A typological approach to investigate the teaching career decision: Motivations and beliefs about teaching of prospective teacher candidates

Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 324e335

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A typological approach to investigate the teaching career decision: Motivations and beliefs about teaching of prospective teacher candidates Margareta Maria Thomson a, *, Jeannine E. Turner b,1, John L. Nietfeld c, 2 a

Elementary Education Department, North Carolina State University, 317G Poe Hall, Raleigh, NC 27695-7801, United States Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Florida State University, 3204L Stone Building, 1114 W. Call Street, Tallahassee, FL 32306, United States c Curriculum, Instruction, & Counselor Education, North Carolina State University, 602D Poe Hall, Campus Box 7801, Raleigh, NC 27695, United States b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 28 March 2011 Received in revised form 14 October 2011 Accepted 20 October 2011

This study utilized cluster analysis to identify typologies of prospective teachers enrolled in a teacher education program in the U.S. based upon their self-report motivations for teaching. A three-cluster solution generated three distinctive typologies of prospective teachers (N’s of 93, 70 and 52), and further differences among typologies were investigated with respect to participants’ beliefs about teaching. Follow-up semi-structured interviews confirmed meaningful differences found between the clusters with regard to unique combination of motivations and beliefs about teaching relevant to each typology. Implications for teacher education and teacher development are further discussed in relationship with study findings. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Keywords: Prospective teachers Teacher education Beliefs Motivation Typologies

1. Introduction and purpose In recent years, several international studies have examined the issue of teaching as a career choice as a result of the growing concern for current teacher shortages worldwide (i.e., Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Kyriacou, Hultgren, & Stephens, 1999; Nieto, 2005; Richardson & Watt, 2005; Watt & Richardson, 2011). Like many countries around the world, the U.S. educational system is confronted with acute teacher attrition and a simultaneous need for higher teaching quality. Particular attention has been given to teacher recruitment, retention, and teacher education in the U.S., in order to provide an adequate supply of competent individuals who are willing to serve as teachers. Thus, the need to examine prospective teachers’ (PT) motivations, aspirations, and early career development have increasingly been the focus of research amid the climate of escalating teacher shortage internationally (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005; Guarino, Santibanez, & Daley, 2006; Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2000). There remains an insufficient understanding of how the values, beliefs and motivations of those entering teacher education

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 919 513 0917; fax: þ1 919 513 0919. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (M.M. Thomson), [email protected] (J.E. Turner), [email protected] (J.L. Nietfeld). 1 Tel.: þ1 850 644 2405. 2 Tel.: þ1 919 513 7444. 0742-051X/$ e see front matter Published by Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2011.10.007

programs shape their aspirations for professional engagement and the trajectory of their career development (Fieman-Nemser, 2001; Watt & Richardson, 2008, 2011). The need of investigating teaching motivations in relationship with beliefs about teaching is driven by the lack of sophisticated research in this area and the scarcity of studies that reflect both concepts (motivations and beliefs) concurrently. Additionally, most of studies in the field have been descriptive in nature, using mainly single-item measures, and unsophisticated designs that have often led to inconsistent findings across studies (Watt & Richardson, 2007). Our study is a response to the need for a more sophisticated methodological approach in identifying and classifying the connections between prospective teacher’s motivations and beliefs. The approach in the current study examined empirically identified typologies of PTs using a methodologically sophisticated large-scale design, developed motivational profiles for each typology, compared motivations and perceptions of teaching for different typologies, and established links between motivation for teaching and teaching typologies. This approach has the potential to provide valuable information to teacher education programs regarding PTs candidates and also to K-12 schools in their mentoring of novice teachers. Only five large-scale typological studies exploring at some level teachers’ motivations for teaching were identified in the literature (Berger & D’Ascoli, 2011; Kieschke & Schaarschmidt, 2008; Richardson & Watt, 2005; Watt & Richardson, 2008, 2011), all of

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which were conducted with various samples from outside the U.S. (i.e., Australian career switchers, Swiss vocational school candidates). In our study, we examined motivations about teaching interconnected with beliefs about teaching with a particular population, namely U.S. undergraduate students enrolled in a traditional teacher education program. No known studies have so far investigated typologies of PTs undergraduate students in a traditional teaching program. Within this sample we identified primary factors that influenced PTs to consider teaching (motivations) while also examining their beliefs about the teaching career and beliefs about schooling (teaching and learning in general). 2. Theoretical considerations Given the severe teacher attrition worldwide and the need for quality teaching, it becomes imperative to understand not only why people leave the teaching profession, but what motivated them to enter the profession and how their beliefs about teaching aligned with motivations. The current literature in the field it is unclear on why individuals choose teaching when so many leave the profession, how are their entry motives and beliefs about teaching connected, and how these might influence their decisions to remain or leave the profession. Understanding prospective teachers’ motivations for teaching in connection with their beliefs about the teaching profession and schooling supports further our understanding of PTs’ future teaching practices and their attitudes toward teaching. Research shows that PTs’ motivations for teaching and their beliefs about teaching influence their future classroom practices, professional engagement and choice of instructional approach (CochranSmith & Zeichner, 2005; Lauermann & Karabenick, 2011; Wilke & Losh, 2008). Cochran-Smith and Zeichner (2005) wrote, “We assume that beliefs and attitudes are the lenses through which teachers enact and interpret their daily work, and also the filters through which they use knowledge to construct practice” (p. 52). Therefore, we consider that PTs’ motivations and beliefs about teaching are interconnected, playing an important role in shaping PTs’ future professional identities, their classroom practices, commitment and attitudes to teaching. In line with the existing research in the field, in the section to follow we examine research related to this stance, along with the implications of this research for the teaching profession. 2.1. Motivation for teaching and views about the profession Motivation has been conceptualized in varied ways including “inner forces, enduring traits, behavioral responses to stimuli, and set of beliefs and affects” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 5). Although, there is much disagreement about the precise nature of motivation, a general definition provided by Pintrich and Schunk (2002) states that motivation is the process whereby a goal-directed activity is initiated wherein “individuals have something in mind that they are trying to attain or avoid” (p. 5). A review of the literature on motivation for teaching conducted through the early 1990s suggested that “altruistic, service-oriented goals and other intrinsic motivations are the source of the primary reasons entering teacher candidates report for why they chose teaching as a career” (Brookhart & Freeman, 1992, p.46). One of the earliest research in this area (Lortie, 1975) examined teachers’ (N ¼ 94) motivations to become teachers via interviews and found five factors being crucial to one’s motivation for teaching. These factors included the interpersonal, service, continuation, material benefits and time compatibility reasons, illustrating in fact, a combination of intrinsic, altruistic and extrinsic reasons aligning with results from more recent studies. More recent studies conducted in the U.S. and abroad (Abangma, 1981; Pop & Turner, 2009; Kyriacou &

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Coulthard, 2000; Manuel & Hughes, 2006; Papanastasiou & Papanastasiou, 1998; Saban, 2003; Watt & Richardson, 2008) indicate that the main reasons for choosing teaching as a career are in general, altruistic, intrinsic, and extrinsic reasons. Kyriacou and Coulthard (2000) describe these categories as follows: 1) altruistic reasons: deal with seeing teaching as a socially worthwhile and important job, a desire to help children succeed and a desire to help society improve; 2) intrinsic reasons: cover aspects of the job activity itself, such as the activity of teaching children, and an interest in using their subject matter knowledge and expertise; and, 3) extrinsic reasons: cover aspects of the job which are not inherent in the work itself, such as long holidays and salary (p. 117). Classical motivational literature (Deci & Ryan, 2000) defines intrinsic motivation as “doing an activity for its inherent satisfaction rather than for some separable consequences” (p.56). Intrinsic motivation thus, is described as something desirable, often leading to long-term engagement and sustained effort of individuals in selected activities, as well as high-quality learning and creativity (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Some theorists (e.g., Malone, 1981; Malone & Lepper, 1987) have defined intrinsic motivation more simply in terms of what people will do without external incentives. Intrinsically motivating activities are described widely as those in which people will engage for no reward other than the interest and enjoyment that accompanies them (Deci, 1971; Deci & Ryan, 2000). In contrast, extrinsic motivation is defined as “doing an activity for the attainment of a separable outcome “ (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 56). Extrinsic motivation emphasizes the instrumental value of an activity and differ thus from intrinsic motivation which refers to doing an activity, simply for enjoyment and personal satisfaction. However, the last two decades of research have shown that the quality of experience and performance are very different when individuals display extrinsic or intrinsic motivation for task engagement. Generally, extrinsic motivations lead to short-range activity involvement, while reducing long-range interest in a topic or an activity (Malone & Lepper, 1987). Conventional views of motivation (i.e., Deci, 1971; Weiner, 1985) hold the assumption that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations contrast, thus they are not just separate processes but incompatible, if not antagonistic. Furthermore, altruistic reasons for teaching are considered by some to be an extension of the intrinsic reasons (e.g., Kasser & Ryan, 2001) or, by others a distinctive motivational construct (e.g., Pop & Turner, 2009; Kyriacou et al., 1999; Saban, 2003). Other motivational approaches (i.e., Covington & Mueller, 2001) have suggested a one-dimensional model of motivation where both intrinsic and extrinsic tendencies blend within the same individual. Covington and Mueller (2001) describe motivation as a single continuum combining a mixture of reasons, where one construct is dominant (i.e., an individual can display high intrinsic orientation at one end, and low extrinsic motivation orientation at another). One important consideration when examining teaching as a career choice is the extent to which motives are primarily intrinsic, or extrinsic. The primary reasons for teaching are viewed therein as the extent to which they are “intrinsically or extrinsically motivated behaviors” (Covington & Mueller, 2001, p. 161). International studies have shown that one’s motivation for teaching can vary across different sociocultural contexts. For instance, studies conducted with preservice and inservice teachers in France, Australia, Belgium, Canada, the Netherlands, Slovakia, Estonia, Cyprus and the U.K. found that the most frequently selected reasons for teaching were the altruistic reasons and enjoyment in working with children (i.e., Fokkens-Bruisma & Canrinus, 2011; Kyriacou et al., 1999; Richardson & Watt, 2005, 2006). Additionally, individual intellectual fulfillment and making a social

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contribution were also listed high among reasons to teach (Brunetti, 2001; Mau, Ellsworth & Hawley, 2008; Taimalu, Luik, Voltri and Kalk, 2011). Other studies conducted in Brunei (Yong, 1995), Zimbabwe (Chivore,1998), Cameroon (Abangma,1981), and Jamaica (Bastick, 1999) have found that more extrinsic motivations such as salary, job security, and career status are important for choosing the teaching career. Therefore, it appears that the sociocultural contexts (such as the socioeconomic status and cultural values) from different countries could shape PTs’ motivations for teaching and their teaching views. 2.2. Beliefs about the schooling (teaching and learning) Beliefs “are propositions and networks of ideas that a PT holds to be reasonable, whether those propositions are expressed overtly by the PT or held implicitly and inferred from statements and actions” (Torff & Sternberg, 2000, p. 148). As such, beliefs have much in common with concepts such as “attitudes, values, judgments, opinions, dispositions, implicit theories, perceptions, preconceptions and perspectives” (Pajares, 1992, p. 308), and often are used interchangeably with these terms. Most studies have examined PTs’ perceptions of effective teaching, beliefs about pedagogical and content knowledge, and epistemic beliefs (i.e., Braten & Olaussen, 2005; Minor, Onwuegbuzie, Witcher, & James, 2002; Schraw, Bendixen, & Dunkle, 2002; Shen & Hsieh, 1999). This research suggested that generally PTs described effective teachers as enthusiastic about teaching, competent, using a student-centered approach in their teaching, implementing effective classroom management strategies and possessing great content and pedagogical knowledge (Minor et al., 2002). Other studies have examined the impact of teacher education courses and field experiences on PTs’ beliefs about teaching; their findings suggested that many PTs’ beliefs about schooling (teaching and learning) change very little during their program of study (Roehrig et al., 2008; Pop, 2010; Feiman-Nemser, McDiarmid, Melnick, & Parker, 1989; File & Gullo, 2002; Hancock & Gallard, 2004). Additional studies suggest that PTs’ beliefs about effective teaching are more in line with behavioral perspectives of instruction (e.g., implementing a system of reward and punishment for effective classroom management) rather than cognitive perspectives (e.g., teaching self-regulation strategies). Additionally, this research has shown that PTs placed more value on affective components in teaching (i.e., loving children, caring), than on cognitive components, such as pedagogical and content knowledge (Lauermann & Karabenick, 2011; Salisbury-Glennon & Stevens, 1999; Wilke & Losh, 2008). Similarly, another line of research has reported that PTs perceive classroom teaching activity primarily through a teacher-centered model, a transmissive approach (teaching is telling), rather than a student-centered model with a constructivist approach in teaching (Author et al., 2010; Berger & D’Ascoli, 2011; Hancock & Gallard, 2004; Hollingsworth, 1989). However, recent research suggests that PTs hold eclectic views about teaching and learning and therefore it is difficult to classify into a single pedagogical belief category their views (i.e., Wilke & Losh, 2008). Further research (Pop, 2010; Clark & Peterson, 1986; Saban, 2003; Woolfolk Hoy & Murphy, 2000) shows that students entering teacher education programs have already had a personal experience with the field (unlike students pursuing other academic domains) and subsequently each PT holds a personal teaching schema, or a personal value system about what teaching means based upon their experiences. These already established schemas with embedded personal experiences and value systems can act as filters through which PTs understand and interpret their future teaching roles and practices.

3. Research questions The purpose of our study was to explore typologies of PTs based on their motivations (reasons) for teaching in conjunction with their beliefs about the teaching profession and beliefs about schooling (teaching and learning). A mixed-methods approach using survey and interviews was applied in a two-phase approach. The research questions addressed were the following: 1. What specific types of motivations (i.e., factors) for teaching were influential in PTs’ decisions to become teachers? 2. What typologies of PTs (i.e., clusters) emerged from the motivations for teaching and how demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, major/specialization, year of study, and commitment to teaching) were relevant across typologies? 3. What specific beliefs (i.e., factors) about teaching do PTs hold and how these beliefs differ across identified typologies? 4. How were different motivations and beliefs about teaching described by each cluster? 4. Method 4.1. Participants and context Participants (N ¼ 215) were undergraduate students who were prospective teachers enrolled in Educational Psychology or Classroom Assessment courses in the College of Education of a major U.S. southeastern university. All participants were following a traditional teacher education program, which in the U.S. typically includes a four-year university degree with a strong pedagogical and content focus in an educational field (i.e., mathematics education, science education, elementary education). The majority of teachers in the U.S. are prepared via a traditional teacher education program. Participants included a total of 173 (80%) females and 42 (20%) males, aged 18e41 years. Also, 147 (68%) participants were White, 23 (11%) were Latino/Hispanic and 40 (19%) were African American. Major/specialization varied; students predominantly were Elementary Education majors (N ¼ 56, 26%) and Social Science Education majors (N ¼ 46, 21%). Most PTs were juniors (N ¼ 121; 57%) and seniors (N ¼ 45; 21%), followed by sophomores (N ¼ 43; 20%) and freshman (N ¼ 6; 3%). Demographics for all participants are summarized in Table 1. 4.2. Data sources Data was collected using surveys (phase 1) and semi-structured interviews (phase 2). The survey instrument (phase 1) collected quantitative data, using three distinctive questionnaires: Demographic Questionnaire (gathered data about age, gender, ethnicity, major/specializations, and career intentions), Reasons for Teaching Scale (RTS) and the Career Statement Scale (CSS) investigating PTs’ motivations and beliefs about teaching. 4.2.1. Reasons for Teaching Scale (RTS) The RTS instrument (see items in Table 2) adapted from Kyriacou et al. (1999) gathered data about PTs’ motivations (reasons) for teaching. Participants were asked to rate on a scale 1 to 5 (1 ¼ “not important at all” and 5 ¼ “extremely important”) the importance of specific reasons when choosing teaching as a career. The original study (Kyriacou et al., 1999) reported descriptive data only (i.e., counts, means) with no accompanying information about the validity and reliability of the RTS instrument. We discuss psychometric properties of the RTS along with factor analysis in our Results section.

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Table 1 Participants’ demographics (N ¼ 215). Characteristics

Gender Males Females Age 18e24 25e30 31e41 Major/specialization Early Childhood Ed. Elementary Ed. Mathematics Ed. Social Science Ed. English Ed. Physical Ed. Other Year in program Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Teaching career intentions Committed to teaching Undecided Not interested at this time Other (i.e., not interested at all, or other career plans)

Total (N ¼ 215)

Cluster 1 (N ¼ 93)

Cluster 2 (N ¼ 70)

Cluster 3 (N ¼ 52)

N

%

n

%

n

%

n

42 173

20 80

15 78

16 84

12 58

17 83

15 37

29 71

209 3 3

97 1 1

92 1 0

99 1 0

65 2 3

93 3 4

52 0 0

100 0 0

20 56 31 46 29 9 24

9 26 14 21 14 4 11

6 23 10 22 17 4 11

7 25 11 24 18 4 12

10 22 14 11 5 1 7

14 31 20 16 7 1 10

4 11 7 13 7 4 6

7 21 14 25 14 8 12

6 43 121 45

3 20 57 21

2 24 55 12

2 26 60 13

1 13 38 18

1 19 54 26

3 6 28 15

6 12 54 29

154 33 18 5

72 15 8 2

76 9 5 1

82 9.7 5 1

46 14 7 2

66 20 10 3

32 10 6 2

62 19 12 4

4.2.2. Career Statement Scale (CSS) The CSS instrument (see items in Table 4) adapted from Saban (2003) investigated PTs’ beliefs about the teaching profession and beliefs about schooling (teaching and learning activity). Participants were asked to rate each item regarding their teaching beliefs on a scale 1 to 4 (1 ¼ “strongly disagree” and 4 ¼ “strongly agree”) to indicate the level of agreement with the statements provided by the questionnaire. We discuss psychometric properties of the CSS along with factor analysis the Results section. 4.2.3. Interviews Qualitative data was collected in the second phase of the study, using semi-structured, in-depth interviews (see Appendix B) conducted face-to-face with each participant for approximately 50 min. All interviews were audio-taped and later transcribed. In our qualitative analysis of the transcribed interviews we borrowed grounded-theory techniques using open and axial coding (Creswell, 2007; Strauss & Corbin, 1998) to identify patterns and categories of PTs’ motivations and beliefs about teaching nominated in their interviews. A coding scheme was built progressively by two coders and was tested and constantly revised until complete agreement on coding was reached (see Appendix A for coding scheme and major categories).

4.3. Procedures This mixed-methods study was conducted in two phases as follows: the survey of Phase 1 and the Phase 2 interview follow-up. In Phase 1 (survey) participants (N ¼ 215) completed the demographic questionnaire, the RTS and CSS measures, followed up by interviews (in phase 2). Interviews were used with selected participants (N ¼ 25) randomly selected from a larger pool of 114 survey respondents who agreed to the interview process. The interview selection procedure followed a stratified approach, and the random selection was adjusted to represent a proportional distribution per group (approximately 20e25% of individuals from each cluster, respondents

%

to the interview invitations were selected for phase 2). First, the RTS responses for all participants were analyzed using a cluster analysis to identify typologies of PTs (i.e., clusters) according to their motivational patterns for teaching. Next, once the typologies were identified, PTs from each cluster were randomly selected for interviews, as follows: twelve (out of 55 individuals responding to interview invitation) from Cluster 1 (N ¼ 93), seven (out of 34 individuals responding to interview invitation) from Cluster 2 (N ¼ 70), and six (out of 25 individuals responding to interview invitation) from Cluster 3 (N ¼ 52). 5. Results 5.1. What specific types of motivations (i.e., factors) for teaching were influential in PTs’ decisions to become teachers? To determine what specific types of motivations (i.e., factors) were influential in PTs’ decisions to become teachers, an exploratory factor analysis of the RTS responses was conducted on the 21 questionnaire items. Psychometric properties of the RTS were explored in this phase as well as part of the factor identification, using: 1) evidence for content validity; 2) exploratory factor analysis with a large sample of PTs; 3) internal consistency reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. Content validity was assessed using expert opinions and a literature review of motivations (reasons) for teaching. In an initial phase, the 20 original RTS items were submitted to expert peers (faculty members and four graduate students) who independently reviewed the items for clarity and comprehension. Revisions in the final RTS form included minor wording changes (i.e., “pupils” replaced with “students”), and inclusion of one additionally item (Item #21, “Family members influenced me to become teacher”). To further ascertain psychometric properties and identify motivational factors for teaching of the PTs, an exploratory factor analysis was conducted for the RTS using image factoring and oblimin rotation. A varimax rotation was used as an orthogonal

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rotation technique to create structures (factors) of the questionnaires’ items. Eigen values greater than one constituted the criteria for factor extraction for the principal component analysis. Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities subsequently measured the internal consistency of derived factors. Results from the factor analysis produced a six-factor solution, explaining 62% of the total variance. Therefore, six categories of motivations (i.e., factors) were identified as being influential in PTs’ choices to become teachers. These factors were labeled as follows: intrinsic value (i.e., enjoyment for teaching); job benefits (i.e., job security); meaningful relationships (i.e., social influences); altruistic views (i.e., desire to help); ability (i.e., personality suited for teaching), and opportunities (i.e., professional opportunities through teaching). The Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities were calculated for each derived factor with alpha values of .82 for intrinsic value, .71 for job benefits, .67 for meaningful relationships, .63 for altruistic views, 62 for ability, and .60 for opportunities and.79 for the overall questionnaire. Table 2 summarizes the six motivational factors, items contained in each factor, Cronbach’s alpha measures of internal consistency, as well as factor loading values. 5.2. What typologies of PTs (i.e., clusters) emerged from the motivations for teaching and how demographic characteristics (i.e., gender, major/specialization, year of study, and commitment to teaching) were relevant across typologies? To determine whether certain “types” of respondents were identifiable in terms of their ratings on derived motivational factors, a hierarchical cluster analysis was performed (following the RTS exploratory factor analysis). Cluster analysis is a statistical procedure that analytically groups individuals according to their similar ratings on more than one variable (Braten & Olaussen, 2005). Ward’s method (Milligan & Cooper, 1987) was used in this study to minimize the variance within clusters. Clusters were determined based upon participants’ responses to the RTS, and we Table 2 Subscales (i.e., factors) and survey items from the RTS. Item

Factors/survey items

Intrinsic value (4 items, a ¼ .82) 14 The subject I will teach is important to me 15 The subject I will teach is an important subject for students 5 I enjoy the subject I will teach 13 I can get a job as a teacher in any part of the country Job benefits (4 items, a ¼ .71) 6 My employment as a teacher is assured after graduation 1 Teaching offers good job security 9 Teachers have a respectable social status 4 There are long vacations Meaningful relationships (4 items, a ¼ .67) 19 Other people influenced me to become a teacher (e.g., previous teachers, friends) 20 It can help me to get a job teaching in another country 18 Family members influenced me to become a teacher 21 My experience as a student has given me a positive image of the job Altruistic views (2 items, a ¼ .63) 8 Teaching is a noble profession 16 Being a teacher can help improve society Ability (4 items, a ¼ .62) 11 I have a personality that is suited for this job 12 Previous jobs that I had influenced me to become a teacher 10 I like the activity of classroom teaching 7 I want to help children succeed Opportunities (3 items, a ¼ .60) 17 Being a teacher can lead to other jobs in the future 2 The job offers opportunities to socialize with colleagues 3 The level of pay is quite good

Factor loading .902 .797 .741 .412 .782 .745 .576 .539 .738 .731 .705 .475

.760 .681 .780 .685 .648 .487 .528 .697 .654

investigated three-, four-, and five-cluster solutions. Based on psychometric evidence (e.g., means, standard deviation, p values) we determined that the three-cluster solution fit the data best and created the most useful categories. The appropriate cluster solution obtained was based on significant differences between the cluster group vectors (i.e., factors) on the subscales used to identify the cluster groups. After the three-cluster solution was chosen, using cluster membership as an independent variable, a subsequent ANOVA and post hoc tests were performed on the dependent sets of derived factors from the CSS in order to assess profiles of identified typologies and determine cross cluster differences regarding their beliefs about teaching. Three distinctive typologies (clusters) of PTs (N’s of 93, 70 and 52) were identified, indicating specific sets of motivations as being relevant for their teaching career choices. Table 3 displays the means, standard deviations, and p values for each of the clusters across the six RTS factors. Characteristics of each cluster are presented next with respect to quantitative findings from the RTS responses, and later we present findings from qualitative data (interviews) for each cluster. We labeled each cluster based on their most salient characteristics expressed by participants in their survey and interviews, as follows: Cluster 1 was labeled Enthusiastic, because, the most salient characteristic was altruistic and intrinsic motivations, and a clear expression in their interviews of enthusiasm for teaching and visionary actions; Cluster 2 was labeled Conventional, because similarly to Cluster 1 predominant motivators were altruistic and intrinsic, but rated professional opportunities the lowest among all clusters, focusing throughout interviews on customary classroom teaching actions, and Cluster 3, Pragmatic, because altruistic reasons were the least influential in their teaching choice and mostly pragmatic aspects of teaching were emphasized in their interviews. 5.2.1. Motivational profile for cluster 1: Enthusiastic Participants from Cluster 1, labeled Enthusiastic (N ¼ 93), the largest group, indicated through their survey responses that their motivation for teaching was highly related to altruistic reasons (M ¼ 4.76; SD ¼ .93); intrinsic reasons (M ¼ 4.60; SD ¼ .62), and abilities (M ¼ 4.48; SD ¼ .84). PTs in this group had also higher ratings for opportunities (M ¼ 3.64; SD ¼ .75) and meaningful relationships (M ¼ 3.61; SD ¼ .87) relative to the other two clusters, suggesting that professional development opportunities offered through teaching influenced their teaching decisions, and that social factors such as family members, or former teachers were greatly influential in their teaching choices. 5.2.2. Motivational profile for cluster 2: Conventional The second largest cluster, labeled Conventional (N ¼ 70), were somehow similar to the Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group in their ratings for altruistic, intrinsic reasons and abilities, but distinctively different regarding their ratings for opportunities and meaningful relationships.

Table 3 Means and p values across clusters and motivational factors. RTS factors

Intrinsic value Job benefits Meaningful relationships Altruistic views Ability Opportunities

Cluster 1 (N ¼ 93)

Cluster 2 (N ¼ 70)

Cluster 3 (N ¼ 52)

p

Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

Mean (SD)

4.60 (.62) 4.12 (.73) 3.61 (.87)

4.38 (.64) 3.40 (.67) 2.55 (.78)

3.76 (.76) 3.39 (.58) 2.62 (.66)

p < .001 p < .001 p < .001

4.76 (.93) 4.48 (.84) 3.64 (.75)

4.70 (.87) 4.04 (.86) 2.60 (.68)

2.42 (.65) 3.66 (.64) 3.05 (.58)

p < .001 p < .001 p < .001

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Cluster 2 participants indicated fairly high ratings for altruistic views (M ¼ 4.70; SD ¼ .87), intrinsic reasons (M ¼ 4.38; SD ¼ .64), and abilities (M ¼ 4.04; SD ¼ .86), but had the lowest ratings for opportunities (M ¼ 2.60; SD ¼ .68) and meaningful relationships (M ¼ 2.55; SD ¼ .78) relative to other two clusters. Thus, these ratings might suggest that participants in the Conventional group were the least motivated the professional opportunities offered through teaching (i.e., advance in their teaching career, develop professionally), and that social influences (i.e., family, teachers) were not present or not influential in their teaching decisions. 5.2.3. Motivational profile for cluster 3: Pragmatic PTs from Cluster 3, labeled Pragmatic, the smallest group (N ¼ 52) indicated as main influential teaching motivations intrinsic reasons (M ¼ 3.76; SD ¼ .67), abilities (M ¼ 3.66; SD ¼ .64) and job benefits (M ¼ 3.39; SD ¼ .58) and less influential teaching motivations meaningful relationships (M ¼ 2.62; SD ¼ .66) and altruistic views (M ¼ 2.42; SD ¼ .65). An extremely distinctive finding about Cluster 3 PTs was their ratings on altruistic views (M ¼ 2.42; SD ¼ .66); they obtained the lowest score on this factor across all clusters (and across all factors), suggesting therefore that altruistic reasons were possible the least influential in their teaching career choices. Table 3 presents the three identified clusters and their ratings on motivational factors. 5.2.4. Demographic differences across typologies (clusters) In addition to investigating the variety of motivations (reasons) across these clusters, we also investigated the extent to which the typologies (clusters) were consistent across the various degree majors, and if demographic characteristics were relevant for the identified typologies. A comparative analysis (Chi-Square Test) was conducted with major/specialization (i.e., Elementary Education, Mathematic Education, etc.) as an independent variable and also other demographic characteristics such as gender, year of study (i.e., junior, senior) and commitment to teaching (i.e., committed, undecided, not interested) as independent variables. Cluster membership was selected as the dependent variable. We found no significant differences between the typologies (cluster membership) and participants’ demographic characteristics for major/ specialization (X2 (12) ¼ .27), nor for gender (X2 (4) ¼ .25), year of study (X2 (6) ¼ .10), or commitment to teaching (X2 (8) ¼ .27). Therefore, such results imply that the primary cluster division and composition was based on participants’ motivations for teaching (i.e., six categories of reasons/factors) regardless of participants’ demographic characteristics. 5.3. What specific beliefs (i.e., factors) about teaching do PTs hold and how these beliefs differ across identified typologies? To identify PTs’ beliefs (i.e., factors) about teaching we conducted an initial exploratory factor analysis on the 15 original items of the CSS (Saban, 2003). Eigen values greater than one constituted the criteria for factor extraction. This initial factor structure accounted for 60% of the total variance. Five of these items (5, 9, 12, 14, and 15) were eliminated due to factor loadings (lower than .40). A second factor analysis was conducted for this reduced set of 10 items, yielding three factors labeled as follows: career dedication (i.e., beliefs about career engagement and commitment), student development (i.e., beliefs about students’ development), and learning approach (i.e., beliefs about learning). The factor structure for these 10 remaining items (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 and 13) accounted for 69% of the total variance with no cross-loadings of items evident across factors. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient obtained for internal reliability was a ¼ .83 for the 10 questionnaire items and the alpha coefficients for the derived factors ranged from

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Table 4 Subscales (i.e., factors) and survey items from the CSS. Item

Factors/survey items

Factor loading

Career dedication (3 items, a ¼ .79) 2 For me teaching is a lifelong career 1 If I had to start all over I would choose teaching again without any hesitation 3 I look forward to meeting my first students as a classroom teacher Student development (3 items, a ¼ .76) 7 I believe that one of the most important roles as a classroom teacher is to foster students’ social growth 13 I believe that one of the most important roles as a classroom teacher is to foster students’ emotional growth 8 I believe that one of the most important roles as a classroom teacher is to foster students’ moral growth Learning approach (4 items, a ¼ .66) 11 I believe that students learn best through active participation in cooperative learning activities 10 I believe that students learn more from asking questions than from listening to the teacher 6 I believe that one of the most important roles as a classroom teacher is to facilitate learning 4 I believe that one of the most important roles as a classroom teacher is to dispense knowledge

.851 .843 .720

.839 .803 .751

.807 .739 .496 .486

.66e.79 as follows: .79 for career dedication, .76 for student development and .66 for learning approach. Table 4 summarizes the three subscales, items, factor loadings, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for each subscale. In order to interpret differences and similarities among the three clusters with respect to their beliefs about teaching (derived factors from CSS) follow-up ANOVA and Scheffe post hoc tests were conducted. Results (illustrated in Table 5) showed significant differences among the clusters with respect to all three derived factors: career dedication (F [2, 212] ¼ 19.039; p < .001), student development (F [2, 212] ¼ 13.06; p < .001), and learning approach (F [2, 212] ¼ 20.33; p < .001). Analyses of mean scores and standard deviations from ANOVA procedures also indicated that participants’ from Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group scores were consistently high on all three factors: career dedication (M ¼ 3.46; SD ¼ .58), student development (M ¼ 3.47; SD ¼ .46) and learning approach (M ¼ 3.56; SD ¼ .37). Cluster 2 had similar ratings to Cluster 1 participants, but slightly lower on each factor: career dedication (M ¼ 3.36; SD ¼ .53), student development (M ¼ 3.23; SD ¼ .49) and learning approach (M ¼ 3.53; SD ¼ .34), followed by Cluster 3, The Pragmatic with lowest rating scores across all clusters: career dedication (M ¼ 2.87; SD ¼ .58), student development (M ¼ 3.06; SD ¼ .48) and learning approach (M ¼ 3.17; SD ¼ .38). Post hoc tests results using Scheffe’s HSD showed specific differences for each of these three factors with respect to clusters’ formation. For PTs’ ratings on career dedication, results showed significant differences between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 3, The Pragmatic group (p < .001) and between Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group and Cluster 3, The Pragmatic group (p < .001), but no significant differences between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group (p ¼ .514). Results on the student

Table 5 Means and p values across clusters and factors from CSS. CSS factors

Cluster 1 (N ¼ 93)

Cluster 2 (N ¼ 70)

Cluster 3 (N ¼ 52)

F

p

Career dedication Student development Learning approach

3.46a (.58) 3.47b (.46) 3.56a (.37)

3.36a (.53) 3.23a (.49) 3.53a (.34)

2.87b (.58) 3.06a (.48) 3.17b (.38)

19.03 13.06 20.33

p < .001 p < .001 p < .001

Note: Means with different subscripts are significantly different at the .05 level.

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development factor showed significant differences between Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group and Cluster 3, Pragmatic group (p < .001), and between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group (p < .001), but no significant differences between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 3, Pragmatic group (p ¼ .158). PTs’ ratings on learning approach also indicated variability of responses across the three clusters. Significant differences were obtained between Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group and Cluster 3, Pragmatic group (p < .001), between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 3, Pragmatic group (p < .001), but no significant differences between Cluster 2, Conventional group and Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group (p ¼ .857). 5.4. How were different motivations and beliefs about teaching described by each cluster? Qualitative results from the interviews are presented in this study as narrative accounts from each cluster to illustrate the patterns and categories identified via interviews about PTs’ motivations for teaching and beliefs about teaching. Overall, the interview data revealed similarities at some level across the clusters, but also notable differences related to their teaching goals. Each cluster revealed a combination of reasons and beliefs about teaching with individual unique approaches in understanding their teaching goals. 5.4.1. Narrative accounts from cluster 1: Enthusiastic In support of quantitative findings, results from the interviews showed that Cluster 1 participants’ motivation for teaching was greatly influenced by altruistic reasons (i.e., desire to help) and intrinsic reasons (i.e., enjoyment for teaching), meaningful relationships, and opportunities to advance professionally. Additionally, interview data showed that PTs from Cluster 1 seemed to have a high appreciation for the teaching profession, passion and enthusiasm for teaching. They perceived teaching more holistically, extending beyond classroom duties; teaching was perceived not just a classroom/instructional activity, but a mission with the purpose to improve society. An important reason for becoming teachers mentioned by Cluster 1 participants were their enjoyment of working with children and desire to help children succeed. They expressed a desire to serve; the majority (80%) of PTs in Enthusiastic group said that they decided to become teachers because they wanted to help others. Moreover, their willingness to help was driven by examples in their lives. They were also helped, so they wanted to return this service, and help others improve their lives. LC, a participant from this group, mentioned that she was greatly inspired by her previous teachers, and they served as models for her career choice. As she explained: I had awesome teachers all throughout school. I want to make a difference in someone’s life as they made in mine, because I remember all of them; I remember things from each year, and what I learned from them. I want to have that effect on someone else’s life, just like they had on mine. Distinctive for this group was the idea of extended opportunities through teaching. Participants (58%; 7 out of 12) mentioned in their interviews their desire to advance their education (through graduate school) to be able take leadership positions in their schools. Therefore, they saw teaching as an opportunity to engage in various leadership tasks such as school boards, school district administrative duties, or in community projects that would enable them to help society in a different way than classroom teaching. In many ways, participants from Cluster 1 sought professional empowerment by wanting to extend their professional roles beyond classroom teaching.

As far as their expressed beliefs about the teaching career, participants from Cluster 1, saw teaching as an important profession in all societies. Education was perceived as imperative for the development of any society, and teachers’ role in society was perceived as crucial in achieving this goal. One PT from this group explained her views about teaching: But I believe that there always will be teachers, and in every single civilization some of the most respected people at times, like Socrates for instance, they were teachers. I believe then even though the profession in the U.S. isn’t that highly regarded as I would like it to be, I still think is a very noble profession and it is good. Interestingly, even though participants from this cluster seemed extremely enthusiastic about teaching, almost holding romantic (possibly naïve) views of the profession, they were also able to articulate disadvantages of teaching as well, and the challenges of the teaching profession. Also, extremely unique for Cluster 1 participants, they (unlike Cluster 2 and 3) were able to articulate as well main characteristics of an effective teacher, such as caring for students, despite hardship of profession. One PT from this group explained: I think teaching is a wonderful job, is a challenging job, it’s not that respected as much, but I think that people [who] that are quality teachers, that actually care about the students, they know how difficult it is, so their opinion is the one that really matters. In their interviews, participants from Cluster 1 were able to describe very clear and were able to elaborate on specific instructional strategies they would use in class as effective teaching strategies. Effective teaching was believed to be teaching with a purpose; setting long-term goals for their students such as being able to apply knowledge in real-life situations. Effective teachers were described by Cluster 1 participants as role models who had both content expertise and pedagogical expertise, but also individual qualities that would ultimately inspire their students. One said, “I think quality teaching is when students learn for a purpose, not necessarily learn to get the teacher credit for teacher of the year. Learning about something that they are going to use and apply in life.” Most participants from Cluster 1 (unlike Cluster 2 and 3) mentioned that an effective teacher should hold himself/herself accountable for students’ learning, and not just someone else (i.e., school principal, superintended). Another characteristic of quality teaching, mentioned only by those in the Enthusiastic group, was attention to issues of and respect for diversity, and the importance of including such issues in their daily teaching. Overall, participants from Cluster 1, Enthusiastic reflected in their interviews excitement about teaching and dedication to this profession, a desire to help children learn and progress, and a very keen awareness of their key role as educators in the society. Unlike Cluster 2 participants, Conventional, participants from Cluster 1, Enthusiastic, perceived teaching not just as a solely classroom/ instructional activity, but as a mission beyond classroom walls, a continuing process, involving other social entities in educating and improving students’ lives. Cluster 1 participants also demonstrated complex notions of classroom pedagogy and principles of teaching and learning. They seem to come to the teaching profession with deep values about teaching and learning, and a desire to transmit these values to their students through teaching. 5.4.2. Narrative accounts from cluster 2: Conventional Participants from Cluster 2, labeled Conventional were similar in many ways to participants from Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group, but

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yet different in many aspects. Similarity between the two clusters was found with respect to their main reasons for becoming teachers; both groups expressed mainly altruistic and intrinsic reasons for becoming teachers. However, distinct views about teaching and schooling were expressed by the two groups in their interviews. PTs from Cluster 2, perceived teaching in a more conventional way, strictly as classroom activity, with a particular focus on ordinary instructional actions (i.e., instructional strategies and classroom management), unlike Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group who perceived teaching more holistically, as a social mission to educate students with help from society (family, community). PTs from Cluster 2 expressed primarily intrinsic and altruistic reasons for teaching (i.e., enjoyment to teach others, desire to help), similar to Cluster 1, but with a lack of passion and enthusiasm for teaching, or visionary actions (as Cluster 1 participants did). One PT from Cluster 2 illustrated his reasons for teaching: It seems pretty cool to be able to help people understand things better. When I lived in the dorm there were people that were taking basic algebra classes, and they were struggling with it and that was discouraging to me, so I thought that it would be cool if I could help people not have that kind of trouble with math. Similar to Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group, teaching was perceived by Cluster 2 Conventional group as an important profession for the development of society, but also a challenging job that is not rewarded enough by the society. Among disadvantages of the teaching career mentioned by participants in this group were demanding tasks, emotional stress, high accountability based on students’ test scores, bureaucracy, and social status in decline. It’s a good profession and a lot of people respect teachers, but I think that teachers should be respected a little bit more, because there is a big crunch for standardized testing and teachers are being watched carefully . you hear stories about these teachers who do crazy things, so there’s that pressure too. Throughout their interviews, Cluster 2 participants, viewed teaching mostly as a set of daily instructional duties one must carry in order to educate students, and emphasized the importance of pedagogical and content knowledge in teaching. The main focus on teaching was on pedagogy and content expertise, and the teaching purpose was to convey the expertise to their students. Quality teaching therefore were perceived as content expertise, and being able to transmit knowledge to all students (as a group, but at the individual level as well). One participant said: Quality teaching is knowing your subject matter extremely well, having the ability to portray that knowledge. Also, I believe that teachers really need to know their students on a one-to-one level, because every student is different. For me an effective teacher is when they demonstrate their knowledge and show how much they care about education. PTs from the Conventional group expressed very little in their interviews the idea of opportunities through teaching (i.e., advancing their teaching career, or develop professionally). They were not interested advancing professionally and therefore educating children in that capacity (as Cluster 1 mentioned), but described their professional roles exclusively as regular classroom duties, providing thus a more conventional picture of the teaching profession. They expressed commitment for their K-12 classroom teaching, and willingness to remain in teaching, even if they would advance their education to a higher educational degree. Going to graduate school to obtain a Masters or Ph.D. degree was directly related to their desire to gain more content and pedagogical expertise, so they can return to classroom teaching better prepared. Their commitment to

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teaching at the K-12 level was more obvious, compared to Cluster 1 participants who aspired to advancing their education so they could hold higher positions (such as administration), but educate students in that capacity. Overall, interview data revealed that PTs from the Conventional cluster were similar in some aspects with the Enthusiastic group, yet different in many ways. Cluster 2 was distinct in that the salient characteristic that defined all members of this cluster was that they saw the classroom as almost the singular place that education happens. Their responses did not move beyond the teacher and students to the community or family as had the Enthusiastic group expressed. In their interviews Cluster 2 participants demonstrated good understanding of the pedagogical aspects of teaching and content knowledge, but did not mention at all other important aspects of education, related for instance to individualized instruction, diversity issues, or including other social entities (family, community) in their teaching. 5.4.3. Narrative accounts from cluster 3: Pragmatic Compared to participants from the other two clusters, Cluster 3, Pragmatic group expressed in their interviews primarily extrinsic motivators for teaching (i.e., job security, availability of teaching jobs and long vacations), suggesting therefore a more pragmatic perception of teaching. Cluster 3 participants also mentioned that relationships, such as influences of former teachers or families, to become teachers were not crucial in their decisions to undertake teaching. Mostly, the job benefits, availability of the teaching positions, and the teaching activity itself were influential motivators for their teaching career choice. Such aspects of the teaching career made teaching appealing for them. One participant explained: Teaching offers a good job security. I don’t know where I’m going to live yet, but I know wherever I’ll go, I can find a job. There is always going to be a demand for teachers; it’s not like one of these careers where you know it’s going to be close and can’t find a job. Teaching is dependable. Additionally, several participants in this group talked about teaching as a job that offers the opportunity to leave and come back, so teaching was perceived as a “fall back plan”, thus suggesting a temporary commitment to teaching. None talked clearly about their professional fulfillment through teaching, nor did they describe teaching as being their passion and dedication. Their perception of the teaching career was somewhat that of a “middle class career”, but at the same time, offering several important advantages, such as “ good job benefits”, “a stable career,” and “a family friendly career”, which was desirable for them. Among the disadvantages of being a teacher mentioned by the participants in this group were “job related stress,” “demanding profession,” “pressure from higher authorities,” and “accountability.” One participant explained: It’s stressful, because there is a lot of pressure, and with a lot of changes in the laws, that’s even more pressure and accountability. So, you’re stretching in so many directions trying to please others and sometimes it’s pretty hard. Also, unlike participants from the other two clusters, the Pragmatic participants’ perceptions of the teaching activity was somehow simplistic, with almost no ability to describe and elaborate on teaching strategies and main principles of teaching and learning. In their descriptions of effective teaching there was no mentioning of any pedagogical aspects or content expertise, nor the importance of personal qualities in teaching. In general, the length of their interviews was shorter, and less elaborative when describing their beliefs and perception of teaching, compared to participants from the other two clusters. When asked to describe

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their future teaching style, they did not speak of subject matter, of students, nor of specific approaches/styles of teaching, but made very generic references to teaching as being “fun” and “nice”. One PT described her teaching: I want there to be fun in the classroom. I don’t want to be the teacher that everyone thinks is just so mean and doesn’t like, but specific instructional [strategies] I haven’t really thought of .I’ll just put it all together and make one for myself. Interestingly, very distinctive for Cluster 3 participants (unlike any from Cluster 1 and 2) they expressed concerns about their lack of teaching experience, lack of content expertise, inadequate training, and about feeling unprepared for teaching. One PT described her concerns: Well, [I’m concern about] lack of knowledge, on being a teacher. I’m not prepared. I’m anxious because I feel I don’t really have enough experience but you know, I haven’t taught a real student classroom as a teacher. Having students in all this different age groups would be so difficult, like, in a middle school, kids there are so trying because at that age group, they are kind of going crazy, so you definitely have to deal with more behavioral issues and problems. Overall, the Pragmatic participants seemed to be motivated predominantly by extrinsic reasons, but not exclusively. Their desire to work with children was ignited by previous experiences with children (camp counselor, tutoring), but their understanding of the teaching profession was dominated by pragmatic aspects of life, such as job security, long holidays, and availability of the teaching positions. Compared to the other two clusters, members in the Pragmatic group had problems articulating their understanding of their teaching goals or how they will achieve their goal, perceived teaching as “middle class” (therefore less noble) profession, and expressed concerns about the quality of their teaching preparation.

6. Discussion Findings from the present study identified three distinct typologies of PTs highlighting different and subtle combinations of factors relevant to choosing teaching as a career and perceptions of the profession. Different combinations of reasons were relevant to each group’s choice of teaching as a career, but at the same time, common sources of influence were found across the three groups. Interview data showed in more depth the complex, personal, and situated nature of PTs’ decisions. Current findings in the literature align with our study results regarding the predominance of altruistic and intrinsic reasons for teaching as powerful motivators (Pop & Turner, 2009; Brookhart & Freeman, 1992; Kyriacou & Coulthard, 2000; Kyriacou et al., 1999; Richardson & Watt, 2005; Saban, 2003; Watt & Richardson, 2008). Our findings indicated that all participants expressed altruistic, intrinsic and extrinsic reasons for teaching at some level, but none expressed solely one type of reasons; rather, a combination of motivations was found to be characteristic for each cluster of PTs. We find our study results in line with Covington and Mueller’s (2001) approach, a unidimensional model of motivation suggesting that different types of motivation blend within the same individual with one type of motivation being more predominant than other(s), as opposed to Deci and Ryan (2000) who suggested an antagonistic relationship of different types of motivations (i.e., intrinsic versus extrinsic). One noticeable finding in our study indicated that demographic characteristics of participants were not relevant to clusters’ composition, therefore suggesting that PTs’ typologies were based on their motivations for teaching regardless of participants’

demographics. We found no significant differences among cluster membership (cluster variable) and variables such as major/ specialization, gender, year of study and commitment to teaching. Similarly, other recent studies (Richardson & Watt, 2005; Watt & Richardson, 2008) have shown that demographic characteristics such as gender, degree majors (elementary versus secondary level teacher education), and commitment to teaching (i.e., whether individuals had seriously considered or pursued a different career prior to enrolling in teacher education) were not relevant for cluster compositions (teachers’ typologies). This is particularly important, and suggests the need for adopting more sophisticated methodologies in exploring motivations for teaching of beginning teachers. Our results show the complexity of motivation for teaching, contrary to previous research that used less sophisticated designs and found differences in motivations for career choice with respect to grade level, suggesting that elementary PTs were more child centered in their motivations for teaching and secondary PTs were more subject centered (i.e., Book & Freeman, 1986). Additionally, most research in this area has focused solely on motivations (i.e., specific reasons for entering, remaining, or leaving teaching), and little attention has been given to PTs’ motivations (reasons) for teaching as related to their beliefs about teaching (Saban, 2003; Schutz, Crowder, & White, 2001). Our study findings suggest that a combination of motivations and beliefs is unique to each typology, and PTs’ motivations and beliefs about teaching play an important role in shaping their career paths and approaches to teaching. Scholars in the field suggest that motivation and beliefs about teaching influence greatly teachers’ future classroom practices, including their strategies for delivering instruction, as well as persistence and engagement in instructional tasks and commitment to teaching (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005; Saban, 2003; Wilke & Losh, 2008). The last few decades have resulted in numerous international studies of teacher attrition. There is a growing consensus among researchers and educators worldwide that many teachers leave the profession because teaching is not what they believed it would be, and gradually become dissatisfied with the profession. Findings from our study have implications not just for understanding the different motivational underpinning of prospective teachers for entering the teaching profession, but eventually understanding their commitment to teaching, job satisfaction, and possibly teacher attrition. For instance, most research conducted both in the U.S. and abroad, show that PTs enter teaching primarily because of their altruistic and intrinsic reasons, but they leave the profession after a few years because job dissatisfaction, therefore, it is possible that a mismatch between PTs’ motivations and beliefs about teaching with the realities of the profession exists, and could fuel attrition. Findings from our study, similar to other international and U.S. research suggest that most PTs enter teaching primarily motivated by altruistic and intrinsic motivation and favorable views of teaching (Pop & Turner, 2009; Pop, 2010; Brookhart & Freeman, 1992; Manuel & Hughes, 2006; Richardson & Watt, 2005; Saban, 2003; Watt & Richardson, 2011). Furthermore, most studies on teacher attrition and perception of success for beginning teachers indicate a high turnover in teaching with almost 50% of teachers leaving the profession in their first five years on the job (i.e., Corbell, Reiman, & Nietfield, 2008; Ingresoll & Smith, 2004; Johnson & Birkeland, 2003; Kauffman, Johnson, Kardos, Liu, & Peske, 2002; Reiman & Paramore, 1994). In the current era when so many leave the teaching profession one might then ask what motivates others to enter this profession? Are PTs’ reasons and beliefs about teaching aligned with the realities of teaching? Just by anticipating that teaching is a challenging profession is not sufficient to have PTs understand the reality of this career (Liu, Kardos, Kauffman, Preske, & Johnson, 2000; Richardson & Watt, 2006; Wubbels, 1992).

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In light of our findings, teacher education programs and policy makers, from different countries might reflect on the importance of recognizing the different types of prospective teachers with particular motivational profiles and views about the teaching profession and schooling (the teaching and learning activity). Teacher educators must be aware of the diversity of prospective teachers’ goals prior to or early in their teacher preparation programs so they can counsel the prospective teachers into richer understandings of teaching, and further provide robust field-based experiences. Counseling prospective teachers into the realities of teaching can help those committed to completing their teacher preparation programs into developing appropriate goals for their teaching careers, healthy dispositions and expectations for their daily teaching lives, and a deep appreciation for the important work they will be doing (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Guarino et al., 2006). Many teacher education programs often neglect these difficult conversations in favor of painting a glowing picture of teaching. One possible reason teacher educators do not have these difficult conversations could also be that they are unaware of the multiple reasons prospective teachers choose the profession, what these candidates believe about the field and the complex relationships between their goals and beliefs. Moreover, teacher-training programs do not always provide sufficient field-based experiences for PTs, which could adequately prepare them for a good understanding of the complex psychological and pedagogical nature of teaching, especially high-quality teaching. Often, PTs proceed through their programs of study holding the same beliefs about teaching, which contradict facets of their training and teaching practices in the classroom. Many researches shows that teacher education courses did little to prepare them for real classroom experiences and participants often referred to the existing gap between theory and practice in training (Cochran-Smith & Zeichner, 2005; Darling Hammond, LaFors, & Snyder, 2001). 6.1. Limitations and future research Findings from this study could be limited by the cultural aspects of the study (i.e., participants were from a major research U.S.

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university and their views could be representative only for the specific school culture of a research institution). Additionally, all participants in this study were undergraduate students following a traditional teacher-training program. Their views could be different from PTs following a non-traditional teacher-training (i.e., alternative teacher certification). Future studies could compare teacher candidate populations from diverse settings, such as small teaching colleges from other parts of the U.S. or abroad, which might have different views of teaching than those enrolled in a large research university. Also, in line with the current study findings, future research could address the possible existing mismatches, examining whether certain typologies of teachers are more apt to stay or leave the teaching profession. Would participants from Cluster 1, Enthusiastic group, who are passionate about teaching and predominantly altruistic, be among the ones to remain in teaching (since altruistic reasons are the most cited for continuing teaching)? Or, would they be among those leaving the profession in relatively few years, possibly due to naïve views of teaching contradictory to demanding work conditions in schools? Would Cluster 3, Pragmatic group show high rates of attrition (they had the lowest scores on altruistic reasons), or would their pragmatic views influence them to stay (possibility because of a more accurate alignment with the realities of teaching conditions)? Future research utilizing longitudinal designs can investigate which typologies of teachers are more prone to stay or leave the profession and how PTs entry motivations and beliefs about teaching align with their motivations for continuing or leaving. Contributions from such research could provide insights to teacher education programs (i.e., regarding PTs’ perceptions), the teaching profession, (i.e., workplace factors), or both. Additionally, teachers’ characteristics such as self-efficacy, content and pedagogical knowledge, involvement in professional development could be investigated with respect to identified typologies and relationship with attrition. By measuring these variables with respect to identified typologies we can develop a model of teaching efficiency that teacher education programs and policy makers can address by including more individualized mentoring and provide different types of field experiences to meet the needs of each typology.

Appendix A. Coding scheme and major categories

Categories

Cod/subcategories

Brief description

1. Main motives

1.1 Altruistic reasons (e.g., wanted to help children succeed) 1.2 Intrinsic reasons (e.g., enjoy the activity of teaching) 1.3 Extrinsic reasons (e.g., salary, vacations, job benefits) 2.1 PTs’ school experiences as a K-12 student 2.2 PTs’ school experiences as a college student (prospective teacher) 2.3 Personal experiences 3.1 Previous academic or professional experience as motivation for teaching 3.2 Previous teaching experience, or related experience 4.1 With children/youth 4.2 With previous teachers 4.3 With family members 4.4. Other social relations (e.g., friends, community) 5.1 Marital status 5.2 Age 5.3 Parental experience 5.4 Life events (crucial events) 6.1 Positive emotions 6.2 Negative emotions 7.1 Teacher-oriented style

Generic reasons related to the teaching career choice

2. School and Personal experiences

3. Professional experiences

4. Relationships

5. Life stage issues

6. Emotions 7. Perception of schooling (teaching and learning)

PTs’ reasons for teaching related to their school or personal experiences

PTs’ reasons for going into teaching as related to their professional experiences Past, potential or actual relationships with a range of people that have been central to the lived experiences of PT and their teaching career choice Reasons related to life stages such as marital status, age, parental experience or other life events (i.e., moving, death, marriage, school choice) Emotions expressed by the PT about teaching (e.g., excited, relaxed, happy, frustrated) PTs’ beliefs/perception about teaching and learning style, in general (continued on next page)

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Appendix (continued) Categories 7.2 Student-oriented style 8. Perception of teacher’s roles

9. Perception of quality teaching 10. Positive perception of the teaching profession

11. Negative perception of the teaching profession

12. Teaching disadvantages

13. Teaching advantages

14. PTs self perception (Personal and professional characteristics)

15. PTs perception of themselves as teachers (teaching style)

16. Commitment to teaching

Cod/subcategories

Brief description

8.1 Provide knowledge 8.2 Provide advising/counseling (i.e., emotional growth for students) 8.3 Provide social and moral growth for students 9.1 Interactive style 9.2 Relevance 10.1 Value the teaching profession (e.g., important, noble profession) 10.2 Positive social perception of teaching (e.g., society and others value the teaching profession) 10.3 High social status 10.4 High financial status 11.1 Not value the teaching profession (e.g., teaching is not important) 11.2 Negative social perception of teaching (e.g., society and others do not value the teaching profession) 11.3 Low social status 11.4 Low financial status 12.1. Students’ misbehavior 12.2. Unfavorable public perception of teachers 12.3 Salary 12.4 Lack of power (e.g., because of bureaucracy, administration etc) 13.1 Student’s progress 13.2 Recognition 13.3 Links to other fields 14.1 Caring for student/empathy 14.2 Sociable 14.3 Patience 14.4 Confident 14.5 Creative 15.1 Knowledgeable (PCK) 15.2 Disciplinarian 15.3 Friendly 15.4 Engaging 15.5 Lifelong learners 16.1 Early committed to teaching 16.2 Committed to teaching for a life 16.3 Committed temporarily to teaching

PTs’ beliefs about teacher’s roles

Appendix B. Sample interview questions 1. Please tell me a little bit about yourself and your career plans. 2. I’m principally interested in this study, as you know, in exploring students’ motivation and beliefs about teaching. Please tell me, in your case, what particular factors have influenced your decision to become a teacher? How did you come to this choice? 3. Thinking back to your school years, how would you describe your K-12 school experience? (Probe: your experience as a student, the schooling style, and school atmosphere) 4. How do you see yourself as a teacher? 5. How would you describe your instructional style as a future teacher and your philosophy of teaching? 6. What is quality teaching in your opinion and how would you describe an effective teacher? 7. When thinking of you as a teacher, what kind of emotions (feelings) you associate with this experience? 8. In general, what do you think about the teaching profession? 9. What advantages and disadvantages do you think the teaching career has? 10. How do you see yourself and your life, ten years from now? References Abangma, M. A. (1981). A study of primary teachers’ attitudes toward ruralisation of school curriculum in English speaking Cameroon. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of London, UK.

PTs perceptions of quality teaching and the effective teachers How teaching profession is perceived by the PTs (positive perception)

How teaching is perceived by the PTs (negative perception)

Disadvantages of being a teacher, such as students’ misbehavior and discipline problems in class; unfavorable public perception of teachers, low salary, lack of power

Advantages of teaching (either perceived as internal or external motivation or perception of teaching profession). PTs’ self-perceptions (personal and professional characteristics)

PTs’ perception of themselves as teachers (their teaching style)

Perception of their commitment to the teaching career

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