- Email: [email protected]
Activism as a pathway to global citizenship
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The Social Science Journal journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soscij
Activism as a pathway to global citizenship夽 Stephen Reysen a,∗ , Justin Hackett b a b
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX 75429, USA California University of Pennsylvania, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 July 2015 Received in revised form 29 August 2016 Accepted 7 September 2016 Available online xxx Keywords: Activism Global citizen Normative environment Global awareness Identification
a b s t r a c t We examined the influence of prior work with activist issues on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Participants rated their engagement with activist issues and measures related to global citizenship identification antecedents and outcomes. The results showed that engagement with activist issues predicted global citizenship through the perceptions of one’s normative environment and global awareness. Activism also indirectly predicted prosocial values and behaviors related to global citizen identity through antecedents and global citizenship identification. The results highlight the prosocial outcomes of participation in activist movements. © 2016 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Global citizenship is defined as global awareness, caring, embracing cultural diversity, promoting social justice and sustainability, and a sense of responsibility to act (Reysen, Larey, & Katzarska-Miller, 2012). The notion of global citizenship has been widely discussed outside of psychology (e.g., Oxley & Morris, 2013; Reysen & KatzarskaMiller, 2013a; Schattle, 2008), however recent research within psychology has begun to explore the values related to a global citizenship identity (e.g., Jenkins, Reysen, & Katzarska-Miller, 2012; Katzarska-Miller, Reysen, Kamble, & Vithoji, 2012; Snider, Reysen, & Katzarska-Miller, 2013). Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) tested a model showing that the perception that one’s social network values and prescribes the identity (i.e., normative environment) and perception of one’s knowledge and interconnectedness with others in the world (i.e., global awareness) predict
夽 This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Reysen).
identification with global citizens. Following a social identity perspective (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987), identification with global citizens then predicts adherence to the group content (e.g., norms, values, behaviors). Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) found that global citizenship identification predicted six clusters of values, including intergroup empathy (felt connection to individuals outside one’s ingroup), valuing diversity (positive view of cultural diversity), social justice (endorsement of human rights and equality), environmental sustainability (concern for the natural environment), intergroup helping (desire to help others outside one’s ingroup), and a felt responsibility to act for the betterment of the world. In the present research we examine whether prior activist work influences Reysen and Katzarska-Miller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. The majority of research within social psychology has tended to focus on what predicts people joining social movements and engaging in collective action (van Zomeren, 2013). In the present research we will focus on outcomes of participation in activist movements, an area of research with little research (Thomas & Louis, 2013).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003 0362-3319/© 2016 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
2
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Schattle (2005) found in a series of interviews that activists began to think of themselves as global citizens through engagement in activist work. In other words, activism can represent an antecedent or pathway to viewing the self as a global citizen (Schattle, 2008). Programs such as international volunteering (Smith & Laurie, 2011), service learning (Battistoni, Longo, & Jayanandhan, 2009), and volunteer tourism (Lyons, Hanley, Wearing, & Neil, 2012) are suggested to engender a global citizen identity in participants. Indeed, recent research shows that study abroad and service learning activities influence students to take a more global perspective (Engberg, 2013). Aid organizations have also been found to promote a global citizen identity to engender a felt responsibility to help (Desforges, 2004; Desforges, Jones, & Woods, 2005). Furthermore, activists are perceived to be global citizens. For example, after an accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor, an activist group was formed by members of prior activist movements and described by the researchers as cosmopolitans (Cable, Walsh, & Warland, 1998). In research examining cross-movement networking of activists, Carroll and Ratner (1996) also drew upon the category term of cosmopolitans to describe activists participating in multiple social movements. These descriptions suggest that individuals with prior activist experiences display values much in line with those of global citizens. Thus, there are multiple lines of research and theory to suggest that engaging in activist work can lead to viewing the self as a global citizen. Engaging in activist behaviors may influence individuals’ degree of global citizenship identification through their normative environment and global awareness. One’s social network is an important predictor of whether one participates in a social movement (van Stekelenburg & Klandermans, 2013). The perception that one’s friends and family would be supportive of participation in an activist organization predicts intention to engage in collective action (Brunsting & Postmes, 2002; Fielding, McDonald, & Louis, 2008). At a macro level, research examining what factors predict membership in human rights organizations shows that individuals’ normative environment (i.e., countries that are connected to the larger global society) advances individuals’ awareness of social issues and increases the likelihood to join an international human rights movement (Tsutsui & Wotipka, 2004). In effect, prior research examining the country level and individual level environments in which people are embedded suggest that their environment (family, friends, country) impact whether they join and participate in social movements. Once engaged in an activist movement, individuals are likely to join other similar movements and create a normative environment that reflects global citizen values. Sherkat and Blocker (1997) compared values of individuals that participated in activist movements to those who did not. Prior activists (vs. non-activists) were found to hold more liberal political orientation and less traditional religious orientations. Both liberal political orientation and quest (less traditional) religious orientation are related to global citizenship identification (KatzarskaMiller, Barnsley, & Reysen, 2014). Activists are found to participate in multiple organizations and groups may work together for larger superordinate goals (see Bettencourt,
1996). Activist movements can create an environment that socializes individuals toward commitment to multiple issues beyond the initial issue for which the activist joined (see Bernstein, 2005). Furthermore, activist organizations engender ingroup identification and provide social support for like-minded individuals to sustain the group (Bettencourt, Dillmann, & Wollman, 1996). Indeed, research shows that identification with activists has long been recognized as a strong predictor of collective action behaviors (Hornsey et al., 2006). Beyond engendering identification with activists and widening the score of one’s activist concerns, participation in activist movements may also influence one’s global awareness. Activist organizations are increasingly taking a larger, more global, perspective (Smith, 2002). Thus, participation in such groups exposes individuals to issues happening in other areas of the world. For example, Bettencourt et al. (1996) surveyed members of a peace organization and found that the group sought to provide educational events to the community and members’ learning opportunities. The messages promoted by activist organizations often focus on fighting injustice (Carroll & Ratner, 1996; Klandermans, 2004). Social justice is also a part of the prototypical group content of a global citizen identity (Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013b). Furthermore, social movements highlight peoples’ interconnectedness with one another through messaging and a focus on the collective good (Klandermans, 2004). Together, prior research suggests that participation in activist movements raises individuals’ global awareness. The purpose of the present research is to examine the influence of prior activist work on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Building upon Schattle’s (2008) observation that activist work engenders a global citizen identity, participants reported their degree of engagement with activist issues and a measure of antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. We predict that greater activist engagement will predict greater global citizenship identification through participants’ perceived normative environment and global awareness. Activism is further predicted to indirectly influence prosocial values (e.g., social justice, intergroup empathy) through the antecedents and global citizenship identification. Lastly, we expect to replicate Reysen and Katzarska-Miller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. 2. Study 1 The purpose of Study 1 is to test a model of activism predicting antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Participants and procedure Participants (N = 563, 73.2% women; Mage = 23.03, SD = 7.60) included undergraduate students participating for partial course credit or extra credit in a psychology class at Texas A&M University-Commerce. Participants indicated their ethnic/racial category as White (48.7%), African Amer-
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
3
Table 1 Correlations between prior activism and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean (SD)
1. Activism 2. Normative environment 3. Global awareness 4. Global citizenship 5. Intergroup empathy 6. Valuing diversity 7. Social justice 8. Environmentalism 9. Intergroup helping 10. Responsibility to act
– .32 .37 .40 .25 .30 .15 .15 .20 .30
.36 – .63 .76 .53 .53 .44 .46 .44 .61
.41 .59 – .67 .63 .60 .53 .55 .54 .70
.47 .78 .73 – .58 .55 .38 .41 .40 .61
.37 .47 .64 .59 – .65 .54 .54 .61 .58
.43 .53 .73 .66 .71 – .60 .57 .64 .66
.27 .48 .55 .53 .62 .57 – .77 .68 .55
.24 .43 .50 .43 .54 .53 .73 – .71 .60
.44 .47 .60 .56 .65 .73 .64 .61 – .62
.45 .62 .73 .74 .72 .75 .65 .60 .79 –
2.93 (1.56) 4.38 (1.55) 4.88 (1.27) 4.16 (1.79) 5.07 (1.39) 4.89 (1.44) 5.55 (1.27) 5.64 (1.28) 5.08 (1.47) 4.69 (1.56)
Mean Standard deviation
3.50 1.63
4.38 1.44
4.76 1.28
4.15 1.56
4.88 1.44
4.89 1.49
5.49 1.33
5.48 1.32
5.47 1.36
4.90 1.45
Note: All correlations are significant at p < .01. Study 1 correlations bottom half of diagonal, Study 2 top half of diagonal. Study 1 means (SD) bottom of table, Study 2 means (SD) right side of table.
ican (28.1%), Hispanic (14.2%), Asian/South Pacific Islander (3.7%), multiracial (3.7%), Central Asian/Indian/Pakistani (.7%), other (.5%), or Indigenous Peoples (.4%). Participants completed measures regarding past activist behavior and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 2.1.2. Materials 2.1.2.1. Activist behaviors. To assess prior activism, participants rated how involved they have been in their life with social causes and issues related to “poverty,” “women’s issues,” “peace issues,” “civil rights issues,” and “human rights” on a 7-point Likert-type scale, from 1 = not active to 7 = very active. The five ratings were combined to form an index of prior activism (˛ = .92). 2.1.2.2. Global citizenship measures. To assess the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship, we adopted measures from Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b). Four items (e.g., “Most people who are important to me think that being a global citizen is desirable”) assessed the perception that others in one’s normative environment prescribe a global citizen identity (˛ = .93). Four items (e.g., “I understand how various cultures of this world interact socially”) assessed global awareness (˛ = .85). Two items (e.g., “I strongly identify with global citizens”) assessed global citizenship identification (˛ = .94). Two items (e.g., “I am able to empathize with people from other countries”) assessed intergroup empathy (˛ = .84). Two items (e.g., “I would like to join groups that emphasize getting to know people from different countries”) assessed valuing diversity (˛ = .85). Two items (e.g., “Those countries that are well off should help people in countries who are less fortunate”) assessed social justice (˛ = .80). Two items (e.g., “People have a responsibility to conserve natural resources to foster a sustainable environment”) assessed environmental sustainability (˛ = .86). Two items (e.g., “If I could, I would dedicate my life to helping others no matter what country they are from”) assessed intergroup helping (˛ = .81). Lastly, two items (e.g., “Being actively involved in global issues is my responsibility”) assessed responsibility to act (˛ = .84). The items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type
response scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.
2.2. Results and discussion As a preliminary analysis we examined the correlations between the assessed variables. As shown in Table 1, prior activist work was positively correlated with the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). To test the influence of perception of prior activism on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship, the researchers conducted a structural equation model using Amos 19 (bias-corrected bootstrapping, 5,000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals). Due to the related nature of the prosocial values to one another (and the antecedents to one another), the disturbance terms for these sets of variables were allowed to covary. Identical to Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) structural model, the error terms of two global awareness items were allowed to covary. The model fit was evaluated using the normed fit index (NFI) and the comparative fit index (CFI), for which values greater than .90 are acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1995). Following Browne and Cudeck (1993), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was set at value of .08, which is an acceptable level. Items loaded well on each of the factors, including prior activist behaviors (.71–.92), normative environment (.86–.91), global awareness (.63–.88), global citizenship identification (.93, .94), intergroup empathy (.84, .87), valuing diversity (.84, .88), social justice (.76, .87), environmental sustainability (.85, .89), intergroup helping (.77, .89), and responsibility to act (.84, .88). The predicted model adequately fit the data, 2 (297) = 1189.78, p < .001; RMSEA = .073, CI{.069; .078}, NFI = .909, and CFI = .930. As shown in Fig. 1, prior activism predicted greater normative environment (ˇ = .53, p < .001, CI = .265–.432) and global awareness (ˇ = .32, p < .001, CI = .225–.413). Normative environment (ˇ = .65, p < .001, CI = .531–.749) and global awareness (ˇ = .26, p < .001, CI = .134–.386) predicted global citizenship identification. Global citizenship identification predicted intergroup empathy (ˇ = .68, p < .001, CI = .598–.748), valuing diversity (ˇ = .64,
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
4
Intergroup Empathy
.68
Valuing Diversity
Normative Environment
.35
.64 .65 Social Justice
.43 Global Citizenship
Activism
Sustainable Environment
.49 Global Awareness
.32
.26 .46 Intergroup Helping
.73 Responsible to Act
Fig. 1. Study 1, prior activism predicting antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. All standardized betas are significant at p < .001. Table 2 Indirect effects of prior activism, normative environment, and global awareness, Study 1. Variable
Global citizenship ID Intergroup empathy Valuing diversity Social justice Environmentalism Intergroup helping Responsibility to act
Activism
Normative environment
Global awareness
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
.31 .21 .20 .13 .15 .14 .22
.232 .151 .143 .088 .108 .100 .163
.381 .270 .256 .180 .199 .194 .290
– .44 .41 .27 .32 .30 .47
– .360 .337 .206 .255 .232 .388
– .520 .498 .351 .389 .372 .549
– .18 .17 .11 .13 .12 .19
– .091 .086 .054 .064 .060 .095
– .281 .263 .184 .208 .195 .299
Note: Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals, bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 iterations, all indirect effects are significant at p < .001.
p < .001, CI = .568–.713), social justice (ˇ = .43, p < .001, CI = .328–.517), environmental sustainability (ˇ = .49, p < .001, CI = .411–.571), intergroup helping (ˇ = .46, p < .001, CI = .378–.547), and felt responsibility to act (ˇ = .73, p < .001, CI = .652–.790). The indirect effect of prior activism was reliably carried by normative environment and global awareness on students’ identification with global citizens (see Table 2 for standardized betas of indirect effects and 95% biascorrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects were significant at p < .001 two-tailed). Prior activism also significantly predicted greater prosocial values through normative environment, global awareness, and global citizenship identification. The influence of normative environment and global awareness on prosocial values was reliably carried by global citizenship identification. To examine whether the model may replicate in a different sample of participants we conducted a second study.
3. Study 2 The purpose of Study 2 was to examine whether the model would replicate in a community sample of participants. We predict that the same outcomes observed in college students in Study 1 will be replicated in a community sample.
3.1. Method 3.1.1. Participants and procedure Participants (N = 358, 54.7% men; Mage = 37.01, SD = 11.77) were solicited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Participants indicated their ethnic/racial category as White (79.9%), Hispanic (6.7%), African American (6.1%), Asian/South Pacific Islander (5%), multiracial (.8%), Indigenous Peoples (.8%), or other (.6%). Participants completed
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
5
Table 3 Indirect effects of prior activism, normative environment, and global awareness, Study 2. Variable
Global citizenship ID Intergroup empathy Valuing diversity Social justice Environmentalism Intergroup helping Responsibility to act
Activism
Normative environment
Global awareness
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
.39 .27 .31 .25 .20 .26 .33
.292 .193 .226 .179 .135 .182 .244
.488 .345 .403 .332 .273 .350 .420
– .40 .47 .38 .30 .40 .50
– .317 .374 .298 .228 .307 .383
– .489 .567 .471 .380 .481 .604
– .26 .30 .25 .19 .25 .32
– .166 .198 .157 .119 .162 .216
– .381 .442 .362 .299 .377 .454
Note: Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals, bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 iterations, all indirect effects are significant at p < .002.
measures regarding past activist behavior and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 3.1.2. Materials Participants completed measure identical to Study 1: activism (˛ = .92), normative environment (˛ = .94), global awareness (˛ = .84), global citizenship identification (˛ = .95), intergroup empathy (˛ = .82), valuing diversity (˛ = .75), social justice (˛ = .78), environmental sustainability (˛ = .82), intergroup helping (˛ = .77), responsibility to act (˛ = .85). 3.2. Results and discussion As a preliminary analysis we examined the correlations between the assessed variables. As shown in Table 1, prior activist work was positively correlated with the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Next, we tested the model identical to Study 1. Items loaded well on each of the factors, including prior activist behaviors (.71–.93), normative environment (.85–.92), global awareness (.57–.94), global citizenship identification (.95, .95), intergroup empathy (.83, .84), valuing diversity (.75, .81), social justice (.77, .83), environmental sustainability (.83, .84), intergroup helping (.79, .81), and responsibility to act (.84, .90). The predicted model adequately fit the data, 2 (297) = 838.21, p < .001; RMSEA = .071, CI{.066; .077}, NFI = .903, and CFI = .935. Prior activism predicted greater normative environment (ˇ = .41, p < .001, CI = .298–.506) and global awareness (ˇ = .39, p = .001, CI = .270–.509). Normative environment (ˇ = .60, p < .001, CI = .459–.710) and global awareness (ˇ = .38, p = .001, CI = .258–.532) predicted global citizenship identification. Global citizenship identification predicted intergroup empathy (ˇ = .68, p < .001, CI = .586–.754), valuing diversity (ˇ = .79, p < .001, CI = .711–.860), social justice (ˇ = .64, p < .001, CI = .554–.721), environmental sustainability (ˇ = .50, p < .001, CI = .402–.597), intergroup helping (ˇ = .66, p < .001, CI = .569–.750), and felt responsibility to act (ˇ = .84, p = .001, CI = .791–.887). The indirect effect of prior activism was reliably carried by normative environment and global awareness on students’ identification with global citizens (see Table 3 for standardized betas of indirect effects and 95% biascorrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects were significant at p < .002 two-tailed). Prior activism also
significantly predicted greater prosocial values through normative environment, global awareness, and global citizenship identification. The influence of normative environment and global awareness on prosocial values was reliably carried by global citizenship identification. Thus, the results replicated the results observed in Study 1 in a different sample of participants. 4. General discussion The purpose of the present studies was to examine the influence of prior activist engagement on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship behavior. As predicted, across two studies, greater engagement in activist issues predicted greater global citizenship identification through the perceived normative environment and global awareness. Furthermore, activist work predicted greater endorsement of the prosocial values representing the prototypical group content of global citizen identity. Lastly, as predicted, we replicated Reysen and KatzarskaMiller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. Supporting Schattle’s (2008) observation that activist work can lead to viewing the self as a global citizen, the results of the present research show that activist engagement predicts global citizenship identification through one’s normative environment and global awareness. As many studies examine the antecedents to activism (van Zomeren, 2013), the present results offer a novel view of the outcomes of activist engagement. Participants with greater engagement with activist issues predicted viewing valued others (e.g., friends, family) as prescribing a global citizen identity. The perception that individuals in one’s normative environment are supportive of activist issues has been shown to predict joining and participating in collective action (Brunsting & Postmes, 2002; Fielding et al., 2008; van Stekelenburg & Klandermans, 2013). Similarly, we suggest that valued others who support activist issues would be perceived as also supportive of a global citizen identity. Prior activist engagement was also found to predict greater global awareness. This results support the notions that engagement with activist groups encourages members to learn more about others in the world (e.g., Bettencourt et al., 1996) and feel a sense of interconnectedness with others (Klandermans, 2004). Together, the results support the notion that activist organizations provide a normative environment that is
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
6
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
conducive to engendering a global citizen identity. The messages that organizations promote (e.g., active participation, acting for the collective good, empathy for others in the world, fighting injustice) and the close-knit communities of like-minded others aid in viewing the self as a global citizen. Furthermore, as shown in the present research engagement with activist issues indirectly predicted the six clusters of prosocial values and behaviors (e.g., intergroup helping). However, examination of the correlations and indirect effects suggests that activism is more strongly associated with particular variables (e.g., intergroup empathy, diversity) than others (e.g., social justice, environmentalism). Although significant, the smaller correlations may reflect less importance for those values in one’s prior activist work. As little research has examined outcomes of activism (Thomas & Louis, 2013) further research examining whether the type of activist activity influences attitudes. Taken together, however, the cluster of prosocial values related to global citizenship appears to reflect the values associated with activists, and the results support this conclusion. Thus, it is unsurprising that researchers examining activist groups decided to label the activists as cosmopolitans (Cable et al., 1998; Carroll & Ratner, 1996). Although the present research is novel in showing the prosocial outcomes of activist work, there are limitations to consider when interpreting the results. The present research is correlational. Thus, although we suggest a direction in the model, we cannot make causal claims. Future researchers may examine individuals’ change in attitudes and identity over time to examine the notion that engagement with activist work has prosocial outcomes. There may exist other variables that influence the relationship between activist engagement that were not measured in the present study. For example, we chose social issues that would presumably be related to values reflected by the outcomes of global citizenship identification (e.g., peace issues). However, not all social movements or activist issues would presumably show similar results (e.g., active neo-Nazis presumably would not show greater global citizenship identification). Furthermore, the activist issues utilized in the present research could be considered ideologically progressive causes. Future research examining individuals promoting or engaging in conservative activist causes may show different results. Indeed, as noted earlier, a liberal or progressive political orientation predicts identification with global citizens (Katzarska-Miller et al., 2014). Thus, further research examining different issues (e.g., local or global oriented, progressive or conservative) and style of involvement (e.g., low or high risk involvement) may prove useful avenues for future research. To conclude, the results of the present research support the notion that engagement with activist issues predicts viewing the self as a global citizen. Engagement with activist issues was found to predict global citizenship identification through viewing one’s normative environment as supportive of the identity and the perception that one is knowledgeable and connected with others in the world. Activism also indirectly predicts endorsement of prosocial values and behaviors through the antecedents and identification with global citizens. Although many people do not
join activist causes, the present results suggest that doing so may lead to global citizenship.
References Battistoni, R. M., Longo, N. V., & Jayanandhan, S. R. (2009). Acting locally in a flat world: Global citizenship and the democratic practice of servicelearning. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 13, 89–108. Bernstein, M. (2005). Identity politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 47–74. Bettencourt, B. A. (1996). Grassroots organizations: Recurrent themes and research approaches. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 207–220. Bettencourt, B. A., Dillmann, G., & Wollman, N. (1996). The intragroup dynamics of maintaining a successful grassroots organization: A case study. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 169–186. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brunsting, S., & Postmes, T. (2002). Social movement participation in the digital age: Predicting offline and online collective action. Small Group Research, 33, 525–554. Cable, S., Walsh, E. J., & Warland, R. H. (1998). Differential paths to political activism: Comparisons of four mobilization processes after the Three Mile Island accident. Social Forces, 66, 951–969. Carroll, W. K., & Ratner, R. S. (1996). Master framing and cross-movement networking in contemporary social movements. The Sociological Quarterly, 37, 601–625. Desforges, L. (2004). The formation of global citizenship: International non-governmental organisations in Britain. Political Geography, 23, 549–569. Desforges, L., Jones, R., & Woods, M. (2005). New geographies of citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 9, 439–451. Engberg, M. E. (2013). The influence of study away experiences on global perspective taking. Journal of College Student Development, 54, 466–480. Fielding, K. S., McDonald, R., & Louis, W. R. (2008). Theory of planned behaviour, identity and intentions to engage in environmental activism. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 318–326. Hornsey, M. J., Blackwood, L., Louis, W., Fielding, K., Mavor, K., Morton, T., . . . & White, K. M. (2006). Why do people engage in collective action? Revisiting the role of perceived effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1701–1722. Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Writing about structural equation models. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues and applications (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Jenkins, S. T., Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2012). Ingroup identification and personality. Journal of Interpersonal Relations, Intergroup Relations and Identity, 5, 9–16. Katzarska-Miller, I., Barnsley, C. A., & Reysen, S. (2014). Global citizenship identification and religiosity. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 36, 344–367. Katzarska-Miller, I., Reysen, S., Kamble, S. V., & Vithoji, N. (2012). Cross-national differences in global citizenship: Comparison of Bulgaria, India, and the United States. Journal of Globalization Studies, 3, 166–183. Klandermans, B. (2004). The demand and supply of participation: Social psychological correlates of participation in social movements. In D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social movements (pp. 360–379). Oxford: Blackwell. Lyons, K., Hanley, J., Wearing, S., & Neil, J. (2012). Gap year volunteer tourism: Myths of global citizenship? Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 361–378. Oxley, L., & Morris, P. (2013). Global citizenship: A typology for distinguishing its multiple conceptions. British Journal of Educational Studies, 61, 301–325. Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013a). Student pathways to global citizenship. In C. Boyle (Ed.), Student learning: Improving practice (pp. 121–137). Hauppauge, NY: Nova. Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013b). A model of global citizenship: Antecedents and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 48, 858–870. Reysen, S., Larey, L. W., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2012). College course curriculum and global citizenship. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 4, 27–39. Schattle, H. (2005). Communicating global citizenship: Multiple discourses beyond the academy. Citizenship Studies, 9, 119–133.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Sherkat, D. E., & Blocker, T. J. (1997). Explaining the political and personal consequences of protest. Social Forces, 75, 1049–1076. Smith, J. (2002). Bridging global divides? Strategic framing and solidarity in transnational social movement organizations. International Sociology, 17, 505–528. Smith, M. B., & Laurie, N. (2011). International volunteering and development: Global citizenship and neoliberal professionalisation today. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 36, 545–559. Snider, J. S., Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). How we frame the message of globalization matters. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 1599–1607. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
7
Thomas, E. F., & Louis, W. R. (2013). Doing democracy: The social psychological mobilization and consequences of collective action. Social Issues and Policy Review, 7, 173–200. Tsutsui, K., & Wotipka, C. M. (2004). Global civil society and the international human rights movement: Citizen participation in human rights international nongovernmental organizations. Social Forces, 83, 587–620. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell. van Stekelenburg, J., & Klandermans, B. (2013). The social psychology of protes. Current Sociology, 61, 886–905. van Zomeren, M. (2013). Four core social-psychological motivations to undertake collective action. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 378–388.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
The Social Science Journal journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soscij
Activism as a pathway to global citizenship夽 Stephen Reysen a,∗ , Justin Hackett b a b
Department of Psychology, Texas A&M University-Commerce, Commerce, TX 75429, USA California University of Pennsylvania, USA
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 July 2015 Received in revised form 29 August 2016 Accepted 7 September 2016 Available online xxx Keywords: Activism Global citizen Normative environment Global awareness Identification
a b s t r a c t We examined the influence of prior work with activist issues on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Participants rated their engagement with activist issues and measures related to global citizenship identification antecedents and outcomes. The results showed that engagement with activist issues predicted global citizenship through the perceptions of one’s normative environment and global awareness. Activism also indirectly predicted prosocial values and behaviors related to global citizen identity through antecedents and global citizenship identification. The results highlight the prosocial outcomes of participation in activist movements. © 2016 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Global citizenship is defined as global awareness, caring, embracing cultural diversity, promoting social justice and sustainability, and a sense of responsibility to act (Reysen, Larey, & Katzarska-Miller, 2012). The notion of global citizenship has been widely discussed outside of psychology (e.g., Oxley & Morris, 2013; Reysen & KatzarskaMiller, 2013a; Schattle, 2008), however recent research within psychology has begun to explore the values related to a global citizenship identity (e.g., Jenkins, Reysen, & Katzarska-Miller, 2012; Katzarska-Miller, Reysen, Kamble, & Vithoji, 2012; Snider, Reysen, & Katzarska-Miller, 2013). Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) tested a model showing that the perception that one’s social network values and prescribes the identity (i.e., normative environment) and perception of one’s knowledge and interconnectedness with others in the world (i.e., global awareness) predict
夽 This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. ∗ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Reysen).
identification with global citizens. Following a social identity perspective (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Turner, Hogg, Oakes, Reicher, & Wetherell, 1987), identification with global citizens then predicts adherence to the group content (e.g., norms, values, behaviors). Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) found that global citizenship identification predicted six clusters of values, including intergroup empathy (felt connection to individuals outside one’s ingroup), valuing diversity (positive view of cultural diversity), social justice (endorsement of human rights and equality), environmental sustainability (concern for the natural environment), intergroup helping (desire to help others outside one’s ingroup), and a felt responsibility to act for the betterment of the world. In the present research we examine whether prior activist work influences Reysen and Katzarska-Miller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. The majority of research within social psychology has tended to focus on what predicts people joining social movements and engaging in collective action (van Zomeren, 2013). In the present research we will focus on outcomes of participation in activist movements, an area of research with little research (Thomas & Louis, 2013).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003 0362-3319/© 2016 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
2
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Schattle (2005) found in a series of interviews that activists began to think of themselves as global citizens through engagement in activist work. In other words, activism can represent an antecedent or pathway to viewing the self as a global citizen (Schattle, 2008). Programs such as international volunteering (Smith & Laurie, 2011), service learning (Battistoni, Longo, & Jayanandhan, 2009), and volunteer tourism (Lyons, Hanley, Wearing, & Neil, 2012) are suggested to engender a global citizen identity in participants. Indeed, recent research shows that study abroad and service learning activities influence students to take a more global perspective (Engberg, 2013). Aid organizations have also been found to promote a global citizen identity to engender a felt responsibility to help (Desforges, 2004; Desforges, Jones, & Woods, 2005). Furthermore, activists are perceived to be global citizens. For example, after an accident at the Three Mile Island nuclear reactor, an activist group was formed by members of prior activist movements and described by the researchers as cosmopolitans (Cable, Walsh, & Warland, 1998). In research examining cross-movement networking of activists, Carroll and Ratner (1996) also drew upon the category term of cosmopolitans to describe activists participating in multiple social movements. These descriptions suggest that individuals with prior activist experiences display values much in line with those of global citizens. Thus, there are multiple lines of research and theory to suggest that engaging in activist work can lead to viewing the self as a global citizen. Engaging in activist behaviors may influence individuals’ degree of global citizenship identification through their normative environment and global awareness. One’s social network is an important predictor of whether one participates in a social movement (van Stekelenburg & Klandermans, 2013). The perception that one’s friends and family would be supportive of participation in an activist organization predicts intention to engage in collective action (Brunsting & Postmes, 2002; Fielding, McDonald, & Louis, 2008). At a macro level, research examining what factors predict membership in human rights organizations shows that individuals’ normative environment (i.e., countries that are connected to the larger global society) advances individuals’ awareness of social issues and increases the likelihood to join an international human rights movement (Tsutsui & Wotipka, 2004). In effect, prior research examining the country level and individual level environments in which people are embedded suggest that their environment (family, friends, country) impact whether they join and participate in social movements. Once engaged in an activist movement, individuals are likely to join other similar movements and create a normative environment that reflects global citizen values. Sherkat and Blocker (1997) compared values of individuals that participated in activist movements to those who did not. Prior activists (vs. non-activists) were found to hold more liberal political orientation and less traditional religious orientations. Both liberal political orientation and quest (less traditional) religious orientation are related to global citizenship identification (KatzarskaMiller, Barnsley, & Reysen, 2014). Activists are found to participate in multiple organizations and groups may work together for larger superordinate goals (see Bettencourt,
1996). Activist movements can create an environment that socializes individuals toward commitment to multiple issues beyond the initial issue for which the activist joined (see Bernstein, 2005). Furthermore, activist organizations engender ingroup identification and provide social support for like-minded individuals to sustain the group (Bettencourt, Dillmann, & Wollman, 1996). Indeed, research shows that identification with activists has long been recognized as a strong predictor of collective action behaviors (Hornsey et al., 2006). Beyond engendering identification with activists and widening the score of one’s activist concerns, participation in activist movements may also influence one’s global awareness. Activist organizations are increasingly taking a larger, more global, perspective (Smith, 2002). Thus, participation in such groups exposes individuals to issues happening in other areas of the world. For example, Bettencourt et al. (1996) surveyed members of a peace organization and found that the group sought to provide educational events to the community and members’ learning opportunities. The messages promoted by activist organizations often focus on fighting injustice (Carroll & Ratner, 1996; Klandermans, 2004). Social justice is also a part of the prototypical group content of a global citizen identity (Reysen & Katzarska-Miller, 2013b). Furthermore, social movements highlight peoples’ interconnectedness with one another through messaging and a focus on the collective good (Klandermans, 2004). Together, prior research suggests that participation in activist movements raises individuals’ global awareness. The purpose of the present research is to examine the influence of prior activist work on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Building upon Schattle’s (2008) observation that activist work engenders a global citizen identity, participants reported their degree of engagement with activist issues and a measure of antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. We predict that greater activist engagement will predict greater global citizenship identification through participants’ perceived normative environment and global awareness. Activism is further predicted to indirectly influence prosocial values (e.g., social justice, intergroup empathy) through the antecedents and global citizenship identification. Lastly, we expect to replicate Reysen and Katzarska-Miller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. 2. Study 1 The purpose of Study 1 is to test a model of activism predicting antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 2.1. Method 2.1.1. Participants and procedure Participants (N = 563, 73.2% women; Mage = 23.03, SD = 7.60) included undergraduate students participating for partial course credit or extra credit in a psychology class at Texas A&M University-Commerce. Participants indicated their ethnic/racial category as White (48.7%), African Amer-
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
3
Table 1 Correlations between prior activism and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. Variable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean (SD)
1. Activism 2. Normative environment 3. Global awareness 4. Global citizenship 5. Intergroup empathy 6. Valuing diversity 7. Social justice 8. Environmentalism 9. Intergroup helping 10. Responsibility to act
– .32 .37 .40 .25 .30 .15 .15 .20 .30
.36 – .63 .76 .53 .53 .44 .46 .44 .61
.41 .59 – .67 .63 .60 .53 .55 .54 .70
.47 .78 .73 – .58 .55 .38 .41 .40 .61
.37 .47 .64 .59 – .65 .54 .54 .61 .58
.43 .53 .73 .66 .71 – .60 .57 .64 .66
.27 .48 .55 .53 .62 .57 – .77 .68 .55
.24 .43 .50 .43 .54 .53 .73 – .71 .60
.44 .47 .60 .56 .65 .73 .64 .61 – .62
.45 .62 .73 .74 .72 .75 .65 .60 .79 –
2.93 (1.56) 4.38 (1.55) 4.88 (1.27) 4.16 (1.79) 5.07 (1.39) 4.89 (1.44) 5.55 (1.27) 5.64 (1.28) 5.08 (1.47) 4.69 (1.56)
Mean Standard deviation
3.50 1.63
4.38 1.44
4.76 1.28
4.15 1.56
4.88 1.44
4.89 1.49
5.49 1.33
5.48 1.32
5.47 1.36
4.90 1.45
Note: All correlations are significant at p < .01. Study 1 correlations bottom half of diagonal, Study 2 top half of diagonal. Study 1 means (SD) bottom of table, Study 2 means (SD) right side of table.
ican (28.1%), Hispanic (14.2%), Asian/South Pacific Islander (3.7%), multiracial (3.7%), Central Asian/Indian/Pakistani (.7%), other (.5%), or Indigenous Peoples (.4%). Participants completed measures regarding past activist behavior and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 2.1.2. Materials 2.1.2.1. Activist behaviors. To assess prior activism, participants rated how involved they have been in their life with social causes and issues related to “poverty,” “women’s issues,” “peace issues,” “civil rights issues,” and “human rights” on a 7-point Likert-type scale, from 1 = not active to 7 = very active. The five ratings were combined to form an index of prior activism (˛ = .92). 2.1.2.2. Global citizenship measures. To assess the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship, we adopted measures from Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b). Four items (e.g., “Most people who are important to me think that being a global citizen is desirable”) assessed the perception that others in one’s normative environment prescribe a global citizen identity (˛ = .93). Four items (e.g., “I understand how various cultures of this world interact socially”) assessed global awareness (˛ = .85). Two items (e.g., “I strongly identify with global citizens”) assessed global citizenship identification (˛ = .94). Two items (e.g., “I am able to empathize with people from other countries”) assessed intergroup empathy (˛ = .84). Two items (e.g., “I would like to join groups that emphasize getting to know people from different countries”) assessed valuing diversity (˛ = .85). Two items (e.g., “Those countries that are well off should help people in countries who are less fortunate”) assessed social justice (˛ = .80). Two items (e.g., “People have a responsibility to conserve natural resources to foster a sustainable environment”) assessed environmental sustainability (˛ = .86). Two items (e.g., “If I could, I would dedicate my life to helping others no matter what country they are from”) assessed intergroup helping (˛ = .81). Lastly, two items (e.g., “Being actively involved in global issues is my responsibility”) assessed responsibility to act (˛ = .84). The items were rated on a 7-point Likert-type
response scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree.
2.2. Results and discussion As a preliminary analysis we examined the correlations between the assessed variables. As shown in Table 1, prior activist work was positively correlated with the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). To test the influence of perception of prior activism on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship, the researchers conducted a structural equation model using Amos 19 (bias-corrected bootstrapping, 5,000 iterations, 95% confidence intervals). Due to the related nature of the prosocial values to one another (and the antecedents to one another), the disturbance terms for these sets of variables were allowed to covary. Identical to Reysen and Katzarska-Miller (2013b) structural model, the error terms of two global awareness items were allowed to covary. The model fit was evaluated using the normed fit index (NFI) and the comparative fit index (CFI), for which values greater than .90 are acceptable (Hu & Bentler, 1995). Following Browne and Cudeck (1993), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was set at value of .08, which is an acceptable level. Items loaded well on each of the factors, including prior activist behaviors (.71–.92), normative environment (.86–.91), global awareness (.63–.88), global citizenship identification (.93, .94), intergroup empathy (.84, .87), valuing diversity (.84, .88), social justice (.76, .87), environmental sustainability (.85, .89), intergroup helping (.77, .89), and responsibility to act (.84, .88). The predicted model adequately fit the data, 2 (297) = 1189.78, p < .001; RMSEA = .073, CI{.069; .078}, NFI = .909, and CFI = .930. As shown in Fig. 1, prior activism predicted greater normative environment (ˇ = .53, p < .001, CI = .265–.432) and global awareness (ˇ = .32, p < .001, CI = .225–.413). Normative environment (ˇ = .65, p < .001, CI = .531–.749) and global awareness (ˇ = .26, p < .001, CI = .134–.386) predicted global citizenship identification. Global citizenship identification predicted intergroup empathy (ˇ = .68, p < .001, CI = .598–.748), valuing diversity (ˇ = .64,
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
4
Intergroup Empathy
.68
Valuing Diversity
Normative Environment
.35
.64 .65 Social Justice
.43 Global Citizenship
Activism
Sustainable Environment
.49 Global Awareness
.32
.26 .46 Intergroup Helping
.73 Responsible to Act
Fig. 1. Study 1, prior activism predicting antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. All standardized betas are significant at p < .001. Table 2 Indirect effects of prior activism, normative environment, and global awareness, Study 1. Variable
Global citizenship ID Intergroup empathy Valuing diversity Social justice Environmentalism Intergroup helping Responsibility to act
Activism
Normative environment
Global awareness
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
.31 .21 .20 .13 .15 .14 .22
.232 .151 .143 .088 .108 .100 .163
.381 .270 .256 .180 .199 .194 .290
– .44 .41 .27 .32 .30 .47
– .360 .337 .206 .255 .232 .388
– .520 .498 .351 .389 .372 .549
– .18 .17 .11 .13 .12 .19
– .091 .086 .054 .064 .060 .095
– .281 .263 .184 .208 .195 .299
Note: Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals, bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 iterations, all indirect effects are significant at p < .001.
p < .001, CI = .568–.713), social justice (ˇ = .43, p < .001, CI = .328–.517), environmental sustainability (ˇ = .49, p < .001, CI = .411–.571), intergroup helping (ˇ = .46, p < .001, CI = .378–.547), and felt responsibility to act (ˇ = .73, p < .001, CI = .652–.790). The indirect effect of prior activism was reliably carried by normative environment and global awareness on students’ identification with global citizens (see Table 2 for standardized betas of indirect effects and 95% biascorrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects were significant at p < .001 two-tailed). Prior activism also significantly predicted greater prosocial values through normative environment, global awareness, and global citizenship identification. The influence of normative environment and global awareness on prosocial values was reliably carried by global citizenship identification. To examine whether the model may replicate in a different sample of participants we conducted a second study.
3. Study 2 The purpose of Study 2 was to examine whether the model would replicate in a community sample of participants. We predict that the same outcomes observed in college students in Study 1 will be replicated in a community sample.
3.1. Method 3.1.1. Participants and procedure Participants (N = 358, 54.7% men; Mage = 37.01, SD = 11.77) were solicited from Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Participants indicated their ethnic/racial category as White (79.9%), Hispanic (6.7%), African American (6.1%), Asian/South Pacific Islander (5%), multiracial (.8%), Indigenous Peoples (.8%), or other (.6%). Participants completed
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model
ARTICLE IN PRESS
SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
5
Table 3 Indirect effects of prior activism, normative environment, and global awareness, Study 2. Variable
Global citizenship ID Intergroup empathy Valuing diversity Social justice Environmentalism Intergroup helping Responsibility to act
Activism
Normative environment
Global awareness
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
Indirect
CILower
CIUpper
.39 .27 .31 .25 .20 .26 .33
.292 .193 .226 .179 .135 .182 .244
.488 .345 .403 .332 .273 .350 .420
– .40 .47 .38 .30 .40 .50
– .317 .374 .298 .228 .307 .383
– .489 .567 .471 .380 .481 .604
– .26 .30 .25 .19 .25 .32
– .166 .198 .157 .119 .162 .216
– .381 .442 .362 .299 .377 .454
Note: Standardized betas and 95% confidence intervals, bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 iterations, all indirect effects are significant at p < .002.
measures regarding past activist behavior and antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship. 3.1.2. Materials Participants completed measure identical to Study 1: activism (˛ = .92), normative environment (˛ = .94), global awareness (˛ = .84), global citizenship identification (˛ = .95), intergroup empathy (˛ = .82), valuing diversity (˛ = .75), social justice (˛ = .78), environmental sustainability (˛ = .82), intergroup helping (˛ = .77), responsibility to act (˛ = .85). 3.2. Results and discussion As a preliminary analysis we examined the correlations between the assessed variables. As shown in Table 1, prior activist work was positively correlated with the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship (see Table 1 for means and standard deviations). Next, we tested the model identical to Study 1. Items loaded well on each of the factors, including prior activist behaviors (.71–.93), normative environment (.85–.92), global awareness (.57–.94), global citizenship identification (.95, .95), intergroup empathy (.83, .84), valuing diversity (.75, .81), social justice (.77, .83), environmental sustainability (.83, .84), intergroup helping (.79, .81), and responsibility to act (.84, .90). The predicted model adequately fit the data, 2 (297) = 838.21, p < .001; RMSEA = .071, CI{.066; .077}, NFI = .903, and CFI = .935. Prior activism predicted greater normative environment (ˇ = .41, p < .001, CI = .298–.506) and global awareness (ˇ = .39, p = .001, CI = .270–.509). Normative environment (ˇ = .60, p < .001, CI = .459–.710) and global awareness (ˇ = .38, p = .001, CI = .258–.532) predicted global citizenship identification. Global citizenship identification predicted intergroup empathy (ˇ = .68, p < .001, CI = .586–.754), valuing diversity (ˇ = .79, p < .001, CI = .711–.860), social justice (ˇ = .64, p < .001, CI = .554–.721), environmental sustainability (ˇ = .50, p < .001, CI = .402–.597), intergroup helping (ˇ = .66, p < .001, CI = .569–.750), and felt responsibility to act (ˇ = .84, p = .001, CI = .791–.887). The indirect effect of prior activism was reliably carried by normative environment and global awareness on students’ identification with global citizens (see Table 3 for standardized betas of indirect effects and 95% biascorrected confidence intervals; all indirect effects were significant at p < .002 two-tailed). Prior activism also
significantly predicted greater prosocial values through normative environment, global awareness, and global citizenship identification. The influence of normative environment and global awareness on prosocial values was reliably carried by global citizenship identification. Thus, the results replicated the results observed in Study 1 in a different sample of participants. 4. General discussion The purpose of the present studies was to examine the influence of prior activist engagement on the antecedents, identification, and outcomes of global citizenship behavior. As predicted, across two studies, greater engagement in activist issues predicted greater global citizenship identification through the perceived normative environment and global awareness. Furthermore, activist work predicted greater endorsement of the prosocial values representing the prototypical group content of global citizen identity. Lastly, as predicted, we replicated Reysen and KatzarskaMiller’s (2013b) model of antecedents and outcomes of global citizenship identification. Supporting Schattle’s (2008) observation that activist work can lead to viewing the self as a global citizen, the results of the present research show that activist engagement predicts global citizenship identification through one’s normative environment and global awareness. As many studies examine the antecedents to activism (van Zomeren, 2013), the present results offer a novel view of the outcomes of activist engagement. Participants with greater engagement with activist issues predicted viewing valued others (e.g., friends, family) as prescribing a global citizen identity. The perception that individuals in one’s normative environment are supportive of activist issues has been shown to predict joining and participating in collective action (Brunsting & Postmes, 2002; Fielding et al., 2008; van Stekelenburg & Klandermans, 2013). Similarly, we suggest that valued others who support activist issues would be perceived as also supportive of a global citizen identity. Prior activist engagement was also found to predict greater global awareness. This results support the notions that engagement with activist groups encourages members to learn more about others in the world (e.g., Bettencourt et al., 1996) and feel a sense of interconnectedness with others (Klandermans, 2004). Together, the results support the notion that activist organizations provide a normative environment that is
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
6
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
conducive to engendering a global citizen identity. The messages that organizations promote (e.g., active participation, acting for the collective good, empathy for others in the world, fighting injustice) and the close-knit communities of like-minded others aid in viewing the self as a global citizen. Furthermore, as shown in the present research engagement with activist issues indirectly predicted the six clusters of prosocial values and behaviors (e.g., intergroup helping). However, examination of the correlations and indirect effects suggests that activism is more strongly associated with particular variables (e.g., intergroup empathy, diversity) than others (e.g., social justice, environmentalism). Although significant, the smaller correlations may reflect less importance for those values in one’s prior activist work. As little research has examined outcomes of activism (Thomas & Louis, 2013) further research examining whether the type of activist activity influences attitudes. Taken together, however, the cluster of prosocial values related to global citizenship appears to reflect the values associated with activists, and the results support this conclusion. Thus, it is unsurprising that researchers examining activist groups decided to label the activists as cosmopolitans (Cable et al., 1998; Carroll & Ratner, 1996). Although the present research is novel in showing the prosocial outcomes of activist work, there are limitations to consider when interpreting the results. The present research is correlational. Thus, although we suggest a direction in the model, we cannot make causal claims. Future researchers may examine individuals’ change in attitudes and identity over time to examine the notion that engagement with activist work has prosocial outcomes. There may exist other variables that influence the relationship between activist engagement that were not measured in the present study. For example, we chose social issues that would presumably be related to values reflected by the outcomes of global citizenship identification (e.g., peace issues). However, not all social movements or activist issues would presumably show similar results (e.g., active neo-Nazis presumably would not show greater global citizenship identification). Furthermore, the activist issues utilized in the present research could be considered ideologically progressive causes. Future research examining individuals promoting or engaging in conservative activist causes may show different results. Indeed, as noted earlier, a liberal or progressive political orientation predicts identification with global citizens (Katzarska-Miller et al., 2014). Thus, further research examining different issues (e.g., local or global oriented, progressive or conservative) and style of involvement (e.g., low or high risk involvement) may prove useful avenues for future research. To conclude, the results of the present research support the notion that engagement with activist issues predicts viewing the self as a global citizen. Engagement with activist issues was found to predict global citizenship identification through viewing one’s normative environment as supportive of the identity and the perception that one is knowledgeable and connected with others in the world. Activism also indirectly predicts endorsement of prosocial values and behaviors through the antecedents and identification with global citizens. Although many people do not
join activist causes, the present results suggest that doing so may lead to global citizenship.
References Battistoni, R. M., Longo, N. V., & Jayanandhan, S. R. (2009). Acting locally in a flat world: Global citizenship and the democratic practice of servicelearning. Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 13, 89–108. Bernstein, M. (2005). Identity politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 47–74. Bettencourt, B. A. (1996). Grassroots organizations: Recurrent themes and research approaches. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 207–220. Bettencourt, B. A., Dillmann, G., & Wollman, N. (1996). The intragroup dynamics of maintaining a successful grassroots organization: A case study. Journal of Social Issues, 52, 169–186. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Brunsting, S., & Postmes, T. (2002). Social movement participation in the digital age: Predicting offline and online collective action. Small Group Research, 33, 525–554. Cable, S., Walsh, E. J., & Warland, R. H. (1998). Differential paths to political activism: Comparisons of four mobilization processes after the Three Mile Island accident. Social Forces, 66, 951–969. Carroll, W. K., & Ratner, R. S. (1996). Master framing and cross-movement networking in contemporary social movements. The Sociological Quarterly, 37, 601–625. Desforges, L. (2004). The formation of global citizenship: International non-governmental organisations in Britain. Political Geography, 23, 549–569. Desforges, L., Jones, R., & Woods, M. (2005). New geographies of citizenship. Citizenship Studies, 9, 439–451. Engberg, M. E. (2013). The influence of study away experiences on global perspective taking. Journal of College Student Development, 54, 466–480. Fielding, K. S., McDonald, R., & Louis, W. R. (2008). Theory of planned behaviour, identity and intentions to engage in environmental activism. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28, 318–326. Hornsey, M. J., Blackwood, L., Louis, W., Fielding, K., Mavor, K., Morton, T., . . . & White, K. M. (2006). Why do people engage in collective action? Revisiting the role of perceived effectiveness. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36, 1701–1722. Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1995). Writing about structural equation models. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Concepts, issues and applications (pp. 76–99). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Jenkins, S. T., Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2012). Ingroup identification and personality. Journal of Interpersonal Relations, Intergroup Relations and Identity, 5, 9–16. Katzarska-Miller, I., Barnsley, C. A., & Reysen, S. (2014). Global citizenship identification and religiosity. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 36, 344–367. Katzarska-Miller, I., Reysen, S., Kamble, S. V., & Vithoji, N. (2012). Cross-national differences in global citizenship: Comparison of Bulgaria, India, and the United States. Journal of Globalization Studies, 3, 166–183. Klandermans, B. (2004). The demand and supply of participation: Social psychological correlates of participation in social movements. In D. A. Snow, S. A. Soule, & H. Kriesi (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to social movements (pp. 360–379). Oxford: Blackwell. Lyons, K., Hanley, J., Wearing, S., & Neil, J. (2012). Gap year volunteer tourism: Myths of global citizenship? Annals of Tourism Research, 39, 361–378. Oxley, L., & Morris, P. (2013). Global citizenship: A typology for distinguishing its multiple conceptions. British Journal of Educational Studies, 61, 301–325. Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013a). Student pathways to global citizenship. In C. Boyle (Ed.), Student learning: Improving practice (pp. 121–137). Hauppauge, NY: Nova. Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013b). A model of global citizenship: Antecedents and outcomes. International Journal of Psychology, 48, 858–870. Reysen, S., Larey, L. W., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2012). College course curriculum and global citizenship. International Journal of Development Education and Global Learning, 4, 27–39. Schattle, H. (2005). Communicating global citizenship: Multiple discourses beyond the academy. Citizenship Studies, 9, 119–133.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003
G Model SOCSCI-1353; No. of Pages 7
ARTICLE IN PRESS S. Reysen, J. Hackett / The Social Science Journal xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Schattle, H. (2008). The practices of global citizenship. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Sherkat, D. E., & Blocker, T. J. (1997). Explaining the political and personal consequences of protest. Social Forces, 75, 1049–1076. Smith, J. (2002). Bridging global divides? Strategic framing and solidarity in transnational social movement organizations. International Sociology, 17, 505–528. Smith, M. B., & Laurie, N. (2011). International volunteering and development: Global citizenship and neoliberal professionalisation today. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 36, 545–559. Snider, J. S., Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). How we frame the message of globalization matters. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43, 1599–1607. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
7
Thomas, E. F., & Louis, W. R. (2013). Doing democracy: The social psychological mobilization and consequences of collective action. Social Issues and Policy Review, 7, 173–200. Tsutsui, K., & Wotipka, C. M. (2004). Global civil society and the international human rights movement: Citizen participation in human rights international nongovernmental organizations. Social Forces, 83, 587–620. Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford: Blackwell. van Stekelenburg, J., & Klandermans, B. (2013). The social psychology of protes. Current Sociology, 61, 886–905. van Zomeren, M. (2013). Four core social-psychological motivations to undertake collective action. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7, 378–388.
Please cite this article in press as: Reysen, S., & Hackett, J. Activism as a pathway to global citizenship. The Social Science Journal (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2016.09.003