A study of the relationships between learning style, readiness for self-directed learning and teaching preference of learner nurses in one health district

Nurse Education Today (1988) f&197-204 @ Longman GroupUK Ltd 1988

A study of the relationships between learning style, readiness for self-directed learning and teaching preference of learner nurses in one health district S P O’Kell

The aim of this project was to look at the learning preferences of student nurses via a three-part questionnaire. The first part was the Kolb Learning Style Inventory. The second part was the Guglielmino Self-directed Learning Readiness Scale. The final part contained a list of teaching methods to be ranked. The results indicated that more than two thirds of learners had active learning styles. Learner nurses become less oriented toward self-directed learning with each successive year of training. Student nurses from mental handicap, psychiatry, and general tend to have different preferences for the teaching methods of lecture and experiential learning used in their nurse training schools.

programmes

INTRODUCTION According ledge

to Schoen (1979),

has been

estimated

changes

in their

scientific know-

to be doubling

every 20 years, so nursing rapid

itself

can expect even more practice

in the future.

Many writers have challenged the belief that basic nurse education is sufficient for a lifetime of practice,

for example,

Rix (1979).

But in contrast

to the North Ameri-

on ‘learning

how to learn’ (Smith &

can emphasis Haverkamp

1977),

Nuttall (1965),

and the concept

as a lifelong activity (Gelpi nurses appear to believe knowledge

acquired

provides

basis for professional

Bell &

of learning

1979), many British that the skills and

during

initial

education

Schoen

added

lifelong

with an adequate

that, in nursing,

learning

appears

(Simpson

1979).

commitment

to

to be new, although

there have always been the few nurses who have continued fessional

to lives

minds. There

learn

throughout

because

they

are two categories

of continuing

former

is a process in which individuals

diagnosing

with or without their

learning

pro-

enquiring

self-directed

initiative,

and

their

have

cation:

other-directed.

eduThe

take the

the help of others, needs,

in

identifying

human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating outcomes (Knowles 1975). In other-directed learning, all these activities are carred

S P O’Kdl BSc CertEd RNMS RGN Nurse Tutor (MH), Stanley Royd Hospital School of Nursing, Wakefield Manuscript accepted 8 March 1988

them practice

out by other people.

Barber

(1977) stipulated that nurses participate more in self-directed than other-directed learning activities. 197

1%

NURSE EDUCATION

Because continuing Kartha

TODAY

of the dearth education of

(1983)

fessional

viewed

of courses for the nurses, Olson and

it as essential

for pro-

survival that the nurses

of the future

should be capable of self-direction,

as this fosters

the

characteristics

nurses;

needed

independence

self-evaluation,

why should

her/his

education

Especially

a nurse after

when the present

does not develop autonomous, sch

1972).

trains

nurses

self-directing Our

abstraction educational

strategy

education

system

(Diers

1972).

Burnard

foundation

to

for a lifetime

She concluded

to

The

self-concept

moves

being a dependent being a self-directed

(b)

An accumulation of experiences

Knowles

from

one

of

personality toward human being.

of a growing that becomes

reservoir

an increas-

ingly rich source of learning.

(cl

The readiness

to learn becomes

increas-

ingly oriented to the developmental of their social roles.

(4

The

time perspective

of being postponed ledge to immediacy

changes

tasks

from one

application of knowof application.

Sweeney (1986) added that androgogy unites the two concepts of self-directed learning and student-centred

learning,

and Zurhellen

and

that learning

student

can participate

Tibbles

occurs

(1974)

suggested that ‘Constant reminders about patient-centred nursing would be a great deal more meaningful to students if . . . instructors

discussions,

Knowles

dynamic

is defined

individual

and

both

in the learn-

(1980)

outlined

preferred include

problem-solving,

cises, field experience,

(1977)

more readily if the

responsibly

Thus,

These

(1980):

(4

(1970)

agreed

learners.

is based on four

according

that

lity to be developed rather than a process or Independent study is an accomexperience. plishment in itself, and should be viewed as such.

directed

self-directed

process.

argued

study should be viewed as a capabi-

that the

nurses to think, but it also

approach

independent

(1973)

if

he will not

of the learning

Thompson

usually

not

assumptions,

and

practices

should be utilised because

The androgogical

Dressel

learning

learning. crucial

give up overall control

However,

learner,

of to

and facilitates significant

autonomy.

he is truly an autonomous

ing process.

approach

only does it encourage

rily some of his learning

Knowles

programmes

(non-traditional)

nurse education

and

that for nursing

its education

and growth.

stimulates

(Mauk-

asserted

must lay a broad androgogical

practitioners

for a caring profession.

a profession,

learning

process

of becoming

that this is an inappropriate

Rosendahl(1974) become

training?

of independence

in students

suggested

to continue

socialising

traditional

out the qualities

(1984)

turn to teachers when he needs help in formulat-

nurse

capable

self-sufficient, termed by Thelen (1972) as ‘captaincy of self. The autonomous learner may ing his problems, gathering his information, judging his progress etc. surrendering tempora-

want

basic

education.’

professional

and confidence.

But

student-centred

Thus, Bruner (1966) stated that education should have as its objective to make the learner

and thought,

by

of action

practised

practicals,

simulation

projects

the

by selfexer-

etc. The central

as the interaction environment,

between

perceived

as

experience, the art of teaching being essentially the management of these two variables. Before 1977, there were few validated procedures for measuring the self-directedness of learners. the

Lucy

Guglielmino’s

Self-directed

Learning

development Readiness

(SDLRS) meant that an instrument made available (Guglielmino 1977). report

questionnaire

of Scale

had been It is a self-

with 58 Likert-style

items

available. validity and reliability

of Guglielmino’s

SDLRS have been repeatedly and Mourad (1978) reported

The

tested. Torrance that its construct

validity is supported by significant relationships with three measures of originality among college graduate

students.

Savoie (1979)

reported

that

the SDLRS scores are significantly associated with successful performance of nurses in a learning situation requiring self-direction. Crook (1985) investigated the predictive validity of the SDLRS by obtaining scores from 63 first year nursing alternative

students and comparing them with measures of self-directedness.

NURSE EDUCATION

Results showed a significant the SDLRS

correlation

and peer nomination

between

on

scores and first

for

the

although learning

year grades. Armstrong

(1971)

explored

previous

25

a lot more

years.

teachers

students

learning

styles

intervals during their training

appears to be part of this, but can it be linked to a

individual

student’s

accommodated

preferred

learning

ing style as an attribute, of an individual circumstances

that reacts

Learning

of learning dislikes

characteristic,

to produce

achievement.

style category?

(198 1) described

style which relates

ing preferences Copenhaver

(1979)

styles remain

consistent,

although

to the likes and

for learning,

for certain

learning

demonstrated

of whether student

with instructional

matter,

important

to broaden

potential.

the

Partridge

although

students’

(1983)

not every student

that

will feel equally

be

at

(concrete

experiences

into logically

sound

theories

(abstract

make

decisions

and

Kolb

(1976)

resolves

believed

the conflicts

that

between

convergers

prefer

and

experimentation.

(198 1) pointed

out that

Renzulli and Smith (1978) ing preferences. added that students usually learn more easily and enjoyably

when they are taught in a manner

that is consistent

with their

preferred

learning. Thus, learning

style diagnosis

as the foundation

of a truly modern

education

1979).

(Keefe

style of

can be termed approach

Unfortunately,

to

accord-

ing to Cross (1979), not 1 teacher in 100 knew anything at all about learning styles, despite the fact that the research

in this area had been going

problems

each

individual

being

concrete

versus analytical and between being active versus

repertoire

an improved motivation for learning can be obtained by adjusting teaching methods to learn-

to

solve

(active experimentation).

exploit,

meth-

conceptuali-

He must be able to use these theories

(4

in a characteristic

ease with the various

that

sation).

styles that have been

student

perspec-

concepts

learning

ods of learning. Rezler and Rezmovic

many

his observations

reflective

of styles to try and

experience).

from

learning style domains, the be designed to foster, if not

encourage

to involve

observation).

home with all teaching should a diverse

able

He must be able to create

is

learning

believed

cycle as

integrate

(4

a

development

must

tives (reflective

it is only to learn

or whether

(Kolb 1976). Kolbe and Wolfe the four step learning

learner

these

the idea

upon the purpose

that is, whether

the subject

Style

on his experiential

He must be able to reflect on and observe

(b)

that learning

or mismatch

his Learning

is based

new experiences

modes. They decided

that the answer is dependent of the lesson,

The

(4

includ-

that they could

it is best to match

in and

follows:

at least over a period of

he admitted

so that changes

can be documented

himself fully, openly, and without bias in

strategies.

change over a longer period of time. Claxton and Ralston ( 1978) examined

which

(198 1) described

is one aspect

that

at various

for in the classroom.

model of learning

learning

has for a particular

sensory mode or condition

1 year,

with instructional

preference

that an individual

Inventory

or quality

differential

preferences

Kolb in 1976 formulated

a learn-

today,

recommended

be tested

ence of what might be termed ‘learning prone personalities’. Certainly, self-directed learning

Rezler and Rezmovic

Even

may be aware of

styles, they are not used in practice.

Renzulli and Smith (1978)

the possible exist-

199

TODAY

active

way. There

abstract

are four

identified.

The

conceptuaiisation The

divergers

prefer concrete experience and reflective observation. The assimilators prefer abstract conceptualisation

and reflective

accommodators prefer active experimentation. styles are demonstrated the learning Fry (1978) Inventory tionnaire,

observation.

in the four quadrants

style grid in Figure described

Finally, the

concrete experience and These four learning

Kolb’s

of

1. Learning

Style

as a nine item, self-descriptive queseach asking the respondant to rank

order four words in a way that best describes his learning style. One word in each item corresponds to the four learning

styles. To score the

inventory, each column is added up, including only the six words that cover that category. The

200

NURSE EDUCATION

TODAY

concrete

strong ability to be able to adapt to immediate circumstances. Several other studies have been

Experience

reported

suggesting

students learnings

Divergers

Accommodators

These

findings

Kolb’s contention Reflective Observation

--l-Convergers

1 Assimilators

have

words are randomly

assigned,

three

studied

students

enrolled

learning

strategies

tended

as a measure

through

tions

own

modes

of their

preferences

of learning.

advantage

of people’s percep-

He claimed their

idealised

rather than their actual self-image’. it an extremely

brief

She noted a major drawback be rank-ordered

many

which

more

were

experiences nature.

decrease

their

courses

tional strategies

to prefer

traditional

in

and highly organised of a concrete

rather

In fact preferences

non-traditional

to

of concrete

tended

learning

as

the

being

for

strategies

students exposed

moved to tradi-

and little else.

self-image, Kirby ( 1979)

instrument

to use.

in that the words to

they appear

She added

respondants

tions well enough

alone and out

that it was difficult

to understand

all for

the abstrac-

to make meaningful

choices.

Bennett (1978) discovered that approximately one third of her sample could not be classified by learner

sample

of

curricula.

dis-

are, in many cases, abstract,

the more so because of context.

different

preferences

with this type of test is that people

may be indicating found

for

that ‘The

(1975) and Ostmoe et

teacher-directed,

than an abstract

Style Inventory

learning

there was a predominance the

with

service disciplines

in heath-related

styles,

the

Laschinger

consistent

the learning

learning

in each column, to disguise the pattern. Plovnick (1975) described the Kolb Learning

nursing concrete

people-oriented

al (1984)

with learning non-scoring

that human

concrete,

nature,

and

(1983),

appear

preferences. Both Rezler and French

Because

Fig 1 Kolb (1976) Learning style grid

nurses

styles, e.g. Seidman

(1986).

Active Experimentation

that

tend to have predominantly

type. In contrast,

(198 1) found the inventory

Rezler

and Rezmovic

to be a useful tool for

identifying the learning style of students. Kolb (1976) asserted that occupational

disci-

plines

styles

attract

individuals

with learning

congruent with the structure of knowledge within the discipline. Individuals with learning styles that are incongruent with the discipline, either change their learning style or leave the discipline. The primary learning style for nurses is accommodator,

according

to Bennett

(1978).

She mentioned that their greatest strength lies in doing things, carrying out plans, and showing a

METHODOLOGY To collect the relevant survey

had

tionnaire

data for this research,

to be completed.

was formulated

A single

which

a

ques-

consisted

of

three parts. The first two parts were a modified Kolb Learning Style Inventory and Guglielmino Self-directed

Learning

Readiness

final part was a list of different tegies to be rank ordered. Before

Scale.

The

teaching

stra-

the main study could begin,

a small

pilot study was completed,

as recommended

by

Oppenheim

was carried

to

(1978).

This

out

assess the format of the questionnaire items and the method of administration. It also provided the

researcher

with

an

opportunity

to gain

experience and confidence with this method of data collection. The student nurses used in the pilot study were not used in the main study because of the danger of polluting the research field. The feedback from the pilot study indicated that several students did not know the meaning of the word pragmatism in the Kolb inventory.

Thus,

on the final questionnaire

for-

NURSE EDUCATION

mat, a dictionary

definition

of pragmatism

was

included. The study was carried and general

out over a 6-week-per-

learners

were included

mended

by Askham

was present assurances

during

istration

for study

in the study.

As recom-

of confidentiality,

to offer

end

of

each

in the admin-

section

the participants

make any comments spaces

of

the

to

they wanted to express,

provided,

whether

good,

6 week

data

bad,

in or

indifferent. At the

end

period,

of the

there

tionnaires:

were

158

completed

107 from general,

Diverger

ques-

32 from psychia-

try, and 19 from mental handicap.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION major

bone

tory.

Thirty

criticisms.

eight

contention

for

‘Very confusing’,

gave

included

and a dictionary

‘You

‘Vague’, ‘Obscure’,

Kirby (1979)

criticism

need

‘A’ this’,

‘It would be more

to give order of preference’.

cases, are abstract

their

to answer

if each word was explained

‘Difficult

many

Style Inven-

respondants

Comments

level English better

of

was the Kolb Learning

that the words,

and out of context

fully’,

Thus,

the

in many making

it

difficult for many respondants to understand them well enough to make meaningful choices, appeared

to be very true for this study. I would

recommend

that Kolb Learning

should

not be used

nurses

for their

form.

The

words

Style inventory

to test student

learning need

and pupil

styles in its present to be

expanded

to

phrases or sentences with examples of their use. Nevertheless, the Kolb Learning Style Inventory was used for this research. Unlike Bennett (1978) sample,

who could not classify one third of her only

14% of the sample

learning

Converger

in this study

could not be classified according to learning style. In contrast to Seidman (1983) and Las-

styles.

score

= 148.82

score

= 148.74

The mean scores for divergers dators were significantly gers and assimilators. less concerned

and accommo-

lower than for conver-

This can be accounted

for

and assimilators

are

than divergers

and

with people

accommodators

and

= 142.95 = 142.5

score

score

mean SDLRS

at the

style

score.

mean SDLRS

mean SDLRS

Assimilator

learning

readiness

mean SDLRS

(Kolb 1984) and, thus, might be

happier ‘doing their own thing’ and studying on their own. There

respondants

for

by the fact that convergers

collection

learning

needs to be carried out into

level

Accommodator

ques-

were encouraged

had active

of learners or accommo-

there was a statistical difference

significance

self-directed

of the questionnaire.

the

tionnaire,

A

majority

the learning style preferences of learner nurses. Using the single factor analysis of variance 5%

to clarify any diffi-

consistency

that is they

technique,

the same researcher

all data collection

culties, and to ensure

the

the great

Thus, more research

authority,

of nursing

(1986),

dator,

mental handicap,

of one health

who were in their schools

At

(1986),

(70%) were found to be converger

iod in which all the psychiatric,

blocks,

chinger

20 1

TODAY

was no correlation

style and nursing

speciality,

year of training,

or whether

level qualifications The

Guglielmino Scale

of

them

a learner

had ‘A’

Self-directed

caused

less

Learning

problems

than the Kolb inventory.

for

Fourteen

gave their criticisms. Comments ‘Repetitive’, ‘Some questions difficult

included

to answer by comparing answer

learning age range,

or not.

Readiness respondants

between learner

some questions

self to others’, as undecided

would score them differently depending

‘I had to because

at different

on the circumstances’,

tions were not clear enough’.

‘Some

I

times, ques-

Five respondants

had something positive to say. Comments included ‘It makes you think about your learning’, ‘Very interesting’, ‘ Easy to answer’. Thus, it can be concluded that the Guglielmino Selfdirected

Learning

Readiness

Scale is satisfactory

to use with learner nurses. Learners’ SDLRS scores were found to have a statistically significant relationship with year of training, variance

using

the

(significant

single

factor

analysis

at the 5% level).

1st year mean SDLRS

score

2nd year mean SDLRS score 3rd year mean SDLRS score

= 148.93 = 143.89 = 142.97

of

202

NURSE EDUCATION

Nurse learners’

TODAY

mean SDLRS

scores fell with

each successive year of training. the findings

of Diers (1972)

traditional qualities there

nurse education

system trains out the

be more

in students.

emphasis

development

of self-directed

student

pupil

and

placed on the

learning

nurses,

Thus, skills for

in preparation

for

If they ask for them. If they are allowed to negotiate happen

who stated that the

of independence

should

(a) (b)

This agrees with

As expected,

because of the low SDLRS

the self-directed

learning

not ranked highly either. 8 and projects

related

9. This indicates

Guglielmino

of lesson types by the different

Learning

on learner

nurses, to check for the development

of their self-directed There fied

learning

were no significant

between

whether

the

learners’ learner

nurse, age range, a learner

Readiness

e.g. annually,

skills.

relationships SDLRS

scores

was a student

nursing

identi-

speciality,

and

There

had ‘A’ levels or not.

of a class have low SDLRS

were differences

ties, although mental

nursing

only the rankings were

handicap

scores.

noted in the ranking speciali-

by general

accepted

independent,

using the Spearman

lation method.

The rankings

as

and being

rank corre-

are shown in figure

2.

or pupil or whether

that

tutors must be careful in setting this type of work if the majority

Self-directed

scores,

activities were

Case study was ranked

was ranked

when they have finished their basic nurse training, to stimulate lifelong learning. Also, the Scale should be used at intervals,

what will

in the tutorial.

The

main differences

learners

ranked

were that the general

lecture 3 and experiential

cise/game 8. The

mental

handicap

exer-

learners,

in

In the overall ranking of lesson types, discussion/debate was easily ranked 1. Accepting that a

contrast,

large

emphases of these two very different types of nurse training. Although the methods of

number

of learners

style preferences

had active

learning

in this study, this type of lesson

allows for participation

by the learners.

In a

school of nursing or even a class where a large proportion of learners have active learning styles, consideration

should be given to replacing

some of the lectures lesson

types

that

with discussions

encourage

or other

participation

of

some kind. The lesson

verdict

for

type was for the private

the

least-liked

tutorial.

This

indicates the learners’ perceptions of the quality and usefulness of this interaction with their tutors.

was an expected

teaching nursing

Experience

only appreciated

has shown that tutorials by learners:

Type of Lesson Question and answer session Lecture Experiential exercise/game Discussion/debate Case study Project Demonstration Film/video Private tutorial Educational visit

are

them 9 and 2 respectively. result dependent

used by the tutors were

not

This

on the natural

in the schools

surveyed,

after

of

discussions

with the nurse tutors concerned, it was thought that the traditional general nurse training is usually

based

small amount In

unanimous

ranked

mental

around

the lecture

of experiential handicap

nurse

with only a

learning training

usually a great deal more experiential

included. there

is

learning

with a correspondingly decreased amount lectures. The psychiatric learners appeared

of to

take the middle line between general and mental handicap by ranking lecture tial exercise/game 3.

at 2 and experien-

General

Psychiatry

Mental Handicap

Overall

4 3 8 1 7 9 2 5 10 6

5 2 3 1 9 8 4 7 10 6

5 9 2 1 8 7 3 6 10 4

4 3 7 1 8 9 2 5 10 6

Fig 2 Ranking of lesson types by general, psychiatric and mental handicap nurse learners

NURSE EDUCATION

Kolb

(1976)

disciplines

tend

students

so

structure

Nurse

that

of

they

the of

individual

are

schools

create

that

with

the

and

of

styles

congruent

shiuld so

occupational

learning

within

traditional learning

that the

knowledge

educators

between schools

recognised to mould

a

bilance

student-centred they

nursing

types of teaching

the

discir>line.

fit

in

with

philosophies,

whilst giving learners a wide experience different

of

of all the

method.

References Armstrong D 1971 Adult learners of low educational attainment: the self-concepts, backgrounds, and educative behaviour of average and high learning adults of low educational attainment. University of Toronto, Dissertation Abstracts International 1972, 33: 944945A Askham J 1986 Using questionnaires. RCN Research Society, Precis of a paper at the 7 May 1986 meeting. RCN: London Barber J 1977 The tip of the iceberg. Canadian Nurse, January p 73 Bell F, Rix P 1979 Attitudes of nurses toward lifelong learning: one hospital examines the issues. lournal of Continuing Education in Nursing 10, 1: 15-20 Bennett N L 1978 Learnina stvles of health professionals compared ;b preference for continuing education program format. University of Illinois, University Microfilms International Bruner J 1966 Toward a theory of instruction. W W Norton, New York Burnard P 1984 Paradigms for progress. Senior Nurse 1,38: 2425 Claxton C S, Ralston Y 1978 Learning styles: their impact on teaching and administra;on. American Association for Hieher Education and ERIC clearing house on higher education, Research Report No 10:” Washington D.C. Copenhaver R W 1979 The consistency of student learning styles as students move from English to mathematics. Doctoral dissertation, Indian University Crook 1 1985 A validation studv of a self-directed leart&g readiness scale. Journal of Nurse Education 24,7: 274-279 Cross K P 1979 Adult learners: characteristics, needs, and interests. In: Peterson R E (ed) Lifelong learning in America. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. California Diers D 1972 Leadership problems and possibilities in nursing. American Journal of Nursing 12, 8: 14451456 Dressel P L, Thompson M M 1973 Independent study. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, California Fry R 1978 Diagnosing professional learning environments: an observational scheme for matching learner style with situation complexity. PhD Dissertation, MIT Sloan School of Management

TODAY

203

Gelpi E 1979 A future for lifelong education. Vol. 1 and 2. Manchester Monographs 13, Dept. of Adult Education, University of Manchester G ug 1’te 1mino L M 1977 Development of the self-directed learning readiness scale. Universitv of Microfilm Interna%onal: Ann Arbor, Michigan Keefe J W 1979 Student learning styles; diagnosing and prescribing programs. National Association of Secondary School Principals: Reston V A Kirby P 1979 Cognitive style, learning style, and transfer skill acauisition. National Centre for Research into V‘ocational Education, Ohio State University, Columbus Knowles M S 1970 Gearing adult education for the seventies. Journal of Continuing Education for Nursing, 1, l:ll-16 Knowles M S 1975 Self-directed learning: a guide for learners and teachers. Association Press, New York Knowles M S 1980 The modern practice of adult education from pedagogy to androgogy. Follett. Chicago Kolb D A 1976 learning style inventory: technical manual. McBer & Co, Boston Kolb D A 1984 Experiential learning: experience as the source of learning and development. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey Kolb D A, Wolfe D 1981 A cross-sectional study of adaptive competencies in experiential learning. Case Western Reserve Univeristy, Cleveland, Ohio Laschinger H K 1986 Learning styles of nursing students and environmental press perceptions of two clinical nursing settings. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 11: 289-294 Mauksch I 1972 Lets listen to the students. Nursing Outlook 20,2: 103-107 Nuttall P D 1965 Nursing Education in Britain Today. International Nursing Review 12, 6: 6-12 Olson J, Kartha A A E 7983 Use of self-directed learning in post RN education. In: Proceedings of the CAUSN Conference on graduate education. University of Columbia, Vancouver Oppenheim A N 1978 Questionnaire design and attitude measurement. Heinemann, London Ostmoe P M et al 1984 Learning style preferences and selection of learning strategies: consideration and implication for nurse educators. Journal of Nurse Education 23, 1: 27-30 Partridge R 1983 Learning styles: a review of selected models. Journal of Nurse Education 22, 2: 243-248 Plovnick M S 1975 Primary care career choices and medical student learning styles. Journal of Medical Education 50,849-855 Renzulli J S, Smith L H 1978 Learning style inventory: a measure of student preference for instructional techniques. Creative Learning Press, Connecticut Rezler A G, Rezmovic V 198 1 The learning preference inventory. Journal of Allied Health 10: 28-34 Rosendahl P 1974 Self-direction for learners. Nursing Forum 13,2: 136-146 Savoie M 1979 Continuing education for nurses: predictions of success in courses requiring a degree of learner self-direction. University of Toronto, Toronto Schoen D C 1979 Lifelong learning: how some participants see it. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 10,2: 3-16

204

NURSE EDUCATION TODAY

Seideman M N 1983 Student nurse learning styles based on experiential learning theory from 3 types of nursing programs. EdD Thesis, University of Southern California Simpson I 1979 From student to nurse. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Smith R, Haverkamp K 1977 Toward a theory of learning how to learn. Adult Education 28, 1:3-2 1 Sweenev 1 F 1986 Nurse education: learner-centred or teacheccentred. Nurse Education Today 6: 257-262 Thelen H A 1972 Education and the human quest. University of Chicago Press, Chicago

Tibbles L 1977 Theories of adult education: implications for developing a philosophy for continuing education in nursing. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing 8, 4: 25-28 Torrance E P, Mourad S 1978 Some creativity and style of learning correlates of Guglielmino’s self-directed learning readiness scale. Psychological Reports 43: 1167-1171 Zurhellen J H 1974 Individualization: develop tomorrow’s practitioners. 1: 91

a strategy to Nursing Forum

13,