- Email: [email protected]
Acquisition of interpersonal communication skills: A research-based approach
Telematics and Informtics,
Vol. 14,No. 3, pp. 209-218, 1997 0 1997ElsevierScienceLtd All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0736-5853/97$17.00+0.00
Pergamon PII: sw36-5853(97)oooo5-1
ACOLllClTl~N --VW-.t...-.w
nF _.
COMMUNICATION
INTFRPFRQnNdl . . . . I... ~..i~..~~
SKILLS:
A RESEARCH-BASED
APPROACH
KarenL. Medsker John P. Fry Abstract - Today’s work environment requires increasing competence in interpersonal communication skills. Behavior modeling is the most effective training method for acquisition of these skills. This paper describes the beha_.:___-___-L and s-ummarizes researcn on the effectiveness of vior --1_,:-_ moueung approacn behavior modeling training and its impact on organizational performance. Recent enhancements to behavior modeling are also reviewed. Behavior modeling’s effectiveness lies in its application of sound, research-based learning principles. Behavior modeling combines instructional principles from behavioral learning theory, cognitive information processing theory, and social learning theory. It is also consistent with Hague’s electric model of learning and instruction in that it incorporates critical conditions for human learning. Advice is offered for acquiring or developing behavior modeling training. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
most significant
Recent surveys and widespread
(e.g. Filipczak, 1994) often indicate that among the training needs is the need to improve interpersonal
communication skills. This result is not surprising, because most work responsibilities today, whether technical, administrative, or managerial, require significant and even extensive interaction with others. While interpersonal skills have always been critical to the performance of managers and supervisors, recent trends in the work environment have extended the importance of these skills to virtually everyone. Flattening organizational structures and the movement toward working in teams and self-directed work groups mean that every worker needs the skills to influence others. People now tend to fill 1111hrr\orlnr “I “QUbI “ro!es”
;” 111tha;* CllCll -mn”;-#n+;n”o “1 ~;alllfiLa.n”llJ, *nth,.w 14Lllbl thnr, c11411~~,a,.:&q.Jbuub, _n__,-..., IICaII”W “‘job” fdncp;Gns.
These new roles require them to perform a wider variety of tasks and interact with more people in a variety of contexts. The need for people to communicate with each other in the workplace, especially cross-culturally, is magnified by the increasing globalization of business interests and by the growing ethnic, cultural, and gender diversity within today’s workforce.
Both authors are members of the Human Resources Department, Marymount University, 2807 N. Glebe Road, Arlington, VA 22207; Tel: (703) 284-5959or 5962.
209
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Karen L. Medsker and John P. Fry
Interpersonal communication skills are especially needed in technical environments where employers want more than just technically-qualified employees. Increasingly, “soft skills”, the ability to deal with people, are required. For example, to meet stiffer competition, managers now expect their highly-paid, highly-educated technical employees to interact with each other, with members of the marketing department, and with customers. Technical supervisors and managers may have heard about participative management concepts such as “empowerment” and “managing by walking around”, but they do not know how to operationalize them. Even if they do know how, they still may not feel confident enough to risk trying such new behaviors with their employees.
WHAT ARE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
SKILLS?
Interpersonal communication skills, as defined in this paper, include both verbal and nonverbal means of communicating with other people. Such skills may be used in faceto-face situations or at a distance, using technology. Common examples of interpersonal communication skills include the following: negotiating, giving feedback (positive and negative), conducting an interview, facilitating a meeting, giving a presentation, handling a customer complaint, eliciting knowledge from an expert, giving or receiving a work assignment, and soliciting customer requirements, Compared with face-to-face communication, communication via telecommunications media (e.g. telephone, computer conferencing, and e-mail) also require strong, though sometimes different, interpersonal communication skills. In some instances, additional skills are made necessary by the absence of body language. For example, leading or participating in a meeting by voice-only teleconference may relax the need for correct posture and eye contact, but may also require people to use more precise language to describe their ideas. Certain modes of expression may be more acceptable in the “e-mail culture”, so participants may need to learn a new set of norms for this style of communication. Nevertheless, the basic principles of interpersonal communication, and the wavs --, in ~~~which they may be effectively learned, remain relatively constant.
BEHAVIOR MODELING TRAINING: METHOD AND THEORY
The purpose of this article is to describe behavior modeling, the most effective, robust method currently known for training people in interpersonal communication skills, and explore the theoretical foundations of learning theory which explain why behavior modeling is so effective. Although behavior modeling has been widely used in training for over twenty years, many organizations are not yet aware of its benefits. First we explain the key attributes of the behavior modeling approach, including recent developments, and cite research on its effectiveness. Then we show how instructional principles from three different theoretical perspectives are used together in the behavior modeling approach. Finally, we recommend ways to acquire or develop training programs based on the behavior modeling approach. WHAT IS BEHAVIOR MODELING?
Until the early 197Os, managers were trained exclusively by lecture methods. Research results showed little evidence that such traditional, theory- and knowledge-
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based courses were effective in changing on-the-job “soft skill” behavior (Goldstein & Sorcher, 1974). Where “how to” behavior was stressed, the focus typically was on general behavior in general situations, rather than on specific behavior in specific situations, or on inappropriate behavior. As a result, when most manager-trainees returned to work, they were unable to respond appropriately to leadership/management problem situations: first, because they couldn’t remember or didn’t know which behaviors were appropriate, and second, because they had received little feedback and no reinforcement for using appropriate behaviors. In other words, the burden of translating theory into practice, or transferring new behavior to the job, was placed on the trainee. Obviously, only highly motivated and determined individuals could manage such transfer tasks; the effort was too overwhelming for the average manager. Typically only 20% of the graduates of such training used, on the job, only 20% of what they were supposed to learn and apply. To correct such situations, some training approaches began to emphasize the active participation of trainees. However, almost all of this training used unstructured role playing or abstract exercises to elicit participants’ usual behaviors and then expected that discussion of these typical behaviors would give trainees sufficient insight into their own management styles to cause them to change their behavior. Only rarely were appropriate behaviors modeled or demonstrated for use in specific problem situations. In contrast, behavior modeling-based training methods have proved to be markedly effective in changing behavior on the job. Research results show that 80% of the graduates of such training use, on the job, roughly 80% of what they are supposed to learn and apply (Fry & Clibom, 1975). Robinson (1982) provides extensive guidelines for developing and implementing behavior modeling training for interpersonal communication skills. Below are the key attributes of the basic behavior modeling approach: l
l
l
l
l
Prior to training design, critical incident interviews and/or observation methods are used to elicit the effective behaviors of highly competent performers in handling a class of interpersonal situations. These behaviors are summarized as “critical steps” and are used as a basis for training design and development. In the training session itself, the critical steps are introduced. For example, six critical steps might be prescribed for handling the complaint of an angry customer. This part of the lesson serves as an overview of the lesson content, establishes the lesson objectives, and sets up expectations among the learners for what they will learn to do. Learners then view a videotaped demonstration of the critical steps in action, modeled by a competent performer. The model in the video possesses admirable qualities and so represents someone the learners want to emulate. Since the target skills displayed by the human model are specific and produce positive results (e.g. the angry customer is satisfied), participants know precisely what they are to learn to do and why. The class discusses what the model did to apply the critical steps and how the steps were applied to get good results. Learners then participate in a series of skill practices, or highly structured role plays designed to elicit application of the critical steps. The instructor and/or other participants coach the role players prior to the enactment of the scenario to plan how each critical step will be handled and to anticipate foreseeable contingencies. Typically, several skill practices of increasing difficulty are used to simulate real-world conditions.
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During the actual skill practice, the instructor and other participants take detailed notes on what is done at each critical step. Specific behaviors and dialog are noted on worksheets. After the skill practice, the instructor and other participants provide detailed feedback to the “players”. Feedback follows strict guidelines - it must be specific and positive. If constructive feedback is needed (i.e. the role player could have done better), alternative positive behaviors (APBs) are offered rather than criticisms. This social reinforcement provides an additional powerful incentive to change behavior.
Throughout the behavior modeling training session, all participants are reminded to apply three key principles that underlie the effectiveness of all interpersonal communication skills. These three key principles are: 1. Maintain and enhance self-esteem. 2. Listen and respond with empathy. 3. Ask for help in solving the problem. RESEARCH ON BEHAVIOR MODELING
Through several controlled research studies in the early 197Os, behavior modeling was shown to be highly effective. During that decade, when many women and minorities entered the US workforce, companies were concerned that supervisors would be able to meet the heightened demand for effective interpersonal skills. For example, at General Electric, both employees and supervisors were trained, using behavior modeling, to give and receive constructive criticism, ask for and give help, and other similar skills. As a result, the company reduced turnover as well as associated recruitment and selection costs. In a similar controlled study, AT&T trained supervisors to handle sensitive situations such as performance appraisal, improving work performance, race and sex discrimination cases, and resistance to supervision. Behavior modeling was so far superior as a training method that the company used it to train tens of thousands of Bell System supervisors over the next several years. IBM also experimented successfully with behavior modeling in its early days, training managers to motivate their people and improve morale. This venture successfully improved employee satisfaction by lo%, and IBM then expanded behavior modeling training to other communication skill areas, such as customer service and sales. Robinson (1982) describes the research design and results of several controlled studies such as these that were conducted by major companies during the 197Os, all of which resulted in impressive learning gains, behavior change on the job, and improved organizational results due to behavior modeling training (Burnaska, 1976; Byham & Robinson, 1976; Goldstein & Sorcher, 1974; Moses & Ritchie, 1976; Smith, 1976). RECENT ENHANCEMENTS TO BEHAVIOR MODELING
Pescuric and Byham (1996) review changes in the workplace that have occurred since behavior modeling first became popular and discuss how these changes have brought about variations and enhancements to the behavior modeling approach. The authors point out that, because more people than ever require interpersonal communication skills to perform effectively in their broader roles, a greater range of such skills needs to be taught in most organizations. Thus, while the need for behavior
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modeling training has increased in recent years, several technical improvements have been made. One important change has been the trend toward self-directed learning and the reluctance of employees to sit through lengthy, formal training classes. People sometimes prefer to take training in their own time, at a place of their own choice, and at their own pace. Fortunately, new learning technologies facilitate such flexibility. Computer-based training, enhanced by videodisc and CD-ROM technologies, enable the content presentation and video models to be presented outside a traditional classroom, even at home or anywhere a laptop computer can go. While live classroom interaction is still the best way to conduct skill practice, interactive training technologies are coming closer to being able to simulate interpersonal communication in virtual environments. At present, though, classroom time can be shortened by delivering the content and model portions of the training through self-study methods or distance learning, and bringing trainees together just for skill practice and feedback. Another trend has been the influence of advances in learning theory. For example, because we know that, although a “big picture” of a total skill is important, learners often need presentation and practice of smaller “chunks” of content before putting the chunks together in a total skill practice. Recent versions of behavior modeling modules, then, often present the content incrementally and enable learners to drill on specific skill components until they are mastered, before practicing the whole list of critical steps in one skill practice session. Another variation is to have learners read and prepare a case study (plan what should be done to apply the critical steps to the case) before seeing the video model. This technique has the advantage not only of earlier learner involvement, but it also allows greater cognitive processing of the case before seeing one possible “solution”. Yet another recent enhancement is to use self-assessment surveys and 360-degree feedback (from peers, supervisors, and subordinates) to diagnose interpersonal communication skill needs prior to entering training. This step allows greater individualization of the training, and it improves motivation because it encourages self-direction. WHY BEHAVIOR MODELING WORKS
Why is behavior modeling so effective? The reasons lie in theory- and research-based principles of learning and instruction, drawn from behavioral, cognitive, and social learning theoretical perspectives. Rather than relying on a single theory base, behavior modeling combines research-based principles and instructional design techniques from each approach. Behavioral learning theory
Skinner (1968, 1969) formulated learning principles, based on his experimentation primarily with animal subjects, to account for the establishment, strengthening, and weakening of operant behaviors (behaviors that “operate” on the environment). We know from the work of Skinner and other behavioral psychologists that responses that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be repeated in the future and that complex behaviors can be gradually “shaped” through the use of positive reinforcement. We also know that behaviors tend to “extinguish” (die out) if ignored and that behaviors can be “generalized” or applied to similar but different situations under the correct learning conditions. Behavioral learning theory or “reinforcement theory” has produced important principles that work when applied to training, and some of these are applied in the behavior modeling approach. Behaviorism, however, is limited because it
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looks only at observable behavior and not the internal (mental) processing that occurs during an act of learning. Cognitive learning theory, which has gained prominence since the 197Os, addresses these internal conditions and events that occur during the learning process. Cognitive (information processing) learning theory
Because they look specifically at the internal processes of learning, cognitive theories of learning (e.g. Anderson, 1995; Clark, 1992) reflect a distinct break with behaviorism. Cognitive information processing theory, in fact, proposes an elaborate set of internal functions and structures to account for the events of learning, memory, and performance; specifically that information is transformed several times in the brain, analogous to how a computer processes information. For example, information is registered when it enters the brain, temporarily stored and processed in working memory, and encoded for storage in long-term memory. When the information is needed again, a search and retrieval process is implemented, and the information may be reorganized in working memory to generate a response. The primary implication of cognitive information processing theory for training is that the “events” of the learning process should be supported by specific conditions that facilitate learning. For example, prerequisite knowledge should be recalled from long-term memory just before new knowledge is presented so that the new knowledge can be organized appropriately into the learner’s cognitive structure. Social learning theory
Social learning theory and the associated learning approach of human modeling has been extensively studied by Bandura and his associates (Bandura, 1971, 1977, 1986). The central finding of this research is that people learn through imitation of other people and through social reinforcement of these imitative behaviors. Just as children are socialized through imitating family members and being rewarded for appropriate behaviors, adults also imitate admired human models and tend to repeat behaviors that are rewarded by others. AN ECLECTIC
MODEL OF LEARNING
AND INSTRUCTION
A well-accepted approach to training design, based on research evidence gathered over many years from all three of the theoretical perspectives described above, is to identify the generic type(s) of learning outcome (behavior) desired and to tailor the internal conditions (inside the learner’s head) conditions and external conditions (in the learning environment) to facilitate effective and efficient learning of that outcome (Gagne, 1970, 1985; GagnC & Medsker, 1996). A taxonomy of learning outcomes proposed by Gag& includes five major categories: intellectual skills, verbal information, attitudes, motor skills, and cognitive strategies. These five generic types of learning outcomes are described, and examples given, in Table 1. The five types cut across subject matter areas and are believed to be comprehensive of all human learning. While some learning principles apply to all five types, particular conditions are uniquely required for specific types of learning. Interpersonal communication skills, as defined in this paper, consist primarily of intellectual skills and attitudes, managed, of course, by cognitive strategies. Therefore, to design or select training for interpersonal communication skills, one must be aware
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communication
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Table 1. Gagnes types of learning outcomes with examples Types of learning outcomes Verbal information l Is also called “declarative knowledge” l Involves recall or “knowing that” l Enables learner to state, list, or describe l Includes facts, names or labels, and organized bodies of knowledge Intellectual skills l Are also called “procedural knowledge” l Involve transfer or “knowing how” l Are hierarchically related l
Sample behaviors
l
l
l
l l l
Identify software packages that support expert system development State the names of major figures in the history of information systems Describe functional requirements for Project XYZ
Write a program using C++ Design software using structured methods Classify examples and nonexamples of graphical user interfaces
Include drscriminations, concepts, rules, and problem solving skills
Motor skills l Physical movements that are executed with accuracy, smoothness, and timing l May involve hand-eye coordination Attitudes l Internal states that influence personal action choices l Learner demonstrates action choices based on beliefs and feelings Cognitive strategies l Are also called “strategic knowledge” l Enable people to manage their own thinkrng and learning l Operate at the level of executive control
l l l
l
l
l
l l
Operate a mouse Keyboard at a certain rate Insert a diskette into a drsk drive
Choose to employ rapid prototypmg to speed up a project Choose to develop user-friendly software interfaces
Develop a unrque project plan for a software development project Invent a new type of intelligent computer system Try an alternative approach to solvrng a difficult programming problem
of the internal and external conditions that have been shown to be necessary and appropriate for intellectual skills and attitudes. Intellectual skills
Intellectual skills, also known among cognitive psychologists as procedural knowledge, can be characterized as “knowing how”. Skills such as problem solving, designing, writing and composing, and diagnosing are largely composed of intellectual skills. A central (and quite valuable) attribute of intellectual skills is that, once learned, they can be generalized (transferred) to a variety of novel situations (i.e. situations previously unencountered by the performer). For example, a person who learns the rule “paraphrase what the other person is saying and get confirmation before formulating a response” can apply this rule in a meeting with the boss, in a job interview, or in an intense discussion with an angry customer, even if he or she has never been in the exact situation before. To maximize learning effectiveness, opportunities to apply the rule in a variety of situations should be provided during training, both as examples or demonstrations by an instructor or expert, and as practice opportunities for the learner. Another critical attribute of intellectual skills is that they are hierarchically related. A higher-order rule is made up of simpler rules, and these rules in turn are made up of concepts that must be learned. Concepts require previously learned capabilities of discrimination. (See Fig. 1 for an example of a learning hierarchy for interpersonal
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Elicit Relevant Work Experience
Elicit Relevant Skills & Characteristics
Elicit Career Interests & Goals
Figure 1. Sample learning hierarchy for interpersonal communication skills.
communication skills.) Since skills in such a hierarchy can only be learned from the bottom up, i.e. higher skills cannot be learned before lower skills are mastered, learning sequence is critical to the design of training programs, and mastery of prerequisite skills must be ensured before learning of higher level skills is attempted. Attitudes
An attitude is an internal state that influences (but does not always determine) an individual’s choices of personal action. Attitudes have long been described as having three components: belief (cognitive component), emotion (affective component), and behavior (propensity for action). In a work setting, the behavior component is usually the one of greatest concern, because it is observable and affects job performance. When we state a desired learning outcome for an attitude, then, we often say the learner will “choose” to act in a particular way. For example, we expect a team leader to choose to adhere to the meeting agenda or ground rules. We hope the team members will choose to share the floor rather than dominating discussion. Several conditions have been shown to be effective for facilitating attitude learning. First, the performer must be capable of exhibiting the behavior. If a person lacks the ability to ski, he or she is unlikely to choose skiing as a leisure activity. Likewise, a manager is not likely to choose to give positive feedback to workers for a job well done if he or she does not know how to give positive feedback. The training designer, then, should ensure that prerequisite skills and knowledge have been achieved before expecting a corresponding attitude to be demonstrated. Another possible precondition for attitude learning, particularly for attitude change, is cognitive dissonance. That is, the individual must feel some discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or information. An
Acquisition of interpersonal communication skills
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effective training technique can be to purposefully introduce cognitive dissonance (e.g. presenting a troubling dilemma) to evoke learner motivation to shift the belief portion of their attitude. External conditions that support attitude learning include direct reinforcement, either tangible or psychological/social rewards following demonstration of the behavior, and vicarious reinforcement (observing that others are rewarded for the behavior). These conditions require identification of what each learner finds rewarding, which may differ from person to person. Perhaps the most important external condition for attitude learning, however, is an admired human model. When an admired person, whether celebrity, company CEO, or respected expert exhibits a personal action choice based on an attitude, the “admirer” is likely to follow suit. In many cases, the admired model is more effective if he or she has characteristics similar to those of the intended learner so that the imitation seems more feasible. Cognitive strategies
Less is known about how people learn cognitive strategies, but evidence supports the notion that learning is supported by many opportunities to practice given strategies in novel problem solving situations and to discover strategies that work best for the individual performer. THE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING IN BEHAVIOR MODELING
Table 2 lists the major conditions of learning, based on the eclectic model just described, that are necessary for learning interpersonal communication skills. Next to each condition is an explanation of how behavior modeling provides each condition. In summary, these conditions explain why behavior modeling is so successful as a training method for interpersonal communication skills. ACQUISITION
ISSUES
For those interested in acquiring interpersonal communication skills, there are many training programs offered in the marketplace. The discussion above presents a brief description of what one should look for when considering the purchase of “soft-skill” Table2. The conditions of learning and behavior modeling Conditions required for learning interpersonal communication skills Intellectual skills l Demonstration of skill l Mastery of prerequisites l Variety of practice Attitudes l Mastery of skill prerequisites l Cognitive dissonance l Vicarious reinforcement l Direct reinforcement Cognitive strategres l Explanation of strategy l Multiple practice opportunities with novel problems
Features of behavior modeling that supply required conditions
l l l
l l l l
l l
Video model Mastery of key principles; sequencing of course modules Several skill practices of varying difficulty and context
Practice on each skill component or critical step Lesson introduction: why skill is important See model in video being reinforced Positive feedback after skill practice
Discussion of video model; coaching before skill practice Variety of skill practice opportunities -
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Karen L. Medsker and John P. Fry
training. The consumer of available programs should now be able to distinguish between programs that may appear to be behavior modeling training and those that truly incorporate the critical conditions of learning. Many training programs on the market do not employ systematic use of the principles and techniques that have been discussed in this paper. For example, instead of showing a video model that demonstrates, from the beginning, the correct way to handle an interpersonal communication scenario, 80% of the video will show a manger performing incorrectly. Because of the humor associated with the results (not unlike Dilbert cartoons), trainees laugh, have a good time, and give the course and instructor a high rating. However, without total attention on correct performance and repeated practice and feedback, trainees will neither be competent nor confident enough to risk using their new skills on the job. Among vendors that offer well-designed behavior modeling-based training are Development Dimensions International, McGraw-Hill, and Zenger-Miller. Organizations interested in developing their own behavior modeling training programs should employ a skilled instructional design professional who is familiar with the principles described in this paper. Other than Marymount University, we are not aware of any universities that specifically teach designers how to design behavior modeling training programs. REFERENCES Anderson, J. R. (1995). Learning and memory: an integrated approach. New York: Wiley. Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling. New York: Lieber-Atherton. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Socialfoundations of thought and action. A social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bumaska, R. F. (1976). The effects of modeling training upon managers’ behaviors and employees’ perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 329-335. Byham, W. C., St Robinson, J. C. (1976). Interaction modeling: a new concept in supervisory training. Training and Development Journal, 30(2), 2Q-23.
Clark, R. E. (1992). How the cognitive sciences are shaping the profession. In H. D. Stolovitch & E. J. Keeps (Eds.), Handbook of human performance technology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Filipczak, B. (1994, October). Industry report: looking past the numbers. Training, 67-74. Fry, J. P., & Cliborn, R. E. (1975). Development, implementation and evaluation of leadership/management training within army battalions. Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization. Gag&, R. M. (1970). The conditions of learning (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagne, R. M., & Medsker, K. L. (1996). The conditions of learning: training applications. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Goldstein, A., & Sorcher, M. (1974). Changing supervisor behavior. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Moses, J. L., & Ritchie, R. J. (1976). Supervisory relationships training: a behavioral evaluation of a behavior modeling program. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 337-343. Pescuric, A., 8c Byham, W. C. (1996, July). The new look of behavior modeling. Training & Development, 25 33.
Robinson, J. C. (1982). Developing managers through behavior modeling. Austin, TX Learning Concepts. Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of reaching. New York: Appleton. Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcemenr; a theorerical analysis. New York: Appleton. Smith, P. E. (1976). Management modeling training to improve morale and customer satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 351-359.
Vol. 14,No. 3, pp. 209-218, 1997 0 1997ElsevierScienceLtd All rights reserved. Printed in Great Britain 0736-5853/97$17.00+0.00
Pergamon PII: sw36-5853(97)oooo5-1
ACOLllClTl~N --VW-.t...-.w
nF _.
COMMUNICATION
INTFRPFRQnNdl . . . . I... ~..i~..~~
SKILLS:
A RESEARCH-BASED
APPROACH
KarenL. Medsker John P. Fry Abstract - Today’s work environment requires increasing competence in interpersonal communication skills. Behavior modeling is the most effective training method for acquisition of these skills. This paper describes the beha_.:___-___-L and s-ummarizes researcn on the effectiveness of vior --1_,:-_ moueung approacn behavior modeling training and its impact on organizational performance. Recent enhancements to behavior modeling are also reviewed. Behavior modeling’s effectiveness lies in its application of sound, research-based learning principles. Behavior modeling combines instructional principles from behavioral learning theory, cognitive information processing theory, and social learning theory. It is also consistent with Hague’s electric model of learning and instruction in that it incorporates critical conditions for human learning. Advice is offered for acquiring or developing behavior modeling training. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
most significant
Recent surveys and widespread
(e.g. Filipczak, 1994) often indicate that among the training needs is the need to improve interpersonal
communication skills. This result is not surprising, because most work responsibilities today, whether technical, administrative, or managerial, require significant and even extensive interaction with others. While interpersonal skills have always been critical to the performance of managers and supervisors, recent trends in the work environment have extended the importance of these skills to virtually everyone. Flattening organizational structures and the movement toward working in teams and self-directed work groups mean that every worker needs the skills to influence others. People now tend to fill 1111hrr\orlnr “I “QUbI “ro!es”
;” 111tha;* CllCll -mn”;-#n+;n”o “1 ~;alllfiLa.n”llJ, *nth,.w 14Lllbl thnr, c11411~~,a,.:&q.Jbuub, _n__,-..., IICaII”W “‘job” fdncp;Gns.
These new roles require them to perform a wider variety of tasks and interact with more people in a variety of contexts. The need for people to communicate with each other in the workplace, especially cross-culturally, is magnified by the increasing globalization of business interests and by the growing ethnic, cultural, and gender diversity within today’s workforce.
Both authors are members of the Human Resources Department, Marymount University, 2807 N. Glebe Road, Arlington, VA 22207; Tel: (703) 284-5959or 5962.
209
210
Karen L. Medsker and John P. Fry
Interpersonal communication skills are especially needed in technical environments where employers want more than just technically-qualified employees. Increasingly, “soft skills”, the ability to deal with people, are required. For example, to meet stiffer competition, managers now expect their highly-paid, highly-educated technical employees to interact with each other, with members of the marketing department, and with customers. Technical supervisors and managers may have heard about participative management concepts such as “empowerment” and “managing by walking around”, but they do not know how to operationalize them. Even if they do know how, they still may not feel confident enough to risk trying such new behaviors with their employees.
WHAT ARE INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
SKILLS?
Interpersonal communication skills, as defined in this paper, include both verbal and nonverbal means of communicating with other people. Such skills may be used in faceto-face situations or at a distance, using technology. Common examples of interpersonal communication skills include the following: negotiating, giving feedback (positive and negative), conducting an interview, facilitating a meeting, giving a presentation, handling a customer complaint, eliciting knowledge from an expert, giving or receiving a work assignment, and soliciting customer requirements, Compared with face-to-face communication, communication via telecommunications media (e.g. telephone, computer conferencing, and e-mail) also require strong, though sometimes different, interpersonal communication skills. In some instances, additional skills are made necessary by the absence of body language. For example, leading or participating in a meeting by voice-only teleconference may relax the need for correct posture and eye contact, but may also require people to use more precise language to describe their ideas. Certain modes of expression may be more acceptable in the “e-mail culture”, so participants may need to learn a new set of norms for this style of communication. Nevertheless, the basic principles of interpersonal communication, and the wavs --, in ~~~which they may be effectively learned, remain relatively constant.
BEHAVIOR MODELING TRAINING: METHOD AND THEORY
The purpose of this article is to describe behavior modeling, the most effective, robust method currently known for training people in interpersonal communication skills, and explore the theoretical foundations of learning theory which explain why behavior modeling is so effective. Although behavior modeling has been widely used in training for over twenty years, many organizations are not yet aware of its benefits. First we explain the key attributes of the behavior modeling approach, including recent developments, and cite research on its effectiveness. Then we show how instructional principles from three different theoretical perspectives are used together in the behavior modeling approach. Finally, we recommend ways to acquire or develop training programs based on the behavior modeling approach. WHAT IS BEHAVIOR MODELING?
Until the early 197Os, managers were trained exclusively by lecture methods. Research results showed little evidence that such traditional, theory- and knowledge-
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based courses were effective in changing on-the-job “soft skill” behavior (Goldstein & Sorcher, 1974). Where “how to” behavior was stressed, the focus typically was on general behavior in general situations, rather than on specific behavior in specific situations, or on inappropriate behavior. As a result, when most manager-trainees returned to work, they were unable to respond appropriately to leadership/management problem situations: first, because they couldn’t remember or didn’t know which behaviors were appropriate, and second, because they had received little feedback and no reinforcement for using appropriate behaviors. In other words, the burden of translating theory into practice, or transferring new behavior to the job, was placed on the trainee. Obviously, only highly motivated and determined individuals could manage such transfer tasks; the effort was too overwhelming for the average manager. Typically only 20% of the graduates of such training used, on the job, only 20% of what they were supposed to learn and apply. To correct such situations, some training approaches began to emphasize the active participation of trainees. However, almost all of this training used unstructured role playing or abstract exercises to elicit participants’ usual behaviors and then expected that discussion of these typical behaviors would give trainees sufficient insight into their own management styles to cause them to change their behavior. Only rarely were appropriate behaviors modeled or demonstrated for use in specific problem situations. In contrast, behavior modeling-based training methods have proved to be markedly effective in changing behavior on the job. Research results show that 80% of the graduates of such training use, on the job, roughly 80% of what they are supposed to learn and apply (Fry & Clibom, 1975). Robinson (1982) provides extensive guidelines for developing and implementing behavior modeling training for interpersonal communication skills. Below are the key attributes of the basic behavior modeling approach: l
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Prior to training design, critical incident interviews and/or observation methods are used to elicit the effective behaviors of highly competent performers in handling a class of interpersonal situations. These behaviors are summarized as “critical steps” and are used as a basis for training design and development. In the training session itself, the critical steps are introduced. For example, six critical steps might be prescribed for handling the complaint of an angry customer. This part of the lesson serves as an overview of the lesson content, establishes the lesson objectives, and sets up expectations among the learners for what they will learn to do. Learners then view a videotaped demonstration of the critical steps in action, modeled by a competent performer. The model in the video possesses admirable qualities and so represents someone the learners want to emulate. Since the target skills displayed by the human model are specific and produce positive results (e.g. the angry customer is satisfied), participants know precisely what they are to learn to do and why. The class discusses what the model did to apply the critical steps and how the steps were applied to get good results. Learners then participate in a series of skill practices, or highly structured role plays designed to elicit application of the critical steps. The instructor and/or other participants coach the role players prior to the enactment of the scenario to plan how each critical step will be handled and to anticipate foreseeable contingencies. Typically, several skill practices of increasing difficulty are used to simulate real-world conditions.
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During the actual skill practice, the instructor and other participants take detailed notes on what is done at each critical step. Specific behaviors and dialog are noted on worksheets. After the skill practice, the instructor and other participants provide detailed feedback to the “players”. Feedback follows strict guidelines - it must be specific and positive. If constructive feedback is needed (i.e. the role player could have done better), alternative positive behaviors (APBs) are offered rather than criticisms. This social reinforcement provides an additional powerful incentive to change behavior.
Throughout the behavior modeling training session, all participants are reminded to apply three key principles that underlie the effectiveness of all interpersonal communication skills. These three key principles are: 1. Maintain and enhance self-esteem. 2. Listen and respond with empathy. 3. Ask for help in solving the problem. RESEARCH ON BEHAVIOR MODELING
Through several controlled research studies in the early 197Os, behavior modeling was shown to be highly effective. During that decade, when many women and minorities entered the US workforce, companies were concerned that supervisors would be able to meet the heightened demand for effective interpersonal skills. For example, at General Electric, both employees and supervisors were trained, using behavior modeling, to give and receive constructive criticism, ask for and give help, and other similar skills. As a result, the company reduced turnover as well as associated recruitment and selection costs. In a similar controlled study, AT&T trained supervisors to handle sensitive situations such as performance appraisal, improving work performance, race and sex discrimination cases, and resistance to supervision. Behavior modeling was so far superior as a training method that the company used it to train tens of thousands of Bell System supervisors over the next several years. IBM also experimented successfully with behavior modeling in its early days, training managers to motivate their people and improve morale. This venture successfully improved employee satisfaction by lo%, and IBM then expanded behavior modeling training to other communication skill areas, such as customer service and sales. Robinson (1982) describes the research design and results of several controlled studies such as these that were conducted by major companies during the 197Os, all of which resulted in impressive learning gains, behavior change on the job, and improved organizational results due to behavior modeling training (Burnaska, 1976; Byham & Robinson, 1976; Goldstein & Sorcher, 1974; Moses & Ritchie, 1976; Smith, 1976). RECENT ENHANCEMENTS TO BEHAVIOR MODELING
Pescuric and Byham (1996) review changes in the workplace that have occurred since behavior modeling first became popular and discuss how these changes have brought about variations and enhancements to the behavior modeling approach. The authors point out that, because more people than ever require interpersonal communication skills to perform effectively in their broader roles, a greater range of such skills needs to be taught in most organizations. Thus, while the need for behavior
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modeling training has increased in recent years, several technical improvements have been made. One important change has been the trend toward self-directed learning and the reluctance of employees to sit through lengthy, formal training classes. People sometimes prefer to take training in their own time, at a place of their own choice, and at their own pace. Fortunately, new learning technologies facilitate such flexibility. Computer-based training, enhanced by videodisc and CD-ROM technologies, enable the content presentation and video models to be presented outside a traditional classroom, even at home or anywhere a laptop computer can go. While live classroom interaction is still the best way to conduct skill practice, interactive training technologies are coming closer to being able to simulate interpersonal communication in virtual environments. At present, though, classroom time can be shortened by delivering the content and model portions of the training through self-study methods or distance learning, and bringing trainees together just for skill practice and feedback. Another trend has been the influence of advances in learning theory. For example, because we know that, although a “big picture” of a total skill is important, learners often need presentation and practice of smaller “chunks” of content before putting the chunks together in a total skill practice. Recent versions of behavior modeling modules, then, often present the content incrementally and enable learners to drill on specific skill components until they are mastered, before practicing the whole list of critical steps in one skill practice session. Another variation is to have learners read and prepare a case study (plan what should be done to apply the critical steps to the case) before seeing the video model. This technique has the advantage not only of earlier learner involvement, but it also allows greater cognitive processing of the case before seeing one possible “solution”. Yet another recent enhancement is to use self-assessment surveys and 360-degree feedback (from peers, supervisors, and subordinates) to diagnose interpersonal communication skill needs prior to entering training. This step allows greater individualization of the training, and it improves motivation because it encourages self-direction. WHY BEHAVIOR MODELING WORKS
Why is behavior modeling so effective? The reasons lie in theory- and research-based principles of learning and instruction, drawn from behavioral, cognitive, and social learning theoretical perspectives. Rather than relying on a single theory base, behavior modeling combines research-based principles and instructional design techniques from each approach. Behavioral learning theory
Skinner (1968, 1969) formulated learning principles, based on his experimentation primarily with animal subjects, to account for the establishment, strengthening, and weakening of operant behaviors (behaviors that “operate” on the environment). We know from the work of Skinner and other behavioral psychologists that responses that are reinforced (rewarded) are more likely to be repeated in the future and that complex behaviors can be gradually “shaped” through the use of positive reinforcement. We also know that behaviors tend to “extinguish” (die out) if ignored and that behaviors can be “generalized” or applied to similar but different situations under the correct learning conditions. Behavioral learning theory or “reinforcement theory” has produced important principles that work when applied to training, and some of these are applied in the behavior modeling approach. Behaviorism, however, is limited because it
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looks only at observable behavior and not the internal (mental) processing that occurs during an act of learning. Cognitive learning theory, which has gained prominence since the 197Os, addresses these internal conditions and events that occur during the learning process. Cognitive (information processing) learning theory
Because they look specifically at the internal processes of learning, cognitive theories of learning (e.g. Anderson, 1995; Clark, 1992) reflect a distinct break with behaviorism. Cognitive information processing theory, in fact, proposes an elaborate set of internal functions and structures to account for the events of learning, memory, and performance; specifically that information is transformed several times in the brain, analogous to how a computer processes information. For example, information is registered when it enters the brain, temporarily stored and processed in working memory, and encoded for storage in long-term memory. When the information is needed again, a search and retrieval process is implemented, and the information may be reorganized in working memory to generate a response. The primary implication of cognitive information processing theory for training is that the “events” of the learning process should be supported by specific conditions that facilitate learning. For example, prerequisite knowledge should be recalled from long-term memory just before new knowledge is presented so that the new knowledge can be organized appropriately into the learner’s cognitive structure. Social learning theory
Social learning theory and the associated learning approach of human modeling has been extensively studied by Bandura and his associates (Bandura, 1971, 1977, 1986). The central finding of this research is that people learn through imitation of other people and through social reinforcement of these imitative behaviors. Just as children are socialized through imitating family members and being rewarded for appropriate behaviors, adults also imitate admired human models and tend to repeat behaviors that are rewarded by others. AN ECLECTIC
MODEL OF LEARNING
AND INSTRUCTION
A well-accepted approach to training design, based on research evidence gathered over many years from all three of the theoretical perspectives described above, is to identify the generic type(s) of learning outcome (behavior) desired and to tailor the internal conditions (inside the learner’s head) conditions and external conditions (in the learning environment) to facilitate effective and efficient learning of that outcome (Gagne, 1970, 1985; GagnC & Medsker, 1996). A taxonomy of learning outcomes proposed by Gag& includes five major categories: intellectual skills, verbal information, attitudes, motor skills, and cognitive strategies. These five generic types of learning outcomes are described, and examples given, in Table 1. The five types cut across subject matter areas and are believed to be comprehensive of all human learning. While some learning principles apply to all five types, particular conditions are uniquely required for specific types of learning. Interpersonal communication skills, as defined in this paper, consist primarily of intellectual skills and attitudes, managed, of course, by cognitive strategies. Therefore, to design or select training for interpersonal communication skills, one must be aware
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Table 1. Gagnes types of learning outcomes with examples Types of learning outcomes Verbal information l Is also called “declarative knowledge” l Involves recall or “knowing that” l Enables learner to state, list, or describe l Includes facts, names or labels, and organized bodies of knowledge Intellectual skills l Are also called “procedural knowledge” l Involve transfer or “knowing how” l Are hierarchically related l
Sample behaviors
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Identify software packages that support expert system development State the names of major figures in the history of information systems Describe functional requirements for Project XYZ
Write a program using C++ Design software using structured methods Classify examples and nonexamples of graphical user interfaces
Include drscriminations, concepts, rules, and problem solving skills
Motor skills l Physical movements that are executed with accuracy, smoothness, and timing l May involve hand-eye coordination Attitudes l Internal states that influence personal action choices l Learner demonstrates action choices based on beliefs and feelings Cognitive strategies l Are also called “strategic knowledge” l Enable people to manage their own thinkrng and learning l Operate at the level of executive control
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Operate a mouse Keyboard at a certain rate Insert a diskette into a drsk drive
Choose to employ rapid prototypmg to speed up a project Choose to develop user-friendly software interfaces
Develop a unrque project plan for a software development project Invent a new type of intelligent computer system Try an alternative approach to solvrng a difficult programming problem
of the internal and external conditions that have been shown to be necessary and appropriate for intellectual skills and attitudes. Intellectual skills
Intellectual skills, also known among cognitive psychologists as procedural knowledge, can be characterized as “knowing how”. Skills such as problem solving, designing, writing and composing, and diagnosing are largely composed of intellectual skills. A central (and quite valuable) attribute of intellectual skills is that, once learned, they can be generalized (transferred) to a variety of novel situations (i.e. situations previously unencountered by the performer). For example, a person who learns the rule “paraphrase what the other person is saying and get confirmation before formulating a response” can apply this rule in a meeting with the boss, in a job interview, or in an intense discussion with an angry customer, even if he or she has never been in the exact situation before. To maximize learning effectiveness, opportunities to apply the rule in a variety of situations should be provided during training, both as examples or demonstrations by an instructor or expert, and as practice opportunities for the learner. Another critical attribute of intellectual skills is that they are hierarchically related. A higher-order rule is made up of simpler rules, and these rules in turn are made up of concepts that must be learned. Concepts require previously learned capabilities of discrimination. (See Fig. 1 for an example of a learning hierarchy for interpersonal
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Elicit Relevant Work Experience
Elicit Relevant Skills & Characteristics
Elicit Career Interests & Goals
Figure 1. Sample learning hierarchy for interpersonal communication skills.
communication skills.) Since skills in such a hierarchy can only be learned from the bottom up, i.e. higher skills cannot be learned before lower skills are mastered, learning sequence is critical to the design of training programs, and mastery of prerequisite skills must be ensured before learning of higher level skills is attempted. Attitudes
An attitude is an internal state that influences (but does not always determine) an individual’s choices of personal action. Attitudes have long been described as having three components: belief (cognitive component), emotion (affective component), and behavior (propensity for action). In a work setting, the behavior component is usually the one of greatest concern, because it is observable and affects job performance. When we state a desired learning outcome for an attitude, then, we often say the learner will “choose” to act in a particular way. For example, we expect a team leader to choose to adhere to the meeting agenda or ground rules. We hope the team members will choose to share the floor rather than dominating discussion. Several conditions have been shown to be effective for facilitating attitude learning. First, the performer must be capable of exhibiting the behavior. If a person lacks the ability to ski, he or she is unlikely to choose skiing as a leisure activity. Likewise, a manager is not likely to choose to give positive feedback to workers for a job well done if he or she does not know how to give positive feedback. The training designer, then, should ensure that prerequisite skills and knowledge have been achieved before expecting a corresponding attitude to be demonstrated. Another possible precondition for attitude learning, particularly for attitude change, is cognitive dissonance. That is, the individual must feel some discomfort due to conflicting beliefs or information. An
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effective training technique can be to purposefully introduce cognitive dissonance (e.g. presenting a troubling dilemma) to evoke learner motivation to shift the belief portion of their attitude. External conditions that support attitude learning include direct reinforcement, either tangible or psychological/social rewards following demonstration of the behavior, and vicarious reinforcement (observing that others are rewarded for the behavior). These conditions require identification of what each learner finds rewarding, which may differ from person to person. Perhaps the most important external condition for attitude learning, however, is an admired human model. When an admired person, whether celebrity, company CEO, or respected expert exhibits a personal action choice based on an attitude, the “admirer” is likely to follow suit. In many cases, the admired model is more effective if he or she has characteristics similar to those of the intended learner so that the imitation seems more feasible. Cognitive strategies
Less is known about how people learn cognitive strategies, but evidence supports the notion that learning is supported by many opportunities to practice given strategies in novel problem solving situations and to discover strategies that work best for the individual performer. THE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING IN BEHAVIOR MODELING
Table 2 lists the major conditions of learning, based on the eclectic model just described, that are necessary for learning interpersonal communication skills. Next to each condition is an explanation of how behavior modeling provides each condition. In summary, these conditions explain why behavior modeling is so successful as a training method for interpersonal communication skills. ACQUISITION
ISSUES
For those interested in acquiring interpersonal communication skills, there are many training programs offered in the marketplace. The discussion above presents a brief description of what one should look for when considering the purchase of “soft-skill” Table2. The conditions of learning and behavior modeling Conditions required for learning interpersonal communication skills Intellectual skills l Demonstration of skill l Mastery of prerequisites l Variety of practice Attitudes l Mastery of skill prerequisites l Cognitive dissonance l Vicarious reinforcement l Direct reinforcement Cognitive strategres l Explanation of strategy l Multiple practice opportunities with novel problems
Features of behavior modeling that supply required conditions
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l l l l
l l
Video model Mastery of key principles; sequencing of course modules Several skill practices of varying difficulty and context
Practice on each skill component or critical step Lesson introduction: why skill is important See model in video being reinforced Positive feedback after skill practice
Discussion of video model; coaching before skill practice Variety of skill practice opportunities -
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training. The consumer of available programs should now be able to distinguish between programs that may appear to be behavior modeling training and those that truly incorporate the critical conditions of learning. Many training programs on the market do not employ systematic use of the principles and techniques that have been discussed in this paper. For example, instead of showing a video model that demonstrates, from the beginning, the correct way to handle an interpersonal communication scenario, 80% of the video will show a manger performing incorrectly. Because of the humor associated with the results (not unlike Dilbert cartoons), trainees laugh, have a good time, and give the course and instructor a high rating. However, without total attention on correct performance and repeated practice and feedback, trainees will neither be competent nor confident enough to risk using their new skills on the job. Among vendors that offer well-designed behavior modeling-based training are Development Dimensions International, McGraw-Hill, and Zenger-Miller. Organizations interested in developing their own behavior modeling training programs should employ a skilled instructional design professional who is familiar with the principles described in this paper. Other than Marymount University, we are not aware of any universities that specifically teach designers how to design behavior modeling training programs. REFERENCES Anderson, J. R. (1995). Learning and memory: an integrated approach. New York: Wiley. Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling. New York: Lieber-Atherton. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Socialfoundations of thought and action. A social-cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bumaska, R. F. (1976). The effects of modeling training upon managers’ behaviors and employees’ perceptions. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 329-335. Byham, W. C., St Robinson, J. C. (1976). Interaction modeling: a new concept in supervisory training. Training and Development Journal, 30(2), 2Q-23.
Clark, R. E. (1992). How the cognitive sciences are shaping the profession. In H. D. Stolovitch & E. J. Keeps (Eds.), Handbook of human performance technology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Filipczak, B. (1994, October). Industry report: looking past the numbers. Training, 67-74. Fry, J. P., & Cliborn, R. E. (1975). Development, implementation and evaluation of leadership/management training within army battalions. Alexandria, VA: Human Resources Research Organization. Gag&, R. M. (1970). The conditions of learning (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Gagne, R. M., & Medsker, K. L. (1996). The conditions of learning: training applications. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace. Goldstein, A., & Sorcher, M. (1974). Changing supervisor behavior. Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press. Moses, J. L., & Ritchie, R. J. (1976). Supervisory relationships training: a behavioral evaluation of a behavior modeling program. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 337-343. Pescuric, A., 8c Byham, W. C. (1996, July). The new look of behavior modeling. Training & Development, 25 33.
Robinson, J. C. (1982). Developing managers through behavior modeling. Austin, TX Learning Concepts. Skinner, B. F. (1968). The technology of reaching. New York: Appleton. Skinner, B. F. (1969). Contingencies of reinforcemenr; a theorerical analysis. New York: Appleton. Smith, P. E. (1976). Management modeling training to improve morale and customer satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 29(3), 351-359.