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A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences
Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e7
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A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences Hagar Reshef*, Ran Barkai Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, P.O.B. 39040, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
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Taste plays an essential role in human life and has a major impact on people's food preferences. Based on the recent discovery of taste-related genes in a Neanderthal and the assumption that taste preferences are likely to have existed in earlier Paleolithic times also, we believe that this is a potentially useful line of inquiry. Since taste preferences are embedded within social and cultural imprinting, we explore the very long nutritional, cultural and perceptional connection between humans and elephants in the Paleolithic period in order to examine the probable role of taste in decision-making regarding elephant procurement and consumption. The aim of this study is to explore the extent to which taste preference could be detected in relation to elephant consumption. We have compiled ethno-historical accounts of elephant consumption from Africa in an attempt to establish patterns based on taste preferences. We then investigated Paleolithic faunal assemblages that contained elephant remains in an attempt to detect preferences that might have influenced food selection in the deep past. We suggest that early hominins might have had taste preferences and that elephant meat played a significant role in their diet, when available. Furthermore, the archaeological evidence coupled with ethnographic observations and the study of frozen mammoths suggest that juvenile elephants were specifically a delicacy and were hunted intentionally since their specific meat and fat composition seems to have had a better taste and a better nutritional value. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Taste Preference Elephants Juveniles Paleolithic Cave site
1. Introduction Taste plays a central role in human life and has a major impact on our food preferences (Drewnowski, 1997, Garcia-Bailo et al., 2009). Taste perception is one of the most important factors in distinguishing good and healthy food from rotten or poisonous food. Our day is guided by decisions concerning taste preferences as this is correlated with different genetic interventions on our taste perception (Duffy and Bartoshuk, 2000). The development of individual flavor perception is linked to human life history and influenced by internal and external preferences (Birch, 1999). However, it is almost impossible to have any knowledge of prehistoric taste perception and preference. What did early hominins endeavor in their everyday life and what decisions did they have concerning food? Was taste an issue in finding and consuming food? Or was finding food only a matter of survival and basic nutrition? In an attempt to answer such questions, more aspects of food preference
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Reshef).
and consumption are always to be reviewed, such as social behavior interference or imprinting from childhood. The Paleolithic archaeological record is seldom used in order to tackle questions regarding the role of taste in prehistoric food preferences. It is no wonder that such questions have rarely been asked, and that we are lacking any information regarding taste preferences of early hominins. This paper presents a pivotal attempt to investigate these questions. In this study we explored the possible role of Paleolithic taste preference. We represent a comprehensive time span occurring over hundreds of thousands of years where different hominins occupied the land living alongside elephants and using them as a major food source. Although this is a wide time frame, where different hominins lived and inhabited different sites, there is something in common which provides a worldwide perspective. We focus only on elephant meat consumption and in particular the meat of young elephants. The relationship between humans and elephants goes back hundreds of thousands of years ago, when they shared habitats and had a special way of interaction. Exploitation was not the only connection. Special tools were made out of elephant bones and the animal was many times honored and sacred, most probably occupying a very special place in human
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Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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cosmology. Therefore there were added attributes except, perhaps, its great taste (Barkai and Gopher, 2013; Lev and Barkai, 2015; Zutovski and Barkai, 2015). Although nutrition and the diet of different hominin species is a fundamental component of their life and survival, very little is known of the taste perceptions and dietary preferences of prehistoric humans. A recent study discovered taste related genes in Neanderthals (Lalueza-fox et al., 2009) and raised the assumption that taste preferences are likely to have existed in earlier Paleolithic times than the Middle Paleolithic as well. We believe that this is a potentially useful line of inquiry. Bitter taste is one of the important sensory perceptions, for it helps protect the body from ingesting toxic substances. Specifically, the taste of bitterness on the tongue is made possible by the Gprotein-coupled receptors that are expressed in taste cells (Drayna, 2005). These proteins are concealed by the TAS2R (taste receptors type 2 members) family of genes. Variability among individuals in bitter taste perception is correlated with variability and change in the genes and other genetic influences. Along the signal transduction pathway of the bitter taste receptor in part of the human population there is a mutation in the G-protein-coupled receptors that basically blocks the signaling triggered by the bitter chemical called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and hence this population has no sensation for the bitter taste as long as this mutation appears in the two gene allele. The research conducted by Lalueza-Fox et al. (2009) revealed by analyzing the TAS2R38 gene in the El Sidron Neanderthal found in the north of Spain that this gene did exist and this specific Neanderthal had a single mutation in position 49 of the protein in one of the two alleles making it slightly taster less for the bitter perception. Mutations in the 49P site of the TAS2R38 are common in about 25% of modern human population. Therefore, the finding of the same mutation in Neanderthals can provide good evidence for the fixation of this mutation in the common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans. The existence of the TAS2R38 gene in Neanderthals is a proof that bitter taste perception is evolutionary conserved and favorably selected, thus suggesting that early hominins probably had some kind of taste perception and most likely have had taste preferences as well. In the dental calculus of the El Sidron Neanderthal remnants of yarrow and chamomile were found. These plants are known to have a bitter taste and are not used as spices or as an addition to food. Their nutritional value is very low as well. These plants were probably consumed as medicinal plants according to the discovery of the TAS2R38 gene that enables the bitter taste perception on the tongue (Hardy et al., 2012; Hardy et al., 2013). From the stated above we know that the bitter taste receptor TAS2R38 existed in the El Sidron Neanderthal. This can show that the tongue was probably developed enough to have had other taste receptors and offers a wide perspective on plant eating and cooking and if so maybe collecting food according to taste preferences. Taste buds exist in all vertebrates (except Hagfish). They begin to evolve in the gustatory system; there they are innervated by three cranial nerves and go through different pathways. They consist of four major different cell types among other cells which are less central. Among these four are the well-known stem cells and basal cells (Northcutt, 2004). Since taste preferences are embedded within social and cultural imprinting as well as behavioral influences and genes, we explored the very long nutritional, cultural and perceptional connection between humans and elephants in Paleolithic times throughout the Old World. This is done in order to discuss the probable role of decision-making and preferences in elephant procurement and consumption. Paleolithic nutrition was based on animal meat and fat in addition to plant based food (e.g. Barkai and Goper, 2013). Many Paleolithic sites have extensive evidence for large mammal
consumption and it has been argued repeatedly that big game hunting was a principal procurement strategy for obtaining the necessary caloric demand (Bunn and Gurtov, 2013; DominguezRodrigo et al., 2014). If referring to prey choices, it has been demonstrated in many cases that humans have focused their attention on Proboscideans for dietary purposes since this is most beneficial in terms of adaptation (e.g. Surovell and Waguespack, 2009) Evidence for elephant exploitation for dietary purposes are present at many Paleolithic sites around the old world over hundreds of thousands of years, revealing bones with cut and percussion marks and different articulations of bones alongside flint artifacts (Goren-Inbar et al., 1994; Rabinovich et al., 2012; Boschian and Sacc a, 2014; e.g. Yravedra et al., 2010). We focus on elephant consumption and thus explore the question whether elephants were targeted only for their extraordinary amount of meat and fat they supplied (e.g. Ben-Dor et al., 2011) or could taste preference have played a role as well in the consumption patterns of these extraordinary nutritional sources? 2. Methodology There is little evidence to how taste preference did evolve in the first place. It seems as though taste preference and its development is a matter of options and learning. Today, as research shows, the different taste preferences consist of our knowledge of what we like and dislike. Our early learning, the environment and its influence and genetic predispositions influence our taste buds and taste preferences and their developmental growth (Birch, 1999). By studying these recent researches of taste preference we tried to combine the evidence with other evidence from the field and from ethnographic studies and to shed some light on prehistoric taste preference and hunting in light of that preference if it did exist. We have investigated the ethnographic literature for taste preferences related to eating elephant meat and fat. In relation to this, we surveyed Paleolithic faunal assemblages that contained elephant remains in an attempt to detect patterns of preference that might have influenced food selection. Recent discoveries concerning many sites that have yielded young elephant bones show that the special qualities of the meat and fat of the young are dominant and thus are incorporated here. Our research consisted of studying recent ethnographic groups, learning their hunting patterns and focusing on their taste preference concerning elephant meat. Our research then turned to recent historical texts describing the taste of elephant meat and later on we combined these studies with bone assemblages of young and adult elephants at Paleolithic sites around the old world in an attempt to discover similar patterns in the procurement strategies. 3. Ethnographic evidence regarding taste preferences in elephant consumption There are several ethnographic groups that were still relying on hunting and gathering while documented by anthropologists. In the case of taste related patterns, a complex picture emerges as, for instance, the Aborigines of Australia do have a taste preference and can afford to hunt accordingly while other groups do not have the liberty of choosing and hunt any available game whether it tastes better or worst (O'Dea et al., 1991; Koster et al., 2010). A study of the Liangula hunters, a tribe living in East Kenya, reported that not only did these hunters hunt elephants for meat on a regular basis; they specifically preferred to prey upon juveniles because their meat tasted better (Holman, 1967). Not only meat and flesh are optional for eating. Fat has a good texture, great taste and substantial caloric contribution. Even in times of stress and less resources when the animals are lean they
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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tend to have muscle fat, and this fat is in fact polyunsaturated fatty acids. These acids are responsible for important physiological functions in addition to building up cell membranes. They build up the human body and brain so that when resources are dull it will not be a problem to maintain a normal diet (O'Dea et al., 1991). Bone marrow is known to contain fatty acids, and these can be easily digested and taste well (Yravedra et al., 2014). The extraction of elephant bone marrow has been documented among the Mbuti Pygmie people of Zaire Africa and is known to be of good taste (Duffy, 1995). The Nuer people of Southern Sudan are a Nilotic ethnic group primarily inhabiting the Nile Valley. They tend to hunt elephants although it is prohibited by law, as elephant meat is a delicacy for them. They believe that there is a mystical bond, a spiritual relationship between elephant and man. This relationship is expressed in a myth of an elephant girl. The time comes eventually for her to leave for she cannot live among the people any longer. She calls her people together and explains the reason for her departure: “… I must go to the forest and live there, for there only can I find sufficient food to feed me … I am now different to you and my descendants will live in the forest apart from mankind. Men will want to kill me because of my huge teeth and because my flesh is fat and sweet…” (Howell, 1945). There is a clear description of the taste of elephant meat in the story. The Nuer proclaim that elephant flesh is sweet and fat. This is significant evidence to help establish the idea that elephants were targeted for their meat and fat which was a palatable delicacy. 4. Historical texts regarding the taste of elephants Although elephant hunting today is prohibited by law, historical texts describe the taste of elephant meat. This can contribute to the research and give a modern time account whether elephant meat is preferred and better tasting over other types of meat. Christy (1922) was a British doctor and zoologist who explored central Africa at the beginning of the 20th century. In his report on the African elephant he described the different parts of the elephant. He added information about the taste of elephant meat in one of his personal experiences. As he describes, meat of an elephant is quite good and yet very tough done over a fire on a stick and that the carcass is palatable for the black man while for the white man the flesh is course. Other evidence for the taste of elephant meat is written in the report by Selous (1881) who was a British explorer, a hunter and a conservationist as well. He is famous for his exploits in south-east Africa and as he recalls from his wanderings as a hunter in Africa after nine years of explorations beyond the Zambesi on the river chobe where he took notes on the natural history and the distribution of all the Mammalia in the area: “… I tasted elephant's heart, roasted on a forked stick over the ashes, which I thought then, and still consider, to be one of the greatest delicacies that an African hunter is likely to enjoy…”. François Le Vaillant (1753e1824) who was later in his life known as the Vaillant was a French explorer a naturalist and an author. He wrote on the taste of elephant meat in his travels in Africa in 1790. He noted: “… at breakfast my people brought me one of the elephant's feet … it exhaled so sweet a taste that I was eager to taste it. I indeed found that it was food fit for a king … I could not conceive how an animal so heavy and course as the elephant could produce so delicate and tender flesh … I devoured without bread my elephant's foot while my hottentots regaled themselves with other parts, which they found no less excellent…” (Le Vallaint, 1796. P. 212e213). Sir Samuel White Baker was a naturalist and an author who explored the Nile that passes through Egypt as well as explored the interior of central Africa. He was also known as a big game hunter and wrote many books on his encounters with the natives of the country and of his doings. In one of his books he describes the taste
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of elephant meat: “… the foot of the elephant will be perfectly baked, and the sole will separate like a shoe, and expose a delicate substance that, with a little oil and vinegar, together with an allowance of pepper and salt, is a delicious dish that will feed about fifty men…” (Baker, 1880. p. 362). 5. Data concerning young elephant fat Many Paleolithic sites around the old world, both open air sites as well as cave sites, yielded proboscidean bones (mainly of elephants and mammoths). In some of these cases bones bearing cut marks and bones broken for the extraction of marrow were found in association with stone tools. This growing evidence of proboscidean exploitation in Paleolithic times can be related to taste preferences and to specific procurement (hunting?) strategies in order to obtain preferred fat and meat packages (Ben-Dor et al., 2011) and even perhaps a particular emphasis on young elephant fat and meat for the special composition of fat they supplied (see below). By focusing on specific evidence we wonder whether age profile might have played a role in the procurement of proboscideans in light of taste preference. Today there is preference for the meat of young animals as it is tender and is considered to be tastier and for fat as it is palatable and pleasing (Webb and O'Neill, 2008). Could such preference be detected at Paleolithic sites? (Table 1). Hunter gatherers live in a natural habitat and are very well acquainted with their surroundings. It is then likely that they will know how to differ better tasting food items from bitter or mild. By being familiar with all these features they will choose the best while inhabiting favorable and rich environments. Also seasonality might act as a factor in the dietary decision making. Animals tend to fatten up during the changing of the seasons same as fruits that ripen at a specific time (O'Dea et al., 1991), however in the case of elephant seasonality plays a minor role in the amount of fat available (Ben-Dor et al., 2011). Just as fat and sugary food is preferred in modern times so do hunters prefer fat prey. Fat adds great flavor to food in general and also changes its texture so that in the mouth the taste buds can refer to it as a favorable dish. Fat also is a major component in human nutrition (Koster et al., 2010) and appear to be essential especially in Paleolithic times (Ben-Dor et al., 2011). Researches that were concentrated on meat indicate that the flavor of meat not only derives from specific nutrition the animal eats but also from the age of the animal and its genes (Smith et al., 1974). For hunteregatherers it is ideal to know these facts and to implement them while foraging and hunting for food. In recent studies of the intake of fatty acids in terms of human diet in the Paleolithic, it was discovered that some of the mammals that were consumed by hunteregatherers had high amounts of fatty acids especially during the winter season. This is relevant in examining the evolution and survival of these hominins over the course of time. It can shed light on the maintenance of health and life improvement. The observed mammals were juvenile mammoths found frozen in the permafrost of Siberia (Russia), an area known to have been occupied by humans in Paleolithic times. These juvenile mammoths had reservoirs of fatty acids probably in order to help them pass the rough winter in these north environments. Not only did they have a significant amount of fat, but this fat had a special composition due to milk intake in many cases. Therefore while digesting the mother's milk the young mammoths would receive fatty acids which were different in profile than the ones digested from plants. As a result of this milk intake and the change in fatty acid profiles the young mammoths were susceptible to changes in the composition of fatty acids in their adipose tissue (fat) (GuilGuerrero et al., 2014). This in fact could have made the tissue a better protector or shield from the cold. This digestion process of
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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milk and fatty acids apparently enriched the fat of the young making it more suitable and maybe more tasteful for humans. In this case young mammoths were a target for hunting and may have been preferred. But were they only preferred for their high nutritional value? We know today that fat is preferred taste wise, could it also have been the case for early humans around the world? Therefore we underline a few of the advantages of young proboscideans and in particular we focus on the composition of fat which we can assume had a better taste and better nutritional value. In addition, their muscle tissue must have been tenderer because they were still young. This in addition to the fact that they were probably a much easier target for hunting and more vulnerable, made them a preferred food item. This of course does not contradict the fact that adult elephants were a delicacy as well it is just the interesting evidence that seems to give advantages to the young. 6. Evidence of proboscidean exploitation at Paleolithic sites: in search of taste related patterns This part of the paper shows selected evidence from Paleolithic archaeological sites which exhibit the exploitation of proboscideans by early hominins. The sites chosen here are sites that have data that can help reconstruct a model of the procurement and use of elephants and mammoths and can give a hint of preference concerning taste. The sites are organized chronologically from the earliest to the latest. At the Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya'akov (Israel), which is located on the northern Jordan valley on the shoreline of the ancient Hula lake, a straight tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus) skull was found lying in the midst of an Aucheulian living floor associated with stone tools and other artifacts. The site consists of about 34 m of lake deposits and it was likely used for over 100,000 years. The elephant was a young individual. Underneath the skull a basalt core, a boulder and an oak log were found, hinting of the inversion of the cranium in order to extract the brain (GorenInbar et al., 1994). A task such as this can be difficult and complicated considering the weight of the skull, understanding its breakage point and reaching the brain. Why waste energy when other elephant parts might have been displayed and available? Could this be associated with taste preference? Was the brain of a young elephant a better nutrient and a better tasting organ? The Middle Pleistocene site of Notarchirico (Venosa, Basilicata, Italy) is one of three lithostratigraphic units that compose the Venosa basin. The Aucheulian Paleosurface was uncovered and yielded many elephant bones amongst stone tools and other bones which are directly associated with the elephant bones. The skull of an elephant (Elephas antiquus) was uncovered with the tusks still in situ and the mandible lying some meters away. This skull belongs to a sub adult male, and other bone fragments of the elephant were lying close by, all belonging to this one individual. The elephant bones were the main part of the bone assemblage. It is suggested that the skull was exploited by hominids and utilized to its very last, removing the mandible and reaching the inside of the brain, as in the case of Gesher-Benot Yaaqov (Piperno and Tagliacozzo, 2001). The Acheulian open air site of Revadim is located on the southern coastal plain of Israel. It is 71e73 m above sea level and about 40 km southeast of Tel-Aviv. At the site elephant bones were found and were identified as a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus). The bones represent several incomplete individuals most of them young and very small sized males. At this site a clear association between the elephant bones and lithic artifacts was detected and some of the elephant bones bear man-made cut marks. The cut marks appear on the scapula and ribs of elephants, indicating filleting of meat and probably intentionally reaching the
internal organs which are considered a delicacy. The archaeological record at the site and the cut marks found on the elephant bones show capabilities that would suggest big-game hunting rather plausible for Paleolithic hominins, and a preference for juvenile elephants (Rabinovich et al., 2012). At the Lower Paleolithic open air site of Terra Amata which is located on the western slope of Mount Boron, 30 m above sea level near the city of Nice, France, elephant bones were found in anthropogenic layers, all in association with lithic tools. There was a high representation of juvenile and young elephants at the site. The abundance of young elephant bones at the site can represent selective capture and possibly indicates a preference for young elephant meat (Valensi, 2001). Another example focuses on the multiple carcass Acheulian site of Holon, Israel which is located on the southern coastal plain. The site yielded elephant bones which consisted mostly of juvenile elephants. These bones were found to have cut marks resulted by the exploitation of humans and they were also found in association with many lithic tools and other fauna (Chazan and Horwitz, 2006). At the post-Acheulian cave site of Bolomor which is located on the southern slope of the Valldigna valley (Valencia, Spain) about 100 m asl, elephant bones were found. Although they do not make up a big proportion of the faunal assemblage, all of these bones belong to young and juvenile elephants with no record of adult elephant bones at the site (Blasco and Fernandez Peris, 2012). Some of the elephant bones bear man-made cut marks (Blasco per. Comm., and see Barkai and Goper, 2013). This could show that presumably the meat of young elephants was preferred and therefore only the young were procured (possibly hunted?), carried out all the way upslope to the cave, and exploited. The Middle Paleolithic cave site of Spy in Belgium, located in the Ardennes close to the Meuse valley where it lies 18 m' above water on the left bank of the Orneau river. It was recently suggested that the presence of newborn mammoths indicate selective hunting of young individuals. It is suggested that these gigantic mammals were hunted by humans. At this site the percent of mammoth calf bones was very high, suggesting that these could have been an easy catch considering that they were parted from the herd, making them more vulnerable. It was then suggested that the mammoths were selectively killed and body parts, mainly head parts, were et al., 2012). taken back to the site for nutrition (Germonpre The Paleolithic cave site of Ma'anshan in China is located in the Guizhou province of southern China. It lies at an altitude of 960 m above sea level. Cranial parts were taken back to the cave site in order to be processed. The authors suggest an option for the reason these heavy parts were taken back and not treated at the hunting spot. They say it is possible that these parts contained a better nutritional value than the other body parts. Cranial parts may have been taken for better processing and exploitation and might represent taste preference for the different nutrients within elephant head (Agam and Barkai, 2015). In addition there is a high percentage of juvenile bones at the site and the authors suggest that juveniles might have been preferred possibly because adults were dangerous to hunt (Zhang et al., 2010), although here again raises the question whether these juveniles might have had better taste to their meat and better qualities to their fat. At the late Paleolithic site of Yana which is located in Arctic Siberia, far north of the Arctic Circle and about 100 km from the Laptev Sea coast, in the lower Yana River, there is clear evidence to the hunting of mammoths. Bones were revealed in association with lithic elements some of which were undoubtedly responsible for the death of these great creatures. The interpretation for this evidence is that mammoths were hunted sporadically probably for ivory however it is clear that mammoth meat was consumed. There is no clear age profile here but a high percentage of young adults
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
Fladerer, 2003
Nikolskiy and Pitulko, 2013
Zhang et al., 2010
Germonpre et al., 2012
8
31
27 ka Krems-Wachtberg site, Austria
No data available
No data available
69.2 adolescents and young adults, 15.5 subadults and calves 75 3 29e27 ka Yana Site, Arctic Siberia
1103
88 27 1.74 53e15 ka Ma'anshan cave, South China
10 59e25 ka Spy cave, Belgium
1178
8 juveniles, 1 adult
Teeth, tusks, vertebrae, skull parts, limbs Cranial, carpal/tarsal, metapodial, phalangeal Stylohyoideum, pelvis, scapula,mandible, ribs, vertabrae Tusk, mandible, molars, vertebras, ribs, long bones, carpals, tarsals No data available
3 adults, 3 juveniles
“…only young or mature animals…” 74 20.9 ca. 250 ka Holon, Israel
120
2 infants, 1 juvenile 0.14 350e100 ka Bolomor cave, Spain
7
100 “… 10e11 years old … young and small size males…” 100 38 155 ca. 640 ka ca. 400e500 ka Notarchirico, Italy Revadim Quarry, Israel
44.7 45.4
Teeth, tusks
Blasco and Fernandez Peris, 2012 Chazan and Horwitz, 2006
Goren-Inbar et al., 1994; Rabinovich and Biton, 2011 Piperno and Tagliacozzo, 2001 Rabinovich et al., 2012
Skull, limb, tusks, vertebrae, carpal, astragalus, hyoid Skull, tusks, mandible, molars Teeth, tusks, vertebrae, skull, ribs, scapula, pelvis No data available Possibly 1 young male, no data for general MNI 1 sub-adult male 6 No data available 154 8.75 ca. 780 ka Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel
% of proboscidean bones out of the faunal assemblage Age of site Site and location
Table 1 Presence of young elephants and mammoths at selected Paleolithic sites.
Proboscidean NISP at site
% of juvenile proboscidean bones
Proboscidean MNI at site adult/juvenile
Type of proboscidean bones at site
Reference
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and mainly juveniles is indicated (Nikolskiy and Pitulko, 2013). If hunting was for ivory then why not hunt adult mammoths which have a larger amount of ivory? Could it have been because younger mammoths were an easier catch, or maybe they were hunted for their meat and fat which in this case could have tasted better and was more nutritious? At the late Paleolithic site of Krems-Wachtberg which is located in the Danube valley, Austria, a high percent of mammoth bones were uncovered amongst a rich faunal assemblage. There is a high representation of juvenile mammoth bones in the assemblage (30 NISP). The author suggests that this fact could indicate the possibility that there was a preference for the meat of the young. Hunting young animals is possibly easier than adult ones but at this site it seems as though the young were hunted for their better tasting meat and fat, so the author claims (Fladerer, 2003). In Table 1 a review of important archaeological sites that contain elephant and mammoth remains and in particular juvenile elephants is presented. Each site presented here shows a high percentage of young elephant and mammoth bones out of the general assemblage of proboscideans found and suggest a clear pattern of elephant and mammoth exploitation by early humans. Table 1 demonstrates the presence of young proboscideans in selected Paleolithic archaeological sites, both open air and cave sites, around the Old world. The data reinforces our claim that there might have been a selection in favor of juveniles, maybe in light of taste preference as well as other preferences such as ease in hunting. It is important to point out that not all archaeological sites mentioned here yielded only juvenile or young elephant bones. Most sites had also adult elephant bones but the higher representation was of the young. There are other sites which yield adult bones as well as juvenile bones and sites which yield mainly adult bones, for example at the site of La Cott De St. Berlade mammoths were intentionally hunted and mainly adult bones are found (Smith, 2015). It may be as well that adult proboscidean bones are underrepresented in many archaeological sites because they were too heavy to carry back to site from the kill/procurement place or they might have carried only the meat without the bones and for that we have no evidence in the field. There is evidence for sites to which bones were carried to from the hunting/procurement spot. It is of course assumed that hominins transported cranial parts back to the base camp in order to exploit every bit of the skull (Zhang et al., 2010; Agam and Barkai, 2015). This was done even though these elephant parts were very heavy to carry back to the site. If so, it seems as though juvenile representation is high because people chose to hunt them specifically. It is also important to mention that there are sites in which bones are fractured and smashed intentionaly. This may indicate the extraction of bone marrow and exploitation of every bit of the elephant. For example at the sites of Castel di Guido and Preresa it shattered bones are abundant at the camp site and serve as evidence for extensive marrow extraction (Yravedra, 2012; Boschian , 2014). Evidence for bone marrow extraction is imporand Sacca tant as it provides direct evidence for fat consumption which, as was mentioned before, is nutritionally important and this example shows that bone marrow was extracted at the site and not at the kill/procurement spot. 7. Discussion and conclusions Combining all this information together we can come to some propositions concerning taste preferences and suggest taste related patterns. In this study we raise assumptions and discuss the
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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potential role of taste preference and its influence on procuring/ hunting specific game, in particular young and juvenile proboscideans. Taste develops over time and yet is influenced by learning and adaptation. In the search for clues for taste preference in human history we surveyed relevant Paleolithic sites around the old world searching for specific hunting or exploitation patterns in order to investigate potential taste preferences of early humans during the Paleolithic. The presence of elephant remains at many Paleolithic sites suggests that Paleolithic diet was at least partially based on calories extracted from mega fauna. We used the taste preferences identified in texts related to recent elephant consumption to reconstruct taste preference related to age. We then examined the evidence from Paleolithic sites that contained elephant remains, to explore whether we could identify evidence for any potentially similar pattern. In addition, we have noted the particular nutritional value of the fat of young, breastfed, proboscideans as indicated from the study of frozen mammoths. Our findings support the view that proboscideans played a central role in the diet of Paleolithic hominines, alongside other prey taxa and vegetal material. Proboscidean bones found at various Paleolithic archaeological sites show that in many cases there is a high percentage of juvenile elephant and mammoth bones. This could indicate that these mammals might have been procured and/or hunted intentionally and systematically for specific nutritional benefits, and not only because they were an easier target than the adults. Ethnographic groups prefer elephant meat for its taste, and some specifically prefer the meat and fat of juveniles. Combining all this evidence together with historical texts describing elephant taste and looking into the nutritional value of young proboscideans fat and the general tendency towards preferring the meat of young individuals, we came to a conclusion in which taste preferences have existed in Paleolithic times and effected prey selection and exploitation. We content that early hominins might have chosen to procure and/or hunt according to their taste and dietary preference and in this case to prey upon elephants and mammoths and in particular juveniles because their meat tasted better and the better nutrient composition of their fat. It is more than reasonable to assume that they were aware of the high nutritional value this special baby fat had, although it is likely that good taste was enough to prefer something over the other. We work under the general assumption that taste preference might have played a role in Paleolithic times. Ethnographic studies show that the taste of elephant meat, in some cases, is known as a delicacy. By comparing this with evidence found at various archaeological sites we suggest that elephants, and in particular young elephants, might have been preferred in light of taste and nutritional preference and not only for their vulnerability. Also we assume that the special composition of fatty acids that built the adipose tissue in juvenile mammoths might have had a special taste and caloric contribution, making these young mammoths a preferred food item. In this paper we try to provide a worldwide perspective of elephant meat consumption and the relationship between elephants and humans. We wanted to show a globalized point of view of taste preferences concerning elephants, and especially the young ones, with regard to different human species and different times. Taken together, the significant presence of young elephants at both Paleolithic open air and cave sites coupled with the ethnographic evidence regarding elephant consumption, suggests that elephants and in particular juveniles were specifically targeted by early humans and played a central role in the survival of humans over hundreds of thousands of years.
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A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences Hagar Reshef*, Ran Barkai Department of Archaeology and Ancient Near Eastern Cultures, Tel Aviv University, P.O.B. 39040, Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Available online xxx
Taste plays an essential role in human life and has a major impact on people's food preferences. Based on the recent discovery of taste-related genes in a Neanderthal and the assumption that taste preferences are likely to have existed in earlier Paleolithic times also, we believe that this is a potentially useful line of inquiry. Since taste preferences are embedded within social and cultural imprinting, we explore the very long nutritional, cultural and perceptional connection between humans and elephants in the Paleolithic period in order to examine the probable role of taste in decision-making regarding elephant procurement and consumption. The aim of this study is to explore the extent to which taste preference could be detected in relation to elephant consumption. We have compiled ethno-historical accounts of elephant consumption from Africa in an attempt to establish patterns based on taste preferences. We then investigated Paleolithic faunal assemblages that contained elephant remains in an attempt to detect preferences that might have influenced food selection in the deep past. We suggest that early hominins might have had taste preferences and that elephant meat played a significant role in their diet, when available. Furthermore, the archaeological evidence coupled with ethnographic observations and the study of frozen mammoths suggest that juvenile elephants were specifically a delicacy and were hunted intentionally since their specific meat and fat composition seems to have had a better taste and a better nutritional value. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Taste Preference Elephants Juveniles Paleolithic Cave site
1. Introduction Taste plays a central role in human life and has a major impact on our food preferences (Drewnowski, 1997, Garcia-Bailo et al., 2009). Taste perception is one of the most important factors in distinguishing good and healthy food from rotten or poisonous food. Our day is guided by decisions concerning taste preferences as this is correlated with different genetic interventions on our taste perception (Duffy and Bartoshuk, 2000). The development of individual flavor perception is linked to human life history and influenced by internal and external preferences (Birch, 1999). However, it is almost impossible to have any knowledge of prehistoric taste perception and preference. What did early hominins endeavor in their everyday life and what decisions did they have concerning food? Was taste an issue in finding and consuming food? Or was finding food only a matter of survival and basic nutrition? In an attempt to answer such questions, more aspects of food preference
* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (H. Reshef).
and consumption are always to be reviewed, such as social behavior interference or imprinting from childhood. The Paleolithic archaeological record is seldom used in order to tackle questions regarding the role of taste in prehistoric food preferences. It is no wonder that such questions have rarely been asked, and that we are lacking any information regarding taste preferences of early hominins. This paper presents a pivotal attempt to investigate these questions. In this study we explored the possible role of Paleolithic taste preference. We represent a comprehensive time span occurring over hundreds of thousands of years where different hominins occupied the land living alongside elephants and using them as a major food source. Although this is a wide time frame, where different hominins lived and inhabited different sites, there is something in common which provides a worldwide perspective. We focus only on elephant meat consumption and in particular the meat of young elephants. The relationship between humans and elephants goes back hundreds of thousands of years ago, when they shared habitats and had a special way of interaction. Exploitation was not the only connection. Special tools were made out of elephant bones and the animal was many times honored and sacred, most probably occupying a very special place in human
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Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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cosmology. Therefore there were added attributes except, perhaps, its great taste (Barkai and Gopher, 2013; Lev and Barkai, 2015; Zutovski and Barkai, 2015). Although nutrition and the diet of different hominin species is a fundamental component of their life and survival, very little is known of the taste perceptions and dietary preferences of prehistoric humans. A recent study discovered taste related genes in Neanderthals (Lalueza-fox et al., 2009) and raised the assumption that taste preferences are likely to have existed in earlier Paleolithic times than the Middle Paleolithic as well. We believe that this is a potentially useful line of inquiry. Bitter taste is one of the important sensory perceptions, for it helps protect the body from ingesting toxic substances. Specifically, the taste of bitterness on the tongue is made possible by the Gprotein-coupled receptors that are expressed in taste cells (Drayna, 2005). These proteins are concealed by the TAS2R (taste receptors type 2 members) family of genes. Variability among individuals in bitter taste perception is correlated with variability and change in the genes and other genetic influences. Along the signal transduction pathway of the bitter taste receptor in part of the human population there is a mutation in the G-protein-coupled receptors that basically blocks the signaling triggered by the bitter chemical called phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) and hence this population has no sensation for the bitter taste as long as this mutation appears in the two gene allele. The research conducted by Lalueza-Fox et al. (2009) revealed by analyzing the TAS2R38 gene in the El Sidron Neanderthal found in the north of Spain that this gene did exist and this specific Neanderthal had a single mutation in position 49 of the protein in one of the two alleles making it slightly taster less for the bitter perception. Mutations in the 49P site of the TAS2R38 are common in about 25% of modern human population. Therefore, the finding of the same mutation in Neanderthals can provide good evidence for the fixation of this mutation in the common ancestor of Neanderthals and modern humans. The existence of the TAS2R38 gene in Neanderthals is a proof that bitter taste perception is evolutionary conserved and favorably selected, thus suggesting that early hominins probably had some kind of taste perception and most likely have had taste preferences as well. In the dental calculus of the El Sidron Neanderthal remnants of yarrow and chamomile were found. These plants are known to have a bitter taste and are not used as spices or as an addition to food. Their nutritional value is very low as well. These plants were probably consumed as medicinal plants according to the discovery of the TAS2R38 gene that enables the bitter taste perception on the tongue (Hardy et al., 2012; Hardy et al., 2013). From the stated above we know that the bitter taste receptor TAS2R38 existed in the El Sidron Neanderthal. This can show that the tongue was probably developed enough to have had other taste receptors and offers a wide perspective on plant eating and cooking and if so maybe collecting food according to taste preferences. Taste buds exist in all vertebrates (except Hagfish). They begin to evolve in the gustatory system; there they are innervated by three cranial nerves and go through different pathways. They consist of four major different cell types among other cells which are less central. Among these four are the well-known stem cells and basal cells (Northcutt, 2004). Since taste preferences are embedded within social and cultural imprinting as well as behavioral influences and genes, we explored the very long nutritional, cultural and perceptional connection between humans and elephants in Paleolithic times throughout the Old World. This is done in order to discuss the probable role of decision-making and preferences in elephant procurement and consumption. Paleolithic nutrition was based on animal meat and fat in addition to plant based food (e.g. Barkai and Goper, 2013). Many Paleolithic sites have extensive evidence for large mammal
consumption and it has been argued repeatedly that big game hunting was a principal procurement strategy for obtaining the necessary caloric demand (Bunn and Gurtov, 2013; DominguezRodrigo et al., 2014). If referring to prey choices, it has been demonstrated in many cases that humans have focused their attention on Proboscideans for dietary purposes since this is most beneficial in terms of adaptation (e.g. Surovell and Waguespack, 2009) Evidence for elephant exploitation for dietary purposes are present at many Paleolithic sites around the old world over hundreds of thousands of years, revealing bones with cut and percussion marks and different articulations of bones alongside flint artifacts (Goren-Inbar et al., 1994; Rabinovich et al., 2012; Boschian and Sacc a, 2014; e.g. Yravedra et al., 2010). We focus on elephant consumption and thus explore the question whether elephants were targeted only for their extraordinary amount of meat and fat they supplied (e.g. Ben-Dor et al., 2011) or could taste preference have played a role as well in the consumption patterns of these extraordinary nutritional sources? 2. Methodology There is little evidence to how taste preference did evolve in the first place. It seems as though taste preference and its development is a matter of options and learning. Today, as research shows, the different taste preferences consist of our knowledge of what we like and dislike. Our early learning, the environment and its influence and genetic predispositions influence our taste buds and taste preferences and their developmental growth (Birch, 1999). By studying these recent researches of taste preference we tried to combine the evidence with other evidence from the field and from ethnographic studies and to shed some light on prehistoric taste preference and hunting in light of that preference if it did exist. We have investigated the ethnographic literature for taste preferences related to eating elephant meat and fat. In relation to this, we surveyed Paleolithic faunal assemblages that contained elephant remains in an attempt to detect patterns of preference that might have influenced food selection. Recent discoveries concerning many sites that have yielded young elephant bones show that the special qualities of the meat and fat of the young are dominant and thus are incorporated here. Our research consisted of studying recent ethnographic groups, learning their hunting patterns and focusing on their taste preference concerning elephant meat. Our research then turned to recent historical texts describing the taste of elephant meat and later on we combined these studies with bone assemblages of young and adult elephants at Paleolithic sites around the old world in an attempt to discover similar patterns in the procurement strategies. 3. Ethnographic evidence regarding taste preferences in elephant consumption There are several ethnographic groups that were still relying on hunting and gathering while documented by anthropologists. In the case of taste related patterns, a complex picture emerges as, for instance, the Aborigines of Australia do have a taste preference and can afford to hunt accordingly while other groups do not have the liberty of choosing and hunt any available game whether it tastes better or worst (O'Dea et al., 1991; Koster et al., 2010). A study of the Liangula hunters, a tribe living in East Kenya, reported that not only did these hunters hunt elephants for meat on a regular basis; they specifically preferred to prey upon juveniles because their meat tasted better (Holman, 1967). Not only meat and flesh are optional for eating. Fat has a good texture, great taste and substantial caloric contribution. Even in times of stress and less resources when the animals are lean they
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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tend to have muscle fat, and this fat is in fact polyunsaturated fatty acids. These acids are responsible for important physiological functions in addition to building up cell membranes. They build up the human body and brain so that when resources are dull it will not be a problem to maintain a normal diet (O'Dea et al., 1991). Bone marrow is known to contain fatty acids, and these can be easily digested and taste well (Yravedra et al., 2014). The extraction of elephant bone marrow has been documented among the Mbuti Pygmie people of Zaire Africa and is known to be of good taste (Duffy, 1995). The Nuer people of Southern Sudan are a Nilotic ethnic group primarily inhabiting the Nile Valley. They tend to hunt elephants although it is prohibited by law, as elephant meat is a delicacy for them. They believe that there is a mystical bond, a spiritual relationship between elephant and man. This relationship is expressed in a myth of an elephant girl. The time comes eventually for her to leave for she cannot live among the people any longer. She calls her people together and explains the reason for her departure: “… I must go to the forest and live there, for there only can I find sufficient food to feed me … I am now different to you and my descendants will live in the forest apart from mankind. Men will want to kill me because of my huge teeth and because my flesh is fat and sweet…” (Howell, 1945). There is a clear description of the taste of elephant meat in the story. The Nuer proclaim that elephant flesh is sweet and fat. This is significant evidence to help establish the idea that elephants were targeted for their meat and fat which was a palatable delicacy. 4. Historical texts regarding the taste of elephants Although elephant hunting today is prohibited by law, historical texts describe the taste of elephant meat. This can contribute to the research and give a modern time account whether elephant meat is preferred and better tasting over other types of meat. Christy (1922) was a British doctor and zoologist who explored central Africa at the beginning of the 20th century. In his report on the African elephant he described the different parts of the elephant. He added information about the taste of elephant meat in one of his personal experiences. As he describes, meat of an elephant is quite good and yet very tough done over a fire on a stick and that the carcass is palatable for the black man while for the white man the flesh is course. Other evidence for the taste of elephant meat is written in the report by Selous (1881) who was a British explorer, a hunter and a conservationist as well. He is famous for his exploits in south-east Africa and as he recalls from his wanderings as a hunter in Africa after nine years of explorations beyond the Zambesi on the river chobe where he took notes on the natural history and the distribution of all the Mammalia in the area: “… I tasted elephant's heart, roasted on a forked stick over the ashes, which I thought then, and still consider, to be one of the greatest delicacies that an African hunter is likely to enjoy…”. François Le Vaillant (1753e1824) who was later in his life known as the Vaillant was a French explorer a naturalist and an author. He wrote on the taste of elephant meat in his travels in Africa in 1790. He noted: “… at breakfast my people brought me one of the elephant's feet … it exhaled so sweet a taste that I was eager to taste it. I indeed found that it was food fit for a king … I could not conceive how an animal so heavy and course as the elephant could produce so delicate and tender flesh … I devoured without bread my elephant's foot while my hottentots regaled themselves with other parts, which they found no less excellent…” (Le Vallaint, 1796. P. 212e213). Sir Samuel White Baker was a naturalist and an author who explored the Nile that passes through Egypt as well as explored the interior of central Africa. He was also known as a big game hunter and wrote many books on his encounters with the natives of the country and of his doings. In one of his books he describes the taste
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of elephant meat: “… the foot of the elephant will be perfectly baked, and the sole will separate like a shoe, and expose a delicate substance that, with a little oil and vinegar, together with an allowance of pepper and salt, is a delicious dish that will feed about fifty men…” (Baker, 1880. p. 362). 5. Data concerning young elephant fat Many Paleolithic sites around the old world, both open air sites as well as cave sites, yielded proboscidean bones (mainly of elephants and mammoths). In some of these cases bones bearing cut marks and bones broken for the extraction of marrow were found in association with stone tools. This growing evidence of proboscidean exploitation in Paleolithic times can be related to taste preferences and to specific procurement (hunting?) strategies in order to obtain preferred fat and meat packages (Ben-Dor et al., 2011) and even perhaps a particular emphasis on young elephant fat and meat for the special composition of fat they supplied (see below). By focusing on specific evidence we wonder whether age profile might have played a role in the procurement of proboscideans in light of taste preference. Today there is preference for the meat of young animals as it is tender and is considered to be tastier and for fat as it is palatable and pleasing (Webb and O'Neill, 2008). Could such preference be detected at Paleolithic sites? (Table 1). Hunter gatherers live in a natural habitat and are very well acquainted with their surroundings. It is then likely that they will know how to differ better tasting food items from bitter or mild. By being familiar with all these features they will choose the best while inhabiting favorable and rich environments. Also seasonality might act as a factor in the dietary decision making. Animals tend to fatten up during the changing of the seasons same as fruits that ripen at a specific time (O'Dea et al., 1991), however in the case of elephant seasonality plays a minor role in the amount of fat available (Ben-Dor et al., 2011). Just as fat and sugary food is preferred in modern times so do hunters prefer fat prey. Fat adds great flavor to food in general and also changes its texture so that in the mouth the taste buds can refer to it as a favorable dish. Fat also is a major component in human nutrition (Koster et al., 2010) and appear to be essential especially in Paleolithic times (Ben-Dor et al., 2011). Researches that were concentrated on meat indicate that the flavor of meat not only derives from specific nutrition the animal eats but also from the age of the animal and its genes (Smith et al., 1974). For hunteregatherers it is ideal to know these facts and to implement them while foraging and hunting for food. In recent studies of the intake of fatty acids in terms of human diet in the Paleolithic, it was discovered that some of the mammals that were consumed by hunteregatherers had high amounts of fatty acids especially during the winter season. This is relevant in examining the evolution and survival of these hominins over the course of time. It can shed light on the maintenance of health and life improvement. The observed mammals were juvenile mammoths found frozen in the permafrost of Siberia (Russia), an area known to have been occupied by humans in Paleolithic times. These juvenile mammoths had reservoirs of fatty acids probably in order to help them pass the rough winter in these north environments. Not only did they have a significant amount of fat, but this fat had a special composition due to milk intake in many cases. Therefore while digesting the mother's milk the young mammoths would receive fatty acids which were different in profile than the ones digested from plants. As a result of this milk intake and the change in fatty acid profiles the young mammoths were susceptible to changes in the composition of fatty acids in their adipose tissue (fat) (GuilGuerrero et al., 2014). This in fact could have made the tissue a better protector or shield from the cold. This digestion process of
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
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milk and fatty acids apparently enriched the fat of the young making it more suitable and maybe more tasteful for humans. In this case young mammoths were a target for hunting and may have been preferred. But were they only preferred for their high nutritional value? We know today that fat is preferred taste wise, could it also have been the case for early humans around the world? Therefore we underline a few of the advantages of young proboscideans and in particular we focus on the composition of fat which we can assume had a better taste and better nutritional value. In addition, their muscle tissue must have been tenderer because they were still young. This in addition to the fact that they were probably a much easier target for hunting and more vulnerable, made them a preferred food item. This of course does not contradict the fact that adult elephants were a delicacy as well it is just the interesting evidence that seems to give advantages to the young. 6. Evidence of proboscidean exploitation at Paleolithic sites: in search of taste related patterns This part of the paper shows selected evidence from Paleolithic archaeological sites which exhibit the exploitation of proboscideans by early hominins. The sites chosen here are sites that have data that can help reconstruct a model of the procurement and use of elephants and mammoths and can give a hint of preference concerning taste. The sites are organized chronologically from the earliest to the latest. At the Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya'akov (Israel), which is located on the northern Jordan valley on the shoreline of the ancient Hula lake, a straight tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus) skull was found lying in the midst of an Aucheulian living floor associated with stone tools and other artifacts. The site consists of about 34 m of lake deposits and it was likely used for over 100,000 years. The elephant was a young individual. Underneath the skull a basalt core, a boulder and an oak log were found, hinting of the inversion of the cranium in order to extract the brain (GorenInbar et al., 1994). A task such as this can be difficult and complicated considering the weight of the skull, understanding its breakage point and reaching the brain. Why waste energy when other elephant parts might have been displayed and available? Could this be associated with taste preference? Was the brain of a young elephant a better nutrient and a better tasting organ? The Middle Pleistocene site of Notarchirico (Venosa, Basilicata, Italy) is one of three lithostratigraphic units that compose the Venosa basin. The Aucheulian Paleosurface was uncovered and yielded many elephant bones amongst stone tools and other bones which are directly associated with the elephant bones. The skull of an elephant (Elephas antiquus) was uncovered with the tusks still in situ and the mandible lying some meters away. This skull belongs to a sub adult male, and other bone fragments of the elephant were lying close by, all belonging to this one individual. The elephant bones were the main part of the bone assemblage. It is suggested that the skull was exploited by hominids and utilized to its very last, removing the mandible and reaching the inside of the brain, as in the case of Gesher-Benot Yaaqov (Piperno and Tagliacozzo, 2001). The Acheulian open air site of Revadim is located on the southern coastal plain of Israel. It is 71e73 m above sea level and about 40 km southeast of Tel-Aviv. At the site elephant bones were found and were identified as a straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus). The bones represent several incomplete individuals most of them young and very small sized males. At this site a clear association between the elephant bones and lithic artifacts was detected and some of the elephant bones bear man-made cut marks. The cut marks appear on the scapula and ribs of elephants, indicating filleting of meat and probably intentionally reaching the
internal organs which are considered a delicacy. The archaeological record at the site and the cut marks found on the elephant bones show capabilities that would suggest big-game hunting rather plausible for Paleolithic hominins, and a preference for juvenile elephants (Rabinovich et al., 2012). At the Lower Paleolithic open air site of Terra Amata which is located on the western slope of Mount Boron, 30 m above sea level near the city of Nice, France, elephant bones were found in anthropogenic layers, all in association with lithic tools. There was a high representation of juvenile and young elephants at the site. The abundance of young elephant bones at the site can represent selective capture and possibly indicates a preference for young elephant meat (Valensi, 2001). Another example focuses on the multiple carcass Acheulian site of Holon, Israel which is located on the southern coastal plain. The site yielded elephant bones which consisted mostly of juvenile elephants. These bones were found to have cut marks resulted by the exploitation of humans and they were also found in association with many lithic tools and other fauna (Chazan and Horwitz, 2006). At the post-Acheulian cave site of Bolomor which is located on the southern slope of the Valldigna valley (Valencia, Spain) about 100 m asl, elephant bones were found. Although they do not make up a big proportion of the faunal assemblage, all of these bones belong to young and juvenile elephants with no record of adult elephant bones at the site (Blasco and Fernandez Peris, 2012). Some of the elephant bones bear man-made cut marks (Blasco per. Comm., and see Barkai and Goper, 2013). This could show that presumably the meat of young elephants was preferred and therefore only the young were procured (possibly hunted?), carried out all the way upslope to the cave, and exploited. The Middle Paleolithic cave site of Spy in Belgium, located in the Ardennes close to the Meuse valley where it lies 18 m' above water on the left bank of the Orneau river. It was recently suggested that the presence of newborn mammoths indicate selective hunting of young individuals. It is suggested that these gigantic mammals were hunted by humans. At this site the percent of mammoth calf bones was very high, suggesting that these could have been an easy catch considering that they were parted from the herd, making them more vulnerable. It was then suggested that the mammoths were selectively killed and body parts, mainly head parts, were et al., 2012). taken back to the site for nutrition (Germonpre The Paleolithic cave site of Ma'anshan in China is located in the Guizhou province of southern China. It lies at an altitude of 960 m above sea level. Cranial parts were taken back to the cave site in order to be processed. The authors suggest an option for the reason these heavy parts were taken back and not treated at the hunting spot. They say it is possible that these parts contained a better nutritional value than the other body parts. Cranial parts may have been taken for better processing and exploitation and might represent taste preference for the different nutrients within elephant head (Agam and Barkai, 2015). In addition there is a high percentage of juvenile bones at the site and the authors suggest that juveniles might have been preferred possibly because adults were dangerous to hunt (Zhang et al., 2010), although here again raises the question whether these juveniles might have had better taste to their meat and better qualities to their fat. At the late Paleolithic site of Yana which is located in Arctic Siberia, far north of the Arctic Circle and about 100 km from the Laptev Sea coast, in the lower Yana River, there is clear evidence to the hunting of mammoths. Bones were revealed in association with lithic elements some of which were undoubtedly responsible for the death of these great creatures. The interpretation for this evidence is that mammoths were hunted sporadically probably for ivory however it is clear that mammoth meat was consumed. There is no clear age profile here but a high percentage of young adults
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
Fladerer, 2003
Nikolskiy and Pitulko, 2013
Zhang et al., 2010
Germonpre et al., 2012
8
31
27 ka Krems-Wachtberg site, Austria
No data available
No data available
69.2 adolescents and young adults, 15.5 subadults and calves 75 3 29e27 ka Yana Site, Arctic Siberia
1103
88 27 1.74 53e15 ka Ma'anshan cave, South China
10 59e25 ka Spy cave, Belgium
1178
8 juveniles, 1 adult
Teeth, tusks, vertebrae, skull parts, limbs Cranial, carpal/tarsal, metapodial, phalangeal Stylohyoideum, pelvis, scapula,mandible, ribs, vertabrae Tusk, mandible, molars, vertebras, ribs, long bones, carpals, tarsals No data available
3 adults, 3 juveniles
“…only young or mature animals…” 74 20.9 ca. 250 ka Holon, Israel
120
2 infants, 1 juvenile 0.14 350e100 ka Bolomor cave, Spain
7
100 “… 10e11 years old … young and small size males…” 100 38 155 ca. 640 ka ca. 400e500 ka Notarchirico, Italy Revadim Quarry, Israel
44.7 45.4
Teeth, tusks
Blasco and Fernandez Peris, 2012 Chazan and Horwitz, 2006
Goren-Inbar et al., 1994; Rabinovich and Biton, 2011 Piperno and Tagliacozzo, 2001 Rabinovich et al., 2012
Skull, limb, tusks, vertebrae, carpal, astragalus, hyoid Skull, tusks, mandible, molars Teeth, tusks, vertebrae, skull, ribs, scapula, pelvis No data available Possibly 1 young male, no data for general MNI 1 sub-adult male 6 No data available 154 8.75 ca. 780 ka Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel
% of proboscidean bones out of the faunal assemblage Age of site Site and location
Table 1 Presence of young elephants and mammoths at selected Paleolithic sites.
Proboscidean NISP at site
% of juvenile proboscidean bones
Proboscidean MNI at site adult/juvenile
Type of proboscidean bones at site
Reference
H. Reshef, R. Barkai / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e7
5
and mainly juveniles is indicated (Nikolskiy and Pitulko, 2013). If hunting was for ivory then why not hunt adult mammoths which have a larger amount of ivory? Could it have been because younger mammoths were an easier catch, or maybe they were hunted for their meat and fat which in this case could have tasted better and was more nutritious? At the late Paleolithic site of Krems-Wachtberg which is located in the Danube valley, Austria, a high percent of mammoth bones were uncovered amongst a rich faunal assemblage. There is a high representation of juvenile mammoth bones in the assemblage (30 NISP). The author suggests that this fact could indicate the possibility that there was a preference for the meat of the young. Hunting young animals is possibly easier than adult ones but at this site it seems as though the young were hunted for their better tasting meat and fat, so the author claims (Fladerer, 2003). In Table 1 a review of important archaeological sites that contain elephant and mammoth remains and in particular juvenile elephants is presented. Each site presented here shows a high percentage of young elephant and mammoth bones out of the general assemblage of proboscideans found and suggest a clear pattern of elephant and mammoth exploitation by early humans. Table 1 demonstrates the presence of young proboscideans in selected Paleolithic archaeological sites, both open air and cave sites, around the Old world. The data reinforces our claim that there might have been a selection in favor of juveniles, maybe in light of taste preference as well as other preferences such as ease in hunting. It is important to point out that not all archaeological sites mentioned here yielded only juvenile or young elephant bones. Most sites had also adult elephant bones but the higher representation was of the young. There are other sites which yield adult bones as well as juvenile bones and sites which yield mainly adult bones, for example at the site of La Cott De St. Berlade mammoths were intentionally hunted and mainly adult bones are found (Smith, 2015). It may be as well that adult proboscidean bones are underrepresented in many archaeological sites because they were too heavy to carry back to site from the kill/procurement place or they might have carried only the meat without the bones and for that we have no evidence in the field. There is evidence for sites to which bones were carried to from the hunting/procurement spot. It is of course assumed that hominins transported cranial parts back to the base camp in order to exploit every bit of the skull (Zhang et al., 2010; Agam and Barkai, 2015). This was done even though these elephant parts were very heavy to carry back to the site. If so, it seems as though juvenile representation is high because people chose to hunt them specifically. It is also important to mention that there are sites in which bones are fractured and smashed intentionaly. This may indicate the extraction of bone marrow and exploitation of every bit of the elephant. For example at the sites of Castel di Guido and Preresa it shattered bones are abundant at the camp site and serve as evidence for extensive marrow extraction (Yravedra, 2012; Boschian , 2014). Evidence for bone marrow extraction is imporand Sacca tant as it provides direct evidence for fat consumption which, as was mentioned before, is nutritionally important and this example shows that bone marrow was extracted at the site and not at the kill/procurement spot. 7. Discussion and conclusions Combining all this information together we can come to some propositions concerning taste preferences and suggest taste related patterns. In this study we raise assumptions and discuss the
Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002
6
H. Reshef, R. Barkai / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e7
potential role of taste preference and its influence on procuring/ hunting specific game, in particular young and juvenile proboscideans. Taste develops over time and yet is influenced by learning and adaptation. In the search for clues for taste preference in human history we surveyed relevant Paleolithic sites around the old world searching for specific hunting or exploitation patterns in order to investigate potential taste preferences of early humans during the Paleolithic. The presence of elephant remains at many Paleolithic sites suggests that Paleolithic diet was at least partially based on calories extracted from mega fauna. We used the taste preferences identified in texts related to recent elephant consumption to reconstruct taste preference related to age. We then examined the evidence from Paleolithic sites that contained elephant remains, to explore whether we could identify evidence for any potentially similar pattern. In addition, we have noted the particular nutritional value of the fat of young, breastfed, proboscideans as indicated from the study of frozen mammoths. Our findings support the view that proboscideans played a central role in the diet of Paleolithic hominines, alongside other prey taxa and vegetal material. Proboscidean bones found at various Paleolithic archaeological sites show that in many cases there is a high percentage of juvenile elephant and mammoth bones. This could indicate that these mammals might have been procured and/or hunted intentionally and systematically for specific nutritional benefits, and not only because they were an easier target than the adults. Ethnographic groups prefer elephant meat for its taste, and some specifically prefer the meat and fat of juveniles. Combining all this evidence together with historical texts describing elephant taste and looking into the nutritional value of young proboscideans fat and the general tendency towards preferring the meat of young individuals, we came to a conclusion in which taste preferences have existed in Paleolithic times and effected prey selection and exploitation. We content that early hominins might have chosen to procure and/or hunt according to their taste and dietary preference and in this case to prey upon elephants and mammoths and in particular juveniles because their meat tasted better and the better nutrient composition of their fat. It is more than reasonable to assume that they were aware of the high nutritional value this special baby fat had, although it is likely that good taste was enough to prefer something over the other. We work under the general assumption that taste preference might have played a role in Paleolithic times. Ethnographic studies show that the taste of elephant meat, in some cases, is known as a delicacy. By comparing this with evidence found at various archaeological sites we suggest that elephants, and in particular young elephants, might have been preferred in light of taste and nutritional preference and not only for their vulnerability. Also we assume that the special composition of fatty acids that built the adipose tissue in juvenile mammoths might have had a special taste and caloric contribution, making these young mammoths a preferred food item. In this paper we try to provide a worldwide perspective of elephant meat consumption and the relationship between elephants and humans. We wanted to show a globalized point of view of taste preferences concerning elephants, and especially the young ones, with regard to different human species and different times. Taken together, the significant presence of young elephants at both Paleolithic open air and cave sites coupled with the ethnographic evidence regarding elephant consumption, suggests that elephants and in particular juveniles were specifically targeted by early humans and played a central role in the survival of humans over hundreds of thousands of years.
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Please cite this article in press as: Reshef, H., Barkai, R., A taste of an elephant: The probable role of elephant meat in Paleolithic diet preferences, Quaternary International (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.002