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A study on learning effect among different learning styles in a Web-based lab of science for elementary school students
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Computers & Education 50 (2008) 1411–1422 www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
A study on learning effect among different learning styles in a Web-based lab of science for elementary school students Koun-tem Sun *, Yuan-cheng Lin, Chia-jui Yu Institute of Computer Science and Information Education, National University of Tainan, Tainan 700, Taiwan Received 28 November 2005; received in revised form 5 January 2007; accepted 13 January 2007
Abstract The purpose of this study is to explore the learning effect related to different learning styles in a Web-based virtual science laboratory for elementary school students. The online virtual lab allows teachers to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into science lessons. The results of this experimental teaching method demonstrate that: (a) students in the experimental group using the online virtual lab achieved better grades than those in the control group under traditional class instruction, (b) in the experimental group, grade achievements of students having different learning styles were not significantly different from each other leading us to conclude that the Web-based virtual learning environment is suitable for various learning styles, (c) students with the ‘‘accommodator’’ learning style made the most significant achievements in this study, the scores obtained by the experimental group being remarkably better than those in the control group, and (d) up to 75% of the students surveyed indicated that they preferred using the Web-based virtual lab to reading textbooks only. The results of the experimental teaching and the survey show the feasibility and effectiveness of the Web-based learning environment being studied. It encourages further development of the Web-based virtual lab. Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Web-based virtual lab; Learning achievement; Learning style; Significant difference
1. Introduction In recent years, the development of information technologies has not merely caused lifestyle changes, but also educational reforms. In the 1960s, computer-assisted teaching sparked enthusiasm for individualized teaching (Dimas, 1978; Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 1985). The subsequent availability of microcomputers enabled the application of computers to education and created the need to design Web-based labs for science courses at elementary schools for reasons given below: (1) Science courses should be giving technological support to learning. (2) The new trend in science education is to integrate information technology into science teaching. *
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 6 2133111x773; fax: +886 6 2149969. E-mail address: [email protected] (K.-t. Sun).
0360-1315/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.01.003
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(3) The operation and learning environment of a Web-based lab has a far reaching effect. (4) A Web-based lab can accommodate different learning styles. This study primarily highlights the investigation of how a Web-based lab learning environment influences the effectiveness of the teaching of science at the elementary school level. Therefore, a Web-based virtual lab for elementary school science courses was established to examine its effectiveness and its influence on students’ learning habits. This study seeks a new direction in integrating information technology into science courses at elementary schools. Some related topics discussed include: the meaning of integrating information technology into teaching, information-integrated teaching and online teaching, online learning research and development, and learning styles. 1.1. The meaning of integrating information into teaching Integrating information into teaching describes a process in which information technology is integrated into curriculum, materials, and teaching so that teachers and students can use information technology as another efficient teaching and learning tool, revealing that information technology can be integral to classroom teaching activities. Shum and McKnight (1997) also applied information technology to methodology or process, using it to solve a problem without constraints of time and space. The consideration of what materials should be selected by teachers to implement information technologyintegrated teaching is important. Chang (1999) identifies six situations as suitable and necessary for integrating information technology with teaching activities: (1) transforming abstract teaching materials into visual materials, (2) requiring operational experience of real world, (3) solving the problem of not having the proper environment for learning/teaching, (4) coping with situations of insufficient teachers for certain subjects, (5) motivating students, and (6) providing self-diagnosis and self-evaluation. Scholars have found that teaching styles change after information technology has been integrated into teaching (Dexter, Anderson, & Becker, 1999; Dias, 1999; Kozma, 1991; Rath & Brown, 1996). The role of the teacher changes from being the center of a class to an assistant/consultant who makes students the center of learning activities and free to determine learning topics and pace. Consequently, studentcentered teaching activities are most likely to successfully integrate information technology into learning activities. 1.2. Information-integrated teaching and online teaching With the consolidation of multi-media technology, the Internet has markedly influenced teaching and learning styles. Distant learning provides a solution to the many problems of restrictions on space, materials, and equipment. Furthermore, learning companions have also formed new Internet-based interactive learning groups. Therefore, the emergence of online teaching has greatly influenced current educational patterns and teaching methods, and the focus of education has shifted from classroom to global learning groups. Thus, how to integrate the Internet with subject matter is important in curricular design. According to Yang (2001), online teaching has five potential pedagogical advantages: unlimited user numbers, unlimited by time and space, asynchronous nonlinear learning, the application of diverse media, and the application of global resources. Gibbons, Evans, and Griffin (2003) were devoted to developing a practical class via a computer-based virtual laboratory (KaryoLab). The results suggested that the design of KaryoLab rationalized time for the tutor/researcher and to encourage more students to engage in cytogenetics. Furthermore, the results from two studies (chromosome analysis and bioinformatics) conducted by Gibbons, Evans, Payne, Shah, and Griffin (2004) showed that adopting computer-based simulation could provide a cheaper, easier, and less time-and-labor-intensive alternative. In the first study (chromosome analysis), simulations provided significant time savings (quarter time needed) to students without affecting learning. In the second study (bioinformatics), simulations were proved to be able to enhance student learning (7% higher). Obviously, the way of utilizing computer-based simulations is helpful to instructing/learning and worthy of further development.
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(Concrete Experience) Accommodators (Active Experimentation) Convergers
Divergers (Reflective Observation) Assimilators
(Abstract Conceptualization)
Fig. 1. Kolb theory on experiential learning.
1.3. The research and development of online learning Given the widespread use of the Internet and the boom in Website design, Web-based classrooms and the teaching materials with HTML-style will become a key medium in online learning for most people. ‘‘Acting to enhance the quality of Internet education in elementary and secondary schools’’ (Ho, 1998) analyzed 177 Websites that are found by the Taiwanese search engines and suitable for elementary and secondary students. In terms of the medium, most teaching Websites (88%) were static; moreover, in terms of content, most Websites (54%) provided teaching materials, and some (34%) provided testing databases. Clearly, students retrieve and present learning information passively in traditional online learning environments. 1.4. Learning styles A learning style describes a relatively stable response mode cultivated in the wake of learner perceptions of their interactions with the learning environment, generally including personal cognitive patterns, affective characteristics, and physiological habits. Kolb’s Learning-Style Inventory (Kolb, 1985) groups experiential learning behaviors into two dimensions (as shown in Fig. 1) and four learning modes, that is, diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. This study will observe the effect of the Web-based-lab learning environment on these four learning modes. 2. Method The methods used in this study include research methodology, system architecture, Web-based lab operation, and experimental research. 2.1. Research method The method of this study, as shown in the flowchart (in Fig. 2), comprises three major steps. The first step involves pre-testing, sampling, and grouping; the second step comprises experimental treatment, and the final step comprises post-testing and a questionnaire survey about Web-based lab teaching. 2.2. System structure The analysis and design of the virtual lab system combines cognitive psychology, pedagogical theories, Website design, and database design to establish a highly interactive and virtually operated Web-based lab learning environment for natural science courses. At the stage of system development, a questionnaire survey of needs and a literature review were carried out as the basis for reference for steps taken in system analysis, system design, and system development. When the system was completed, its performance was evaluated in order to observe and understand system relevance; then the conclusions were obtained and presented.
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K.-t. Sun et al. / Computers & Education 50 (2008) 1411–1422 Natural science achievement test (Pre-test)
Natural science achievement test (Post-test) Experimental treatment Virtual lab vs. traditional classroom teaching
Sample and classify
Survey of opinions on the virtual lab
Fig. 2. Flowchart structure for the study.
2.3. Operation of the Web-based lab LINUX Redhat 7.X was selected as the operating system for the platform of the Web-based virtual lab for primary school natural science courses. Additionally, Apache was used as the Web Server; MySQL was used as the system database; JAVA and PHP served as system programming languages (David & Steven, 2001). Students could access the natural science lab Website via the relevant browser software (as indicated in Fig. 3). The left half of the virtual lab consists of the experimentation desktop, on which experiments are conducted. On the right half of the virtual lab are cabinets storing lab tools and instruments, as indicated in Figs. 4 and 5. The cabinets contain some tools and instruments, such as thermometers, alcohol burners, burning cups, test tubes, and so on. Every tool or instrument is an object that a user can move at will to the desktop for experiment use. The view of the observed object changes as it is moved or operated. It is like operating the instruments in the real world. Before the experimental design, an individual table was made to explain the properties (name, state, color, movable or not, usage, degree of danger . . ., etc.) for each equipment and to show the state after each operation in the lab. To learn about the properties of the tools and instruments, students can double-click on an object to open a related pop-up window (as shown in Fig. 6).
Fig. 3. Portal of the proposed Web-based virtual lab.
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Fig. 4. Students can operate the microscope and observe results through the Internet.
Fig. 5. PH experiment with BTB indicator in the virtual lab.
The interactions between each property of any equipment occur as a display of a reaction or a result from an experiment. For example, when a magnet is put close to a compass, the pointer will lapse from its normal position; when the magnet is kept apart from the compass, the affection will be decreasing and finally gone once the distance is long enough (as shown in Fig. 7). In the Web-based lab, users can operate each lab tool freely and observe the experimental process (as shown in Fig. 8). The system records each step of the operating process (as shown in Fig. 9); this information is available to the teacher for observing, analyzing, and correcting any students’ mistakes made during the experiment. Teachers can also examine the recorded files. The complete operating records will enable them to monitor lab use and to understand an individual student’s learning. Teachers can thus help students find their mistakes and assist them in making the necessary corrections.
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Fig. 6. Upper-left pop-up window displaying the properties of the clicked tool.
Fig. 7. The actions of the pointer on a compass can be affected by a magnet.
2.4. Research of the experiment The research is designed to examine whether the proposed system can effectively facilitate primary school students in studying the natural sciences. This research contains four parts: sampling, experimental designing, experiment tools, and data processing. 2.4.1. Sampling This study was administered to over 132 students from four fifth-grade classes. Two of the classes were selected from one Tainan City elementary school and the other two were selected from an elementary school
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Fig. 8. The user operates lab tools and instruments at the remote end.
Fig. 9. Student learning history.
in Kaohsiung City using random sampling. Sixty-five students from two of the classes were assigned to the experimental group where they received information-integrated Web-based lab teaching, while the other 67 students from the other two classes were assigned to the control group where they received traditional classroom teaching. 2.4.2. Experimental design This study adopted a quasi-experimental design method to examine how the Web-based lab influences the effectiveness of teaching the natural sciences in elementary schools (Best & Kahn, 1989; Cohen, 1997). This experiment applied the nonequivalent-control group design to evaluate teaching effectiveness. Following a
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two-month experimental curriculum, the students in the experimental group filled out the ‘‘Questionnaire of Web-Based Lab Teaching’’ to analyze their opinions about studying the natural sciences this way. This study adopted both one-way and two-way ANOVA design. To assess how the Web-based lab presented here may influence the learning effectiveness at natural science classes for primary school, two units were selected from the fifth grade science program: ‘‘Acid and Alkali’’ and ‘‘The Operation of a Microscope.’’ The lab programs were developed based on the selected materials. Additionally, a detailed lesson plan was included to standardize both of the Web-based teaching method and the traditional classroom teaching method. Class hours for both groups were equal, which include chances of operating conventional manual experiments. However, part of the lab hours for the experimental group was shifted to the practice of the Web-based lab. 2.4.3. Experiment tools This study utilized the following tools: Questionnaire surveying learning styles (KLSI-1984). Achievement test of science (pre-test). Achievement test of science (post-test). Questionnaire on Web-based lab teaching. The KLSI-1984 developed by Kolb (1985) was used to measure the students’ learning styles. The ATOS (pre-test), comprised of 42 questions and made by the authors, was based on the materials mentioned above. Right after designing the questions, analyzing them, and selecting the test items, we conducted the pre-test. From the pre-test question databank, 20 questions with values of discrimination above .32 and ranging between .34 and .77 in degree of difficulty were retained as formal questions. As for the internal consistency of the test, it had a value of .847 on the Kuder–Richardson reliability scale; the average degree of difficulty was .589. Science teachers were invited to examine these questions and confirmed that the content of the test was representative of the desired test fields. The ATOS (post-test), designed from a databank of 40 questions, was made by the authors as well. For the post-test questions, 20 questions with values of discrimination above .35 and ranging in difficulty between .34 and .76 were retained as the formal questions. Checking the internal consistency of the post-test, we had a Kuder–Richardson reliability of .873 and the average level of degree of difficulty was .586. A questionnaire was given to every student involved in this experiment. The total 25 items on this questionnaire were divided into three major parts: system operation, the matter in the lab, and reflections upon the learning activities in the Web-based lab (i.e. the experiment of circuit and compass enables me to devise a conductive circuit), and five response options (deeply agree, agree, no comments, disagree, and deeply disagree) to each item were offered for the students to choose from. 2.4.4. Data processing The techniques applied in data processing and data analysis are described hereunder. 2.4.4.1. Data selection. Any answer that was incomplete or that was obviously made by guessing was deleted before statistical analysis. The rest of experimental students were 113 (56 students in experimental group and 57 students in control group). 2.4.4.2. Statistical analysis. SPSS, a software package specially designed for processing statistics in social science disciplines, was used to conduct the statistical analysis. The statistical analysis techniques adopted here are: (a) Analysis of the reliability of scaleTo analyze the scale reliability, Cronbach a coefficient was adopted to examine the scale reliability, and 0.7, as recommended by Nunnally (1994), was chosen to indicate reliability. (b) Test of the homogeneity of intra-group regression coefficientsBefore analyzing covariance, homogeneity of regression coefficients was tested to examine whether homogeneity existed in the intra-group.
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(c) Analysis of covarianceSingle-factor ANOVA and two-factor ANOVA were chosen to examine the influence of different teaching techniques (Web-based lab teaching versus traditional classroom teaching) and learning styles on learning in primary school science courses. (d) Statistics of times and percentageStatistics were kept on the number of times students selected a particular choice on the questionnaire, and then calculated as percentages. These results were interpreted as revealing their attributes towards the experiment. 3. Results The statistical findings of this study are divided into three parts and discussed, respectively, as the following. 3.1. Significantly different influences brought from the experimental treatment In the process of the analysis, the experimental treatment was regarded as the independent variable, the scores on the ATOS (post-test) from both groups of students were seen as the dependent variables, and the scores on the ATOS (pre-test) were taken as the co-variables. An analysis of covariance was then conducted. The homogeneity of regression coefficients was tested before the analysis. SPSS analysis demonstrated that the F value of the regression coefficients was .288 (P > .05). Not having reached a significant level, the hypothesis of homogeneity could not be rejected. Consequently, covariance analysis was conducted. The scores on the ATOS (post-test) were adjusted by removing the influence of the ATOS (pre-test) from the scores on the ATOS (post-test). From Table 1, ‘‘Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Achievement in the Pre-test, Post-test, and Adjusted Post-test,’’ and Table 2, ‘‘Summary of the Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental Treatment’’, we find that the teaching effectiveness of one group above another is significant (F = 3.812, P < .05) (the experimental group was better than the control group), indicating a great difference in achievement between the experimental group and control group in the learning of science with/without the Web-based operating experiment. That is, the Web-based lab system proposed here effectively elevated the learning achievement of elementary school students in science. 3.2. No significant differences of science achievement were found among all learning styles in the experimental group This section analyzes the influence of this experiment on the achievements made in science by students with different learning styles. First, a two (teaching methods) by four (learning styles) ANOVA was conducted to Table 1 Mean scores and standard deviations of natural science achievement on the pre-test, post-test, and adjusted post-test Group
Experimental group Control group Total
Number of students
Pre-test
Post-test
Post-test (after adjustment)
Mean score
SD
Mean score
SD
Mean score
SD
56 57
77.834 78.321
10.637 12.344
85.774 82.451
8.136 12.428
86.031 82.346
7.852 12.213
113
78.079
11.498
84.097
10.301
Table 2 Summary of the analysis of covariance between the experimental group and the control group Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Square root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
336.471 9745.347
1 110
336.471 88.594
3.812*
*
P < .05.
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Table 3 Summary of the analysis of covariance of the experimental treatment on the accommodator learning style Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Squared root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
691.245 1437.216
1 30
691.245 48.017
14.732*
*
P < .05.
Table 4 Summary of the analysis of covariance of the experimental treatment on the experimental group for different learning styles Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Squared root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
289.345 3237.623
3 51
96.488 63.482
1.532
examine the interactive relationships between different learning styles and teaching methods. Next, the analysis of covariance between students with different learning styles in the experimental groups was investigated. Data shown in Table 3 suggest that only students with the Accommodator Learning Style show better achievement both in the experimental group and the control group: the scores obtained by the experimental group were remarkably better than those achieved by the control group. This result may be attributed to two main learning characteristics the Accommodator Learning Style comprises of: concrete experience and active experimentation. Therefore, learners with the Accommodator Learning Style have the ability to integrate former accomplishments easily with new experience from the Web-based virtual lab, which is thus extremely suitable to them. Then, before conducting the two-factor ANOVA for covariance analysis, a test must be conducted to determine whether homogeneity exists in the intra-group. The test of the homogeneity of regressions achieved F = 2.378 (P > .05), below the level of significance. Table 4, ‘‘Summary of the Analysis of Covariance of the Experiment Operation on the Experimental Group for Different Learning Styles’’ indicates that the achievement made in science by different learning styles in the experimental group failed to reach a significant level (F = 1.532, P > 0.5) after receiving the Web-based lab teaching. This analytical result may well interpret the fact emerged from our experiment: the instruction from our computer-simulated laboratory significantly minimized the influence brought by learning styles onto the effectiveness of learning. And therefore, we assume that the Web-based lab system is extremely fit for students with different learning styles. The experimental results are consistent with the hypotheses and some related researches. 3.3. Around three quarters of students were delighted to receive instructions from the Web-based lab We used ‘‘The Questionnaire on Web-Based Lab Teaching for Science Courses’’ to administer a survey to the students receiving Web-based lab teaching for science courses. A total of 65 students were surveyed, and 56 valid questionnaires were obtained. The collected data underwent percentage calculation to reveal the advantages and weaknesses of such a teaching method. The analytical results reveal that nearly three-fourths of the students were willing to use the Web-based lab. This encourages us to develop the Web-based learning environment for future work. 4. Discussion Generally, the findings indicate that using the Web-based lab to teaching science has a positive influence on primary school students. The findings are presented as follows. 4.1. The influence of the Web-based lab on students’ achievement in natural sciences From the results of the group experiments, the learning achieved by the experimental group is higher than that of the control group, and moreover the difference is significant. The experimental group that applied the
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Web-based lab science teaching thus achieved better learning than their control-group counterpart that applied traditional teaching. That is, the Web-based lab system presented here is helpful in improving the achievement of science learning among primary school students. 4.2. The influence of the natural science Web-based lab on the learning of students with different learning styles According to the results obtained from group experiments, learners with the Accommodator Learning Style display a significant progress in learning science. The experimental group is higher than that of the control group for accommodator learning style. However, within the experimental group, the learning achievement in science among different learning styles failed to reach to a significant degree. That is, learning styles do not strongly influence the effectiveness of learning activities when using the Web-based lab system. A Webbased lab environment is suitably applied to students with different learning styles. Regardless of learning style, all students benefit from using a Web-based lab. 4.3. Analysis of the questionnaire for the Web-based lab science teaching After applying Web-based lab teaching, the students who had participated in the experimental classes were surveyed regarding their opinions on the teaching. The results indicated that most of the students (nearly three-fourths) were willing to use the Web-based lab. This study verified the usefulness and feasibility of the proposed Web-based lab. This finding encourages us to develop additional Web-based science courses. Based on the above findings, the Web-based lab for the teaching of the natural sciences has demonstrated its usefulness and effectiveness as a teaching tool for primary school students with different learning styles. We will extend this research to different courses to explore the feasibility and practicability of E-learning. 5. Conclusion The study aims at probing for the influences the Web-based Lab may bring for effectiveness in science classes at elementary schools. After the practice of solid curriculum, some encouraging strong points emerged: 1. It promotes interest in learning sciences via simulated experiments and it makes individualized learning/ teaching occur easily among clicks. 2. The repeatable operation powers cognition and help build up science conceptions more efficiently. 3. Apply the Web-based lab science teaching achieved much better learning than the traditional teaching. 4. The simulated lab on the science Web is able to accommodate learners with different learning styles. 5. It improves problems of inadequate room for a lab and breaks the limit of time for lab classes. 6. The object-directing design simplifies the management and maintenance of the virtual lab. Here are some suggestions and directions for the further research of this study we have concluded : 1. Broaden the sampling range to raise outer effectiveness.Due to a consideration for a better occasion-choice and no too many official paper chores, only 125 students from 4 classes in two schools were sampled, which lead to a relatively small scale sampling .In the future, we wish to conduct the experiment with a sampling scale as big as many schools in a city plus those in a county. Through a larger scale sampling, we are confident of a better outer effectiveness. 2. Analyze the research results via a quality research.The method used to analyze this study is based on quantity. This is a reliable method wildly used; however, some variables such as students’ capabilities and attitudes are likely and easily affected by uncertain factors, like time and space, which are not likely to be over all controlled. Thus, if a research of quality is fulfilled to go with the main study, a more detailed and accurate interpretation toward the observation, interviews and records from sampled students will be faithfully expected.
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3. Promote the function and efficiency of the Web-based Lab from technical aspects.We are planning to set up a key rule class for the sharing of the Web-based Lab to evaluate the feasibility of running a virtual lab embedded with scattered objects via CORBA technique so that the lab can be simultaneously shared by learners.
Acknowledgments This research is supported by the National Science Council of Taiwan, ROC, under grant NSC 92-2520-S024-001. References Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (1989). Research in education. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chang, Kuo-en (1999). The implication and practice of integrating into teaching of different courses. Information and Education, 72, 2–9. Cohen, J. (1997). Statistical power analysis for behavioral science (Revised ed.). New York: Academic Press. David, P. T., & Steven, D. S. (2001). Cognitive activities in OO development. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 54(6), 779–798. Dexter, S. L., Anderson, R. E., & Becker, H. J. (1999). Teachers’ views of computers as catalysts for changes in their teaching practice. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 31(3), 221–239. Dias, L. B. (1999). Integrating technology: some things you should know. Learning and Leading with Technology, 27(3), 10–13, 21.. Dimas, C. (1978). A strategy for developing CAI. Educational Technology, 33(4), 26–29. Gibbons, N., Evans, C., & Griffin, D. (2003). Learning to karyotype in the university environment: a computer-based virtual laboratory class (KaryoLab) designed to rationalize time for the tutor/researcher and to encourage more students to engage in cytogenetics. Journal of Cytogenetic and Genome Research, 101(1), 1–4. Gibbons, N., Evans, C., Payne, A., Shah, K., & Griffin, D. (2004). Computer simulations improve university instructional laboratories. Journal of Cell Biology Education, 3, 263–269. Ho, Wen-hsiung (1998). Research and analysis report on: taking action to elevate the Internet education quality at elementary and secondary schools in Taiwan. Information and Education, 70, 14–25. Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D. W., & Stanne, M. B. (1985). Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on computer-assisted instruction. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(6), 668–677. Kolb, D. A. (1985). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: PrenticeHall Inc.. Kozma, R. B. (1991). Learning with media. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 179–211. Nunnally, J. C. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill. Rath, A., & Brown, D. E. (1996). Modes of engagement in science inquiry: a microanalysis of elementary students’ orientations toward phenomena at a summer science camp. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33(10), 1083–1097. Shum, S. B., & McKnight, C. (1997). World Wide Web usability: introduction to this special issue. International Journal of Human– Computer Studies, 47(1), 1–4. Yang, Chia-hsin (2001). The application of Internet teaching in grade 1–9 curriculum. Taiwan Education, 607, 2–9.
Computers & Education 50 (2008) 1411–1422 www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
A study on learning effect among different learning styles in a Web-based lab of science for elementary school students Koun-tem Sun *, Yuan-cheng Lin, Chia-jui Yu Institute of Computer Science and Information Education, National University of Tainan, Tainan 700, Taiwan Received 28 November 2005; received in revised form 5 January 2007; accepted 13 January 2007
Abstract The purpose of this study is to explore the learning effect related to different learning styles in a Web-based virtual science laboratory for elementary school students. The online virtual lab allows teachers to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into science lessons. The results of this experimental teaching method demonstrate that: (a) students in the experimental group using the online virtual lab achieved better grades than those in the control group under traditional class instruction, (b) in the experimental group, grade achievements of students having different learning styles were not significantly different from each other leading us to conclude that the Web-based virtual learning environment is suitable for various learning styles, (c) students with the ‘‘accommodator’’ learning style made the most significant achievements in this study, the scores obtained by the experimental group being remarkably better than those in the control group, and (d) up to 75% of the students surveyed indicated that they preferred using the Web-based virtual lab to reading textbooks only. The results of the experimental teaching and the survey show the feasibility and effectiveness of the Web-based learning environment being studied. It encourages further development of the Web-based virtual lab. Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Keywords: Web-based virtual lab; Learning achievement; Learning style; Significant difference
1. Introduction In recent years, the development of information technologies has not merely caused lifestyle changes, but also educational reforms. In the 1960s, computer-assisted teaching sparked enthusiasm for individualized teaching (Dimas, 1978; Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 1985). The subsequent availability of microcomputers enabled the application of computers to education and created the need to design Web-based labs for science courses at elementary schools for reasons given below: (1) Science courses should be giving technological support to learning. (2) The new trend in science education is to integrate information technology into science teaching. *
Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 6 2133111x773; fax: +886 6 2149969. E-mail address: [email protected] (K.-t. Sun).
0360-1315/$ - see front matter Ó 2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2007.01.003
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(3) The operation and learning environment of a Web-based lab has a far reaching effect. (4) A Web-based lab can accommodate different learning styles. This study primarily highlights the investigation of how a Web-based lab learning environment influences the effectiveness of the teaching of science at the elementary school level. Therefore, a Web-based virtual lab for elementary school science courses was established to examine its effectiveness and its influence on students’ learning habits. This study seeks a new direction in integrating information technology into science courses at elementary schools. Some related topics discussed include: the meaning of integrating information technology into teaching, information-integrated teaching and online teaching, online learning research and development, and learning styles. 1.1. The meaning of integrating information into teaching Integrating information into teaching describes a process in which information technology is integrated into curriculum, materials, and teaching so that teachers and students can use information technology as another efficient teaching and learning tool, revealing that information technology can be integral to classroom teaching activities. Shum and McKnight (1997) also applied information technology to methodology or process, using it to solve a problem without constraints of time and space. The consideration of what materials should be selected by teachers to implement information technologyintegrated teaching is important. Chang (1999) identifies six situations as suitable and necessary for integrating information technology with teaching activities: (1) transforming abstract teaching materials into visual materials, (2) requiring operational experience of real world, (3) solving the problem of not having the proper environment for learning/teaching, (4) coping with situations of insufficient teachers for certain subjects, (5) motivating students, and (6) providing self-diagnosis and self-evaluation. Scholars have found that teaching styles change after information technology has been integrated into teaching (Dexter, Anderson, & Becker, 1999; Dias, 1999; Kozma, 1991; Rath & Brown, 1996). The role of the teacher changes from being the center of a class to an assistant/consultant who makes students the center of learning activities and free to determine learning topics and pace. Consequently, studentcentered teaching activities are most likely to successfully integrate information technology into learning activities. 1.2. Information-integrated teaching and online teaching With the consolidation of multi-media technology, the Internet has markedly influenced teaching and learning styles. Distant learning provides a solution to the many problems of restrictions on space, materials, and equipment. Furthermore, learning companions have also formed new Internet-based interactive learning groups. Therefore, the emergence of online teaching has greatly influenced current educational patterns and teaching methods, and the focus of education has shifted from classroom to global learning groups. Thus, how to integrate the Internet with subject matter is important in curricular design. According to Yang (2001), online teaching has five potential pedagogical advantages: unlimited user numbers, unlimited by time and space, asynchronous nonlinear learning, the application of diverse media, and the application of global resources. Gibbons, Evans, and Griffin (2003) were devoted to developing a practical class via a computer-based virtual laboratory (KaryoLab). The results suggested that the design of KaryoLab rationalized time for the tutor/researcher and to encourage more students to engage in cytogenetics. Furthermore, the results from two studies (chromosome analysis and bioinformatics) conducted by Gibbons, Evans, Payne, Shah, and Griffin (2004) showed that adopting computer-based simulation could provide a cheaper, easier, and less time-and-labor-intensive alternative. In the first study (chromosome analysis), simulations provided significant time savings (quarter time needed) to students without affecting learning. In the second study (bioinformatics), simulations were proved to be able to enhance student learning (7% higher). Obviously, the way of utilizing computer-based simulations is helpful to instructing/learning and worthy of further development.
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(Concrete Experience) Accommodators (Active Experimentation) Convergers
Divergers (Reflective Observation) Assimilators
(Abstract Conceptualization)
Fig. 1. Kolb theory on experiential learning.
1.3. The research and development of online learning Given the widespread use of the Internet and the boom in Website design, Web-based classrooms and the teaching materials with HTML-style will become a key medium in online learning for most people. ‘‘Acting to enhance the quality of Internet education in elementary and secondary schools’’ (Ho, 1998) analyzed 177 Websites that are found by the Taiwanese search engines and suitable for elementary and secondary students. In terms of the medium, most teaching Websites (88%) were static; moreover, in terms of content, most Websites (54%) provided teaching materials, and some (34%) provided testing databases. Clearly, students retrieve and present learning information passively in traditional online learning environments. 1.4. Learning styles A learning style describes a relatively stable response mode cultivated in the wake of learner perceptions of their interactions with the learning environment, generally including personal cognitive patterns, affective characteristics, and physiological habits. Kolb’s Learning-Style Inventory (Kolb, 1985) groups experiential learning behaviors into two dimensions (as shown in Fig. 1) and four learning modes, that is, diverger, assimilator, converger, and accommodator. This study will observe the effect of the Web-based-lab learning environment on these four learning modes. 2. Method The methods used in this study include research methodology, system architecture, Web-based lab operation, and experimental research. 2.1. Research method The method of this study, as shown in the flowchart (in Fig. 2), comprises three major steps. The first step involves pre-testing, sampling, and grouping; the second step comprises experimental treatment, and the final step comprises post-testing and a questionnaire survey about Web-based lab teaching. 2.2. System structure The analysis and design of the virtual lab system combines cognitive psychology, pedagogical theories, Website design, and database design to establish a highly interactive and virtually operated Web-based lab learning environment for natural science courses. At the stage of system development, a questionnaire survey of needs and a literature review were carried out as the basis for reference for steps taken in system analysis, system design, and system development. When the system was completed, its performance was evaluated in order to observe and understand system relevance; then the conclusions were obtained and presented.
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K.-t. Sun et al. / Computers & Education 50 (2008) 1411–1422 Natural science achievement test (Pre-test)
Natural science achievement test (Post-test) Experimental treatment Virtual lab vs. traditional classroom teaching
Sample and classify
Survey of opinions on the virtual lab
Fig. 2. Flowchart structure for the study.
2.3. Operation of the Web-based lab LINUX Redhat 7.X was selected as the operating system for the platform of the Web-based virtual lab for primary school natural science courses. Additionally, Apache was used as the Web Server; MySQL was used as the system database; JAVA and PHP served as system programming languages (David & Steven, 2001). Students could access the natural science lab Website via the relevant browser software (as indicated in Fig. 3). The left half of the virtual lab consists of the experimentation desktop, on which experiments are conducted. On the right half of the virtual lab are cabinets storing lab tools and instruments, as indicated in Figs. 4 and 5. The cabinets contain some tools and instruments, such as thermometers, alcohol burners, burning cups, test tubes, and so on. Every tool or instrument is an object that a user can move at will to the desktop for experiment use. The view of the observed object changes as it is moved or operated. It is like operating the instruments in the real world. Before the experimental design, an individual table was made to explain the properties (name, state, color, movable or not, usage, degree of danger . . ., etc.) for each equipment and to show the state after each operation in the lab. To learn about the properties of the tools and instruments, students can double-click on an object to open a related pop-up window (as shown in Fig. 6).
Fig. 3. Portal of the proposed Web-based virtual lab.
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Fig. 4. Students can operate the microscope and observe results through the Internet.
Fig. 5. PH experiment with BTB indicator in the virtual lab.
The interactions between each property of any equipment occur as a display of a reaction or a result from an experiment. For example, when a magnet is put close to a compass, the pointer will lapse from its normal position; when the magnet is kept apart from the compass, the affection will be decreasing and finally gone once the distance is long enough (as shown in Fig. 7). In the Web-based lab, users can operate each lab tool freely and observe the experimental process (as shown in Fig. 8). The system records each step of the operating process (as shown in Fig. 9); this information is available to the teacher for observing, analyzing, and correcting any students’ mistakes made during the experiment. Teachers can also examine the recorded files. The complete operating records will enable them to monitor lab use and to understand an individual student’s learning. Teachers can thus help students find their mistakes and assist them in making the necessary corrections.
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Fig. 6. Upper-left pop-up window displaying the properties of the clicked tool.
Fig. 7. The actions of the pointer on a compass can be affected by a magnet.
2.4. Research of the experiment The research is designed to examine whether the proposed system can effectively facilitate primary school students in studying the natural sciences. This research contains four parts: sampling, experimental designing, experiment tools, and data processing. 2.4.1. Sampling This study was administered to over 132 students from four fifth-grade classes. Two of the classes were selected from one Tainan City elementary school and the other two were selected from an elementary school
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Fig. 8. The user operates lab tools and instruments at the remote end.
Fig. 9. Student learning history.
in Kaohsiung City using random sampling. Sixty-five students from two of the classes were assigned to the experimental group where they received information-integrated Web-based lab teaching, while the other 67 students from the other two classes were assigned to the control group where they received traditional classroom teaching. 2.4.2. Experimental design This study adopted a quasi-experimental design method to examine how the Web-based lab influences the effectiveness of teaching the natural sciences in elementary schools (Best & Kahn, 1989; Cohen, 1997). This experiment applied the nonequivalent-control group design to evaluate teaching effectiveness. Following a
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two-month experimental curriculum, the students in the experimental group filled out the ‘‘Questionnaire of Web-Based Lab Teaching’’ to analyze their opinions about studying the natural sciences this way. This study adopted both one-way and two-way ANOVA design. To assess how the Web-based lab presented here may influence the learning effectiveness at natural science classes for primary school, two units were selected from the fifth grade science program: ‘‘Acid and Alkali’’ and ‘‘The Operation of a Microscope.’’ The lab programs were developed based on the selected materials. Additionally, a detailed lesson plan was included to standardize both of the Web-based teaching method and the traditional classroom teaching method. Class hours for both groups were equal, which include chances of operating conventional manual experiments. However, part of the lab hours for the experimental group was shifted to the practice of the Web-based lab. 2.4.3. Experiment tools This study utilized the following tools: Questionnaire surveying learning styles (KLSI-1984). Achievement test of science (pre-test). Achievement test of science (post-test). Questionnaire on Web-based lab teaching. The KLSI-1984 developed by Kolb (1985) was used to measure the students’ learning styles. The ATOS (pre-test), comprised of 42 questions and made by the authors, was based on the materials mentioned above. Right after designing the questions, analyzing them, and selecting the test items, we conducted the pre-test. From the pre-test question databank, 20 questions with values of discrimination above .32 and ranging between .34 and .77 in degree of difficulty were retained as formal questions. As for the internal consistency of the test, it had a value of .847 on the Kuder–Richardson reliability scale; the average degree of difficulty was .589. Science teachers were invited to examine these questions and confirmed that the content of the test was representative of the desired test fields. The ATOS (post-test), designed from a databank of 40 questions, was made by the authors as well. For the post-test questions, 20 questions with values of discrimination above .35 and ranging in difficulty between .34 and .76 were retained as the formal questions. Checking the internal consistency of the post-test, we had a Kuder–Richardson reliability of .873 and the average level of degree of difficulty was .586. A questionnaire was given to every student involved in this experiment. The total 25 items on this questionnaire were divided into three major parts: system operation, the matter in the lab, and reflections upon the learning activities in the Web-based lab (i.e. the experiment of circuit and compass enables me to devise a conductive circuit), and five response options (deeply agree, agree, no comments, disagree, and deeply disagree) to each item were offered for the students to choose from. 2.4.4. Data processing The techniques applied in data processing and data analysis are described hereunder. 2.4.4.1. Data selection. Any answer that was incomplete or that was obviously made by guessing was deleted before statistical analysis. The rest of experimental students were 113 (56 students in experimental group and 57 students in control group). 2.4.4.2. Statistical analysis. SPSS, a software package specially designed for processing statistics in social science disciplines, was used to conduct the statistical analysis. The statistical analysis techniques adopted here are: (a) Analysis of the reliability of scaleTo analyze the scale reliability, Cronbach a coefficient was adopted to examine the scale reliability, and 0.7, as recommended by Nunnally (1994), was chosen to indicate reliability. (b) Test of the homogeneity of intra-group regression coefficientsBefore analyzing covariance, homogeneity of regression coefficients was tested to examine whether homogeneity existed in the intra-group.
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(c) Analysis of covarianceSingle-factor ANOVA and two-factor ANOVA were chosen to examine the influence of different teaching techniques (Web-based lab teaching versus traditional classroom teaching) and learning styles on learning in primary school science courses. (d) Statistics of times and percentageStatistics were kept on the number of times students selected a particular choice on the questionnaire, and then calculated as percentages. These results were interpreted as revealing their attributes towards the experiment. 3. Results The statistical findings of this study are divided into three parts and discussed, respectively, as the following. 3.1. Significantly different influences brought from the experimental treatment In the process of the analysis, the experimental treatment was regarded as the independent variable, the scores on the ATOS (post-test) from both groups of students were seen as the dependent variables, and the scores on the ATOS (pre-test) were taken as the co-variables. An analysis of covariance was then conducted. The homogeneity of regression coefficients was tested before the analysis. SPSS analysis demonstrated that the F value of the regression coefficients was .288 (P > .05). Not having reached a significant level, the hypothesis of homogeneity could not be rejected. Consequently, covariance analysis was conducted. The scores on the ATOS (post-test) were adjusted by removing the influence of the ATOS (pre-test) from the scores on the ATOS (post-test). From Table 1, ‘‘Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of Achievement in the Pre-test, Post-test, and Adjusted Post-test,’’ and Table 2, ‘‘Summary of the Analysis of Covariance of the Experimental Treatment’’, we find that the teaching effectiveness of one group above another is significant (F = 3.812, P < .05) (the experimental group was better than the control group), indicating a great difference in achievement between the experimental group and control group in the learning of science with/without the Web-based operating experiment. That is, the Web-based lab system proposed here effectively elevated the learning achievement of elementary school students in science. 3.2. No significant differences of science achievement were found among all learning styles in the experimental group This section analyzes the influence of this experiment on the achievements made in science by students with different learning styles. First, a two (teaching methods) by four (learning styles) ANOVA was conducted to Table 1 Mean scores and standard deviations of natural science achievement on the pre-test, post-test, and adjusted post-test Group
Experimental group Control group Total
Number of students
Pre-test
Post-test
Post-test (after adjustment)
Mean score
SD
Mean score
SD
Mean score
SD
56 57
77.834 78.321
10.637 12.344
85.774 82.451
8.136 12.428
86.031 82.346
7.852 12.213
113
78.079
11.498
84.097
10.301
Table 2 Summary of the analysis of covariance between the experimental group and the control group Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Square root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
336.471 9745.347
1 110
336.471 88.594
3.812*
*
P < .05.
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Table 3 Summary of the analysis of covariance of the experimental treatment on the accommodator learning style Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Squared root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
691.245 1437.216
1 30
691.245 48.017
14.732*
*
P < .05.
Table 4 Summary of the analysis of covariance of the experimental treatment on the experimental group for different learning styles Source of variance
Sum of the squares of deviations
Degree of freedom
Squared root
F value
Inter-group (experimental treatment) Intra-group (error)
289.345 3237.623
3 51
96.488 63.482
1.532
examine the interactive relationships between different learning styles and teaching methods. Next, the analysis of covariance between students with different learning styles in the experimental groups was investigated. Data shown in Table 3 suggest that only students with the Accommodator Learning Style show better achievement both in the experimental group and the control group: the scores obtained by the experimental group were remarkably better than those achieved by the control group. This result may be attributed to two main learning characteristics the Accommodator Learning Style comprises of: concrete experience and active experimentation. Therefore, learners with the Accommodator Learning Style have the ability to integrate former accomplishments easily with new experience from the Web-based virtual lab, which is thus extremely suitable to them. Then, before conducting the two-factor ANOVA for covariance analysis, a test must be conducted to determine whether homogeneity exists in the intra-group. The test of the homogeneity of regressions achieved F = 2.378 (P > .05), below the level of significance. Table 4, ‘‘Summary of the Analysis of Covariance of the Experiment Operation on the Experimental Group for Different Learning Styles’’ indicates that the achievement made in science by different learning styles in the experimental group failed to reach a significant level (F = 1.532, P > 0.5) after receiving the Web-based lab teaching. This analytical result may well interpret the fact emerged from our experiment: the instruction from our computer-simulated laboratory significantly minimized the influence brought by learning styles onto the effectiveness of learning. And therefore, we assume that the Web-based lab system is extremely fit for students with different learning styles. The experimental results are consistent with the hypotheses and some related researches. 3.3. Around three quarters of students were delighted to receive instructions from the Web-based lab We used ‘‘The Questionnaire on Web-Based Lab Teaching for Science Courses’’ to administer a survey to the students receiving Web-based lab teaching for science courses. A total of 65 students were surveyed, and 56 valid questionnaires were obtained. The collected data underwent percentage calculation to reveal the advantages and weaknesses of such a teaching method. The analytical results reveal that nearly three-fourths of the students were willing to use the Web-based lab. This encourages us to develop the Web-based learning environment for future work. 4. Discussion Generally, the findings indicate that using the Web-based lab to teaching science has a positive influence on primary school students. The findings are presented as follows. 4.1. The influence of the Web-based lab on students’ achievement in natural sciences From the results of the group experiments, the learning achieved by the experimental group is higher than that of the control group, and moreover the difference is significant. The experimental group that applied the
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Web-based lab science teaching thus achieved better learning than their control-group counterpart that applied traditional teaching. That is, the Web-based lab system presented here is helpful in improving the achievement of science learning among primary school students. 4.2. The influence of the natural science Web-based lab on the learning of students with different learning styles According to the results obtained from group experiments, learners with the Accommodator Learning Style display a significant progress in learning science. The experimental group is higher than that of the control group for accommodator learning style. However, within the experimental group, the learning achievement in science among different learning styles failed to reach to a significant degree. That is, learning styles do not strongly influence the effectiveness of learning activities when using the Web-based lab system. A Webbased lab environment is suitably applied to students with different learning styles. Regardless of learning style, all students benefit from using a Web-based lab. 4.3. Analysis of the questionnaire for the Web-based lab science teaching After applying Web-based lab teaching, the students who had participated in the experimental classes were surveyed regarding their opinions on the teaching. The results indicated that most of the students (nearly three-fourths) were willing to use the Web-based lab. This study verified the usefulness and feasibility of the proposed Web-based lab. This finding encourages us to develop additional Web-based science courses. Based on the above findings, the Web-based lab for the teaching of the natural sciences has demonstrated its usefulness and effectiveness as a teaching tool for primary school students with different learning styles. We will extend this research to different courses to explore the feasibility and practicability of E-learning. 5. Conclusion The study aims at probing for the influences the Web-based Lab may bring for effectiveness in science classes at elementary schools. After the practice of solid curriculum, some encouraging strong points emerged: 1. It promotes interest in learning sciences via simulated experiments and it makes individualized learning/ teaching occur easily among clicks. 2. The repeatable operation powers cognition and help build up science conceptions more efficiently. 3. Apply the Web-based lab science teaching achieved much better learning than the traditional teaching. 4. The simulated lab on the science Web is able to accommodate learners with different learning styles. 5. It improves problems of inadequate room for a lab and breaks the limit of time for lab classes. 6. The object-directing design simplifies the management and maintenance of the virtual lab. Here are some suggestions and directions for the further research of this study we have concluded : 1. Broaden the sampling range to raise outer effectiveness.Due to a consideration for a better occasion-choice and no too many official paper chores, only 125 students from 4 classes in two schools were sampled, which lead to a relatively small scale sampling .In the future, we wish to conduct the experiment with a sampling scale as big as many schools in a city plus those in a county. Through a larger scale sampling, we are confident of a better outer effectiveness. 2. Analyze the research results via a quality research.The method used to analyze this study is based on quantity. This is a reliable method wildly used; however, some variables such as students’ capabilities and attitudes are likely and easily affected by uncertain factors, like time and space, which are not likely to be over all controlled. Thus, if a research of quality is fulfilled to go with the main study, a more detailed and accurate interpretation toward the observation, interviews and records from sampled students will be faithfully expected.
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3. Promote the function and efficiency of the Web-based Lab from technical aspects.We are planning to set up a key rule class for the sharing of the Web-based Lab to evaluate the feasibility of running a virtual lab embedded with scattered objects via CORBA technique so that the lab can be simultaneously shared by learners.
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