIJI

diagram. The prehistoric sample from North Vietnam (ATONK) forms a loose cluster with Fiji, a position occupied by the sample from New Guinea in the male results. Again, two general clusters emerge in these results whose membership is, more or less, consistent with that found in the male set of results. One notable difference, however, is that New Guinea enters into an association consisting predominantly of Southeast Asian samples instead of clustering with Fiji as in the male results.

Comparison of male and female results. Overall, only minor differences were found in the relative placement of groups in the two diagrammatic representations of distances. Both sets of results imply the formation of three basic clusters: (1) one which contains largely samples of Asiatic origin: China, Siberia and Mongolia, and to which Hawaii and Guam are attached; (2) another which includes samples from mainland and island Southeast Asia: Java, Philippines, Cambodia, Annam, Laos, Thailand and Sulu; (3) an aberrant cluster which contains Fiji and New Guinea or the prehistoric sample from North Vietnam (ATONK). Both male and female representations generally depict an aberrancy of the prehistoric samples included in these analyses. The dendrogram based on the male results affords a slightly better interpretation of relationships due to the formation of more distinct clustering in this diagram.

Berry & Berry's distance statistic (Tables 7 and 8, Figure 3). A modified version (Green & Suchey, 1976) of the Berry and Berry distance statistic was applied to the combined male and female percentage frequencies of 27 variables for 19 groups which appear in Table 7. The variables used are listed in Table 2. Due to lack of comparable data, variable no. 9 and the Ban Kao sample were omitted from this portion of the analysis. Measures of divergence and their accompanying tests of significance obtained when Berry & Berry's distance statistic is applied to the percentage frequency of 27 discrete traits for 19 groups are given in Table 8. A dendrogram (Figure 3) was constructed from the matrix of calculated distances. In these results, three (ATONK, NNT, BANCH) of the four Neolithic samples form a cluster within a larger general cluster containing tile additional samples, Hawaii, Fiji, Guam and Sulu. The fourth prehistoric sample, ALAOS, attaches to a second general

PREHISTORIC

CRANIA

FROM BAN

389

CHIANO

Figure 3. Dendrogram of modified Berry & Berry distances (19 groups, 27 discrete traits).

ALAOS CAMS ~

ANNAM

CHINA JAVA PHIL LAOS

I

F

.

[

TH S IBA EIR MONG ATONK

F NNT BANCH

"

GUAM SULU HAWAI FIJI NGUI

I

,,[ ,

cluster comprising all but one of the remaining groups considered in this comparison. T h e last sample, New Guinea, now assumes an isolated position at the periphery of this representation.

Comparison of measures of divergence obtained through modified and unmodified Berry & Berry distance statistics (Figures 4 and 5) In this section, a comparison is made between measures of divergence calculated from the unmodified and modified versions of Berry & Berry's distance statistic. Both versions of Berry & Berry's distance were separately applied to the percentage frequencies of 28 discrete traits (Table 7) for 18 cranial samples (excluding Ban Chiang), and the resulting dendrograms (Figures 4 and 5) compared. The selection of groups and variables was dictated by an earlier unpublished analysis of these data which adequately serves the intended purpose of this test ease. Generally, the two sets of results agree, especially with regard to the relative placement of the four prehistoric samples. Non Nok T h a (NNT) and A T O N K form a cluster in both diagrams while ALAOS remains separated in the two representations. However, the relative placement of some of the individual pair-groups in these two diagrams differs. Figure 4. Dendrogram of unmodified Berry & Berry distances (18 groups, 28 discrete traits).

ALAOS JAVA

~ L ~

PO HN ILK NNAM

OS AI

II

,

"-'l

L.

I

I

I

L_~

i

.

GUAM

SULU SIBER

HAWAI PIJI NGUI ATONK

l

I |

NNT

390

M. PIETRUSEWSKY

Figure 5. Dendrogram of modified Berry & Berry distances (18 groups, 28 discrete traits).

ALAOS ,, TONK ( 9

,, C A I ~

ANN~ CHINA JAVA PHIL LAOS

,

THAI , SIBER ,,-

MONG

SULB ATONK

[ "NT GUAM , NGUI HAWAI !

FIJI

Specifically, there are discrepancies with regard to the pairing of T O N K and CAMB, and T O N K and ANNAM. Similarly, Guam assumes a different position in the two representations. The remaining pairing in these diagrams is nearly identical. Hawaii and Fiji, Philippines and Java, and Siberia and Mongolia consistently form clusters in both representations.

Gomparison of metrical and non-metrical results Only in the results based on measures of divergence calculated from the non-metrical traits are relationships among the prehistoric samples evident. Typically, these samples occupy isolated, unrelated positions in the diagrams based on measures of distance obtained from analyses of metrical data. Likewise, group membership of the general clusters represented in the diagrams based on the two types of data show very few consistencies making final interpretations of relationship difficult. Among the consistencies implied in the results of the two analyses are the remoteness of the New Guinea and, to a lesser extent, Fijian samples and the repeated association of the Guamanian and Hawaiian samples. Similarly, Siberia and Mongolia show an affinity for one another in these results. Finally, true for the majority of these results, modern samples from Southeast Asia consistently form clusters. Re-emphasizing that the results based on male metrical data more clearly depict the relationship of the groups investigated, and the improvement realized through the application of the modified Berry & Berry statistic to non-metrical data, the final assessment of group relationship rests on a comparison of Figures 1 and 3 discussed earlier. Both sets of results indicate that the prehistoric sample from Laos (ALAOS), is unrelated to any of the other prehistoric samples and generally enters into a loose association with several modern Southeast Asian samples (Cambodia, Vietnam, China) although it behaves more independently of these groups in the metrical results. While A T O N K and N N T form a cluster in the non-metrical analyses, they are portrayed as the two most aberrant groups in the results based on the analysis of metrical data. Further, while Ban Chiang occupies an isolated position in the metrical analyses, it forms an association with N N T and A T O N K in the non-metrical results. Attempts to explain the apparent discrepancies in the results based on the two types of data will be discussed in the final section.

P R E H I S T O R I C C R A N I A FROM BAN C H I A N G

391

4. D i s c u s s i o n Undoubtedly, use of the modified version of Berry & Berry's distance statistic allows more accurate interpretations of biological relatedness when compared to the results based on the original unmodified version of this statistic because of the refinements in the transformation procedures. Turning to a comparison of results based on metrical and non-metrical data, one possible explanation for these observed differences may be the tendency for the craniometric data to reflect differences of size rather than genetic affinity in the prehistoric samples. The smallness of the Ban Chiang female crania and the robustness of the Non Nok T h a male crania may have been major contributing factors to the observed diversity and aberrancy of these samples in the distance analyses ofcraniometric data. Additionally, the small number of cranial measurements used may have disproportionately emphasized differences in robusticity unlike the non-metrical data. Similarly, the considerably reduced sizes characteristic of the prehistoric samples and their effect of increasing the observed variability may have been largely responsible for producing the great differences observed in the D z results. However, greater genetic isolation (and hence diversity) among these prehistoric samples cannot be ruled out until more adequate samples and a larger number of measurements are considered. While the major conclusions of this paper must remain preliminary until additional work on subsequent burials from the 1975 excavations at the site has been completed, associations between Ban Chiang and other prehistoric Southeast Asian populations and their unrelatedness to present day Southeast Asian populations, is beginning to emerge. Conceivably, with the utilization of more cranial measurements and larger sample sizes, metric and non-metric results will give comparable interpretations of biological relationship. Because of the frequently small sample sizes and fragmentary nature of excavated prehistoric remains, it is the opinion of this investigator, that the most comprehensive understanding of biological relationships of these early populations can only be achieved through a consideration of both metrical and non-metrical kinds of data. Research reported on here received support from the Ford Foundation which allowed the author to participate in the archaeological excavations at Ban Chiang in 1974. T h e University of Hawaii provided research funds for the study of these remains in the author's laboratory in Hawaii. Karen Essene (SSLI, University of Hawaii) made the necessary changes and ran the computer program used to analyze the non-metrical data presented in this paper. Students of the University of Hawaii are gratefully acknowledged for their assistance in helping to reconstruct the human remains, now on loan, from this site. References

Anderson, J. E. (1969). The Human Skeleton: A Manual for Arekaeologists. Ottawa: National Museum of Canada. Berry, A. C. & Berry, R.J. (1967). Epigenetie variation in the human cranium. Journal of Anatomy, 101~ 361-379. Brothwell, D. R. (1963). Digging Up Bones. London: British Museum (Natural History). Fromaget, J. (1938). Les r~eentes d~couvertes anthropologiques dans les formations pr~historiques de la Chaine annamltique. 3e Congrks des Prghistoriens d'Extr~me-Orient ~ Singapore. Fromaget, J. & Saurin, E. (1936). Note pr~liminaire sur les formations c~nozoiques et plus r~centes de la Cha~ne annamltique septentrionale et du Haut-Laos (stratigraphie, prfihistoire, anthropologie). Bulletin du Servlee G6ologique de l'Indoehine 22.

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