Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about

G Model

ARTICLE IN PRESS

SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

The Social Science Journal journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/soscij

Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about夽 Abdullah J. Sultan ∗ Department of Management and Marketing, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5486, Safat 13055, Kuwait

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 3 December 2012 Received in revised form 5 September 2013 Accepted 5 September 2013 Available online xxx

Keywords: Text messaging Social communication Social phobia and anxiety Addiction Extraversion

a b s t r a c t The recent use of mobile text messaging applications, such as Blackberry Messenger (BBM) and WhatsApp, has increased greatly throughout the world. Unfortunately, this advanced technology is not without problems. In this study, the researcher argues that BBM and WhatsApp may generate noticeable improvements in consumer’s lives but may simultaneously cause serious social and personal problems, including addiction to these applications. Amazingly, this topic has received little if any attention from consumer behaviorists, who need to understand the psychological factors that affect BBM and WhatsApp consumers. Hence, the current research examines two personality traits—extraversion and social anxiety—that influence consumer attitudes toward these applications. The results of a survey from 552 BBM and WhatsApp consumers in Kuwait indicate that the interaction effect of extraversion and social anxiety is significantly related to consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp. Furthermore, addiction to these applications plays a mediating role in the examined effect. © 2013 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Social psychologists consistently emphasize the role of good social relationships at home and work (Argyle, 1989, 1996, 2001). The quality and quantity of communications with others appears to be crucial for establishing good relationships that result in both long- and shortterm happiness and well-being (Amichai-Hamburger & Furnham, 2007). In general, individuals communicate with one another through various media, including face-to-face, telephone, and Internet communication. Recently, new mobile text message technologies have changed interpersonal interactions drastically by enabling more text-based communication rather than face-to-face encounters and by allowing consumers to feel increasingly knowledgeable

夽 Lol: An abbreviation for “laughing out loud” that is frequently used in text messaging. ∗ Tel.: +965 9993 9671; fax: +965 2483 8273. E-mail address: [email protected]

about things related to their friends, family members, social issues, and surrounding news (Harrison & Gilmore, 2012). In particular, the release of Internet-based mobile text message applications, such as Blackberry Messenger (BBM) and WhatsApp, has allowed consumers to socialize and stay connected longer using their smart phones without having to pay for a network operator’s short message service (SMS) charges. In October 17, 2012, Forbes indicated that there were more than 60 million BBM users and 300 million WhatsApp users worldwide. These numbers are expected to rise given the expectation that more smart phone owners will shift toward Internet-based messaging in upcoming years (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2012). Despite an explosion in the popularity of BBM and WhatsApp in the marketplace, researchers have not yet investigated the usage behaviors associated with them. In fact, most existing studies have focus on the effects, both positive and negative, of other computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies, such as text messaging (Byrne & Findlay, 2004; Harrison & Gilmore, 2012; Hosking, Young, & Regan, 2009; Igrarashi, Motoyoshi, Takai, &

0362-3319/$ – see front matter © 2013 Western Social Science Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS

2

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Yoshida, 2008), email and instant messaging (Chen, Yen, & Huang, 2004; Lancaster & Yen, 2007), and the Internet (Davis, 1989; Huang, Hung, & Yen, 2007). Far less attention has been devoted to newer CMC technologies (Grellhest & Punyanunt-Carter, 2012; Skierkowski & Wood, 2012), such as BBM and WhatsApp text message applications. Today, it is not uncommon to observe couples or friends eating at restaurants where everyone at a table is using BBM or WhatsApp to text others rather than holding faceto-face conversations. In fact, it is not surprising to observe individuals walking down the street while staring at their smart phone screens to read or send text messages. As the attention of such individuals is focused on the screen, their walking speed slows, disregarding other pedestrians, who may be annoyed. In addition, Harrison and Gilmore (2012) have found that a substantial number of people report texting in seemingly inappropriate situations, such as “while on a date, while socializing in person with others, and to break up with and cheat on a romantic partner” (p. 513). More concerning, text messaging is being banned in cities in the US and other parts of the world as traffic fatalities rise as a result of “distracted” driving. Given these disturbing findings and previous researchers’ warnings regarding the addictive potential of CMC behaviors (Griffiths, 2000, 2010, 2012; Kuss & Griffiths, 2011; Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006), one may speculate that mobile text messaging technologies, such as BBM and WhatsApp applications, have become an essential aspect of the social lives of many people today and hence warrant investigations by consumer behaviorists. The main objectives of the current research are threefold: (1) to describe BBM and WhatsApp usage behaviors, (2) to examine personality traits that may have an influence on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp, and (3) to identify a potential driver of the excessive use of these applications. The current study is probably the first of this type to be undertaken within the BBM and WhatsApp context and thus offers significant contributions to the CMC literature. Furthermore, it is important to note that few studies have focused on the effects of CMC technology on consumers in the Middle East region (Rouibah & Hamdy, 2009); hence, this research paves the way for future researchers to expand their knowledge of CMC usage behaviors in this part of the developing world. The next section introduces literature related to the examined concept and establishes the framework for study to test the research hypotheses. 2. Literature overview 2.1. BBM and WhatsApp as new forms of mobile text message applications In general, text messaging has become a necessary form of communication throughout the world, and its adoption is increasing at a rapid rate (Global Mobile Statistics, 2012). For some individuals, text messaging is the most popular means of communicating with people in their social networks, with its use exceeding the use of faceto-face communications, emails, and voice calls (Lu et al., 2011; Skierkowski & Wood, 2012). Young adults send an

average of 109.5 text messages per day or approximately 3200 texts each month (Brenner, 2012). Young adults receive an additional 113 text messages and check their cell 60 times in a typical day (Harman & Sato, 2011). The introduction of smart phones, such as the Blackberry, iPhone, and Samsung Galaxy devices, has further expanded the tasks that can be performed on this newest generation of cell phones. It is expected that smart phone users will increasingly abandon traditional SMS technologies in favor of more convenient Internet-based mobile text messaging technologies (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2012), such as BBM and WhatsApp applications. BBM is an instant messenger application that is included only on Blackberry devices, whereas WhatsApp is a cross-plat form mobile messaging application available on several smart phone devices. Both applications allow users to exchange messages without paying service charges. Although BBM, WhatsApp, and SMS share the ability to send text messages via mobile devices, the first two have far more convenient functions that SMS does not support, such as sending unlimited photo, video, and audio messages enriched with emoticons without additional service charges. Therefore, these advanced Internet-based mobile text message applications have become a widely accepted phenomenon as a result of their affordability and convenience and the ability to send unlimited messages compared with that available through SMS technology. The next sections describe the personality characteristics of consumers who are more likely to use BBM or WhatsApp and determine why these consumers develop excessive usage behaviors. 2.2. The personality characteristics of BBM and WhatsApp consumers In the absence of any previous research in this area, the literature relating to CMC, particularly Internet and text messaging, is used as a basis from which to extrapolate the effects of personality traits on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp. In general, researchers have examined various effects of personality traits on consumer behaviors for different forms of CMC technology (e.g., Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe, 2007; Joinson, 2003; Kraut et al., 1998, 2002; Walther, 1996; Valkenburg, Schouten, & Peter, 2005; Valkenburg & Peter, 2007). Of significant importance to the current research is a stream of research that defines the personality characteristics of CMC users along the introversion/extraversion and social anxiety continuums. Introverts are defined as a quiet, reflective people who prefer their own company and do not enjoy large social events that drain their energy, whereas extraverts are friendly people who gain energy from face-to-face interactions at social events (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). John, Naumann, and Soto (2008) claim that introverts tend to be withdrawn from others, are less active, and express fewer positive emotions; by contrast, extraverts adopt an energetic approach toward the outside world and can be generally described as sociable, active, assertive, and predisposed to expressing positive emotions. Some believe that extraverts are more likely to turn to a form of CMC technology to interact with others to fulfill their unmet,

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

offline social needs than their introverted counterparts (McKenna & Bargh, 2002). This belief is further supported by later researchers who report that extraverts, compared with introverts, spend more time calling and sending text messages (Butt and Phillips, 2008; Igrarashi et al., 2008) and are more likely to be popular in online social interactions (Wilson, Fornasier, & White, 2010). Because BBM and WhatsApp are more convenient, rapid, and inexpensive Internet-based mobile text message applications, extraverts may prefer to use these applications over other forms of communication, such as email or SMS. Furthermore, because extraverts naturally tend to be more active social individuals compared with introverts, extroverts may find the social support functions of BBM and WhatsApp more appealing. In addition to extraversion, social anxiety is another strong predictor of which individuals may successfully form relationships over CMC technologies (Bai, Lin, & Chen, 2001; McKenna & Bargh, 2000; Shapira, Goldsmith, Keck, Khosla, & McElroy, 2000). According to Wittchen, “social anxiety . . .is characterized by persistent, unreasonably strong, frequent overwhelming fears of social performance situations where individuals are fearful of being scrutinized by other people and being subject to negative evaluation” (2000, p. 7). Social anxiety is also known as social phobia and anxiety disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994); thus, those terms are used interchangeably in the current research. In the CMC literature, researchers argue that it is easier for socially anxious individuals to form relationships over CMC media because of the absence of many of the anxiety-inducing factors that exist in face-to-face interactions (McKenna & Bargh, 2000). These individuals may use such media for extended periods, isolating themselves from other forms of social contact and may focus entirely on these media rather than broader life events (Weinstein and Lejoyeux, 2010). In addition, people with high levels of social anxiety spend more time in indirect communication through text messaging with others (Bianchi & Phillips, 2005; Butt & Phillips, 2008). The present study contends that the protective environments of BBM and WhatsApp are particularly similar to Internet and text messaging because BBM and WhatsApp rely on the Internet and text messaging for communication. Hence, interactions on BBM and WhatsApp create a context that generates less social anxiety than face-to-face meetings do and are thus significant for people with social inhibitions who tend to be shy and fearful in face-to-face relationships. To further understand the effects of extraversion and social anxiety on BBM and WhatsApp consumers, it is essential to examine the differences between these two constructs. First, extraversion relates to situations in which a person gains energy from social interactions, whereas social anxiety involves being ruled by shyness and fearfulness in public situations. Generally, introverts need quiet time or time alone to re-energize after too many social outings, whereas extraverts are energized by being around and interacting with other people. Individuals who exhibit high levels of social anxiety fear being the center of attention and are likely to be shy individuals, whereas individuals who exhibit low levels of social anxiety interact fearlessly in their surroundings. Therefore, it is possible for introverts

3

or extraverts to be either shy and exhibit high social anxiety or fearless and exhibit low social anxiety as demonstrated in Illustration 1. Given the construct differences between extraversion and social anxiety, one may logically argue that introverts and extraverts may react differently to BBM and WhatsApp according to their social anxiety levels. Under high levels of social anxiety, shy extraverts might be more favorably disposed to BBM and WhatsApp compared with shy introverts. This expectation is warranted because shy extraverts have natural tendencies to be more active and social compared with shy introverts, but because of the anxiety-inducing factors that exist in face-to-face interactions, the tendencies of the former remain unexercised. Consequently, shy extraverts seek a more protective environment, such as BBM and WhatsApp, to exercise their unmet extraverted tendencies. By contrast, under low levels of social anxiety, fearless extraverts and introverts show no differences in their attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp simply because these individuals communicate naturally in face-to-face situations and thus do not differ in their need to communicate in a more protective environment. These individuals simply exercise their natural introverted or extraverted tendencies in face-to-face situations. Given these predictions, the differences between extraverts’ and introverts’ attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp should be more pronounced under high levels of social anxiety compared with low levels of social anxiety, leading to the following hypothesis: H1. The effect of extraversion on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp is moderated by social anxiety. 2.3. Addictive behaviors of BBM and WhatsApp consumers Throughout the past two decades, there has been a rapid increase in research focusing on technological addiction (Griffiths, 1996, 2000, 2010, 2012; Peters & Malesky, 2008; Phillips, 2006; Young, 2004). Griffiths (1996) defined technological addiction as a behavioral addiction that involves human–machine interaction and that is non-chemical in nature. A number of past researchers have argued that the term “addiction” should be applied only to cases involving the ingestion of a drug (e.g., Rachlin, 1990; Walker, 1989). However, defining “addiction” has since moved beyond this definition to include a number of behaviors that do not involve intoxicants (Young, 2004). Whether or not these behaviors are actually addictions, researchers have found evidence suggesting that excessive use of technology can be problematic (Griffiths, 1998; Shotton, 1989). This type of addiction has since been extended to incorporate other forms of CMC technology, such as text message addiction (Hong, Chiu, & Huang, 2012; Rutland, Sheets, & Young, 2007) and Internet addiction (Campbell, Cumming, & Hughes, 2006; Davis, 1989; Huang et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2009). Although text message addiction has emerged in the last few years, Internet addiction – also referred to as Internet dependence and problematic/pathological Internet use – (see Chou, Condron, & Bellan, 2006) has been researched

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS

4

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

more heavily because of the long history and use by consumers (Igrarashi et al., 2008). Thus, prior to investigating BBM and WhatsApp text message addiction, it is important to study addictive behavior on the Internet because both BBM and WhatsApp rely on the Internet for communication. A growing body of research suggests that Internet addiction involves tolerance, withdrawal symptoms, affective disturbances, and interruption of social relationships, which is a pressing problem that is becoming more common in society as similar forms of communication technology increase daily. Moreover, many researchers note that unregulated interactions with CMC technologies can cause significant offline difficulties for some individuals (Griffiths, 2000, 2003; LaRose, Lin, & Eastin, 2003; Young & Rogers, 1998). One study suggests that subjects with excessive Internet use patterns may have personality traits that are similar to those of depressed patients (Lee et al., 2009). Furthermore, the Internet has a special facility to assist people who have social difficulties in developing the ability to build and maintain multiple relationships (Amichai-Hamburger & Furnham, 2007). Campbell et al. (2006) argued that users with social phobias may use the Internet as a form of low-risk social approach and as an opportunity to rehearse social behavior and communication skills, which may help them improve interactions in face-to-face environments. In addition, research suggests that individuals may not be addicted to the Internet itself but are rather addicted to the social support functions of the Internet (Hong et al., 2012). These researchers argue that text messaging belongs to the same interactive technology as the Internet. Furthermore, research suggests that preferences for text messaging mirror those for social interaction via the Internet in several aspects (Reid & Reid, 2007). It is clear from CMC research that social interactions through the Internet and text messaging have the potential to provide short-term comfort, excitement, and/or distraction (Widyanto & Griffiths, 2006, 2009). Given the similarities between the Internet and text messaging, one may logically argue that users of BBM and WhatsApp, as new forms of Internet-based mobile text message applications, may be drawn to their devices for the social support functions that fulfill their unmet social and personal needs. In relation to the current research, a number of researchers have shown that technological addictions can be positively associated with extraversion (e.g., AmichaiHamburger, Wainapel, & Fox, 2002; Bianchi & Phillips, 2005; Buckner, Castille, & Sheets, 2012; Butt & Phillips, 2008; Ehrenberg, Juckes, White, & Walsh, 2008; Hong et al., 2012; Kraut et al., 1998; Wilson et al., 2010), social anxiety (e.g., Hong et al., 2012; Skierkowski & Wood, 2012), and discontent with peer interactions (e.g., Liu & Kuo, 2007). Bianchi and Phillips (2005) claim that extraverts are more susceptible to the problematic use of mobile phones and text message functions because they are more likely to seek social interactions. Ehrenberg et al. (2008) and Hong et al. (2012) also provide empirical support to show that extraverted people spend more time text messaging, and they also show that personality traits associated with antisocial behavior may cause people to develop text message preferences. In a similar vein, a US research team

Social Anxiety

Addiction to BBM & WhatsApp

Extraversion

Attitudes toward BBM & WhatsApp

Fig. 1. Research framework.

finds evidence for an association between trait anxiety and mobile phone dependence and mobile phone abuse (Merlo & Stone, 2009). Taken together, there is fragmentary evidence that extensive text message use can have adverse effects on well-being and life quality. Furthermore, as noted earlier, individuals who are characterized by extraversion and high levels of social anxiety are more prone to excessive text messaging because of the social support functions of these services (which fulfill their unmet social and personal needs). Therefore, this study argues that consumers who develop favorable attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp may do so because of their addiction to the social support functions of these applications, leading to the following hypothesis (Fig. 1): H2. The effect of the interaction between extraversion and social anxiety on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp is mediated by consumers’ addiction to BBM and WhatsApp. 3. Methodology 3.1. Sampling and participants To capture a diverse sample of BBM and WhatsApp consumers, participants were recruited by asking business students enrolled in undergraduate courses at a large university in Kuwait to send BBM and/or WhatsApp messages with a survey link to all of their BBM and/or WhatsApp contacts and to encourage them to participate in the survey. Students were given course credit for contacting their BBM and WhatsApp contacts. The online survey was developed using Qualtrics, an online data collection site. Confidentiality was emphasized in the consent form and survey, both of which stated that responses were used for research purposes and that no one would receive information about their responses. After discarding surveys from 145 participants who began the survey but did not submit it, the sampling resulted in a group of 552 participants, a 79.20% response rate. The participants include 185 male students and 367 female students. The mean age of the participants is 24.18 (SD = 7.54). The majority of the participants, 96.90%, are local citizens, and the remaining 3.10% are non-citizens from other Arab states. 3.2. Measures The survey scales are adapted from previous wellknown studies. If Arabic-translated scales were unavailable in the literature, scales were translated using back translation from English to Arabic and reverse translated into English. The translated scales were reviewed by two

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

5

Table 1 Descriptive statistics.

Usage frequency 1–3 times 4–6 times 7–12 times More than 12 times Total Usage importance Mean SD Usage duration Less than a year 1–2 years 2–3 years More than 3 years Total Perceived addiction Yes No Don’t know

BBM

WhatsApp

Total

11 (4.6%) 51 (21.52%) 53 (22.36%) 109 (46%) 237 (100%)

49 (15.60%) 70 (22.22%) 65 (20.63%) 69 (21.90%) 315 (100%)

60 (10.90%) 121 (21.92%) 118 (21.38%) 178 (32.25%) 552 (100%)

4.35 .75

3.97 .95

4.13 .89

11 (4.6%) 53 (22.40%) 80 (33.80%) 93 (39.2%) 237 (100%)

49 (15.60%) 100 (31.70%) 73 (23.20%) 93 (29.50%) 315 (100%)

60 (10.90%) 153 (27.70%) 153 (27.70%) 186 (33.70%) 552 (100%)

105 (44.30%) 71 (29.96%) 61 (25.74%) 237 (100%)

67 (21.47%) 187 (59.84%) 58 (18.59%) 312 (100%)

172 (31.33%) 258 (46.99%) 119 (21.68%) 549 (100%)

Source: SPSS frequency tables. Note: Usage frequency = How many times do you use the BBM or WhatsApp application within an hour? Usage importance = How important is BBM or WhatsApp in your life? Usage duration = How long have you been using the BBM or WhatsApp application? Perceived addiction = Do you perceive yourself to be addicted to the BBM or WhatsApp application?

bilingual experts in the field for content validity. To simplify the task demands on the participants, all Likert-type scale items on the survey require a response on a 5-point scale. At the beginning of the survey, the participants report demographic information, including gender, age, and nationality. The participants’ social anxiety (˛ = .90) is assessed with 20 items obtained from the social phobia/anxiety scale of Orsillo and Hammond (2001) and translated into Arabic by Al-Banna, Abdel-Khalek, and Mourad (2006), anchored with “Not at All” and “Extremely.” Additionally, the level of extraversion of the participants (˛ = .72) is assessed with 8 items extracted from the Big Five trait taxonomy (John & Srivastava, 1999). The participants then indicate the type of mobile text message applications that they use (i.e., BBM or WhatsApp) and the extent to which they feel that BBM or WhatsApp is important to their lives, anchored with “Very Unimportant” and “Very Important.” The participants also report how many times they use BBM or WhatsApp within an hour, including the options of 1–3, 4–6, 7–12, and more than 12 times, and how long they have used BBM or WhatsApp, including the options of less than a year, 1–2 years, 2–3 years, and more than 3 years. The participants then rate their levels of BBM and WhatsApp addiction (˛ = .91) by reconstructing 17 items from the problematic Internet use questionnaire proposed by Demetrovics, Szeredi, and Rozsa (2008). As an example, one Internet addiction item reads as follows: “How often do you fantasize about the Internet or think about what it would be like to be online when you are not on the Internet?” To fit the BBM and WhatsApp context, the item reads as follows: “How often do you fantasize about BBM or WhatsApp or think about what it would be like to be using them when you are not using them?” This question is anchored with “Never” and “Always.” Furthermore, the measure of consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp (˛ = .82) is assessed using

5 items adapted from the online communication attitude (MOCA) measure developed by Ledbetter (2009). As an example, one MOCA item reads as follows: “If I couldn’t communicate online, I would feel ‘out of the loop’ with my friends”. To fit the BBM and WhatsApp context, the item is changed to read as follows: “If I couldn’t communicate on BBM or WhatsApp, I would feel ‘out of the loop’ with my friends”, anchored with “Strongly Disagree” and “Strongly Agree.” At the end of the survey, the participants are asked to rate the extent to which they have been using BBM or WhatsApp for reasons such as communicating with friends and family members, obtaining the latest news and information, seeking entertainment, escaping from boredom, expressing themselves, meeting new people, and talking only, anchored with “Strongly Disagree” and “Strongly Agree.” Finally, the participants are asked to indicate whether they perceive themselves as addicted to BBM or WhatsApp by selecting “Yes,” “No,” or “Don’t Know.” See the Appendix for all survey items. 4. Results 4.1. Descriptive statistics In the sample, 237 participants were BBM users, and 315 were WhatsApp users.1 When asked about their

1 An ad hoc analysis was conducted to test for differences in extraversion and social anxiety traits between BBM and WhatsApp users. The data show there are no significant differences between the two types of users (p > .05). In addition, a three-way interaction was used to test for the effects of application type, extraversion, and social anxiety on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp. All effects are found to be non-significant (p > .05), except for the interaction effect of extraversion and social anxiety (p < .01), suggesting that there is no significant effect

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model

ARTICLE IN PRESS

6

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Table 2 Reasons for using BBM and WhatsApp applications. Reasons

Mean

SD

Communicating with family and friends Obtaining the latest news and information Seeking entertainment Escaping from boredom Expressing themselves Meeting new people Talking only

4.40 4.10 3.94 3.82 3.74 3.11 3.01

.85 .92 .97 1.04 .97 1.12 .99

Note: Responses are given on a 5-point Likert scale where 1 = “Strongly Disagree”, 5 = “Strongly Agree”.

hourly usage frequency, 10.90% of the participants indicated 1–3 times, 21.90% indicated 4–6 times, 21.83% indicated 7–12 times, and 32.25% indicated more than 12 times. When asked about the importance of BBM or WhatsApp in their lives, the participants reported a mean of 4.13 (SD = .89), suggesting a high level of importance. Moreover, more than 61% of the participants indicated they had used BBM or WhatsApp for more than 2 years. When the participants were further asked about whether they perceived themselves to be addicted to BBM or WhatsApp, 31.33% reported “Yes,” 47% reported “No,” and 21.67% reported “Don’t Know.” Detailed descriptions for BBM and WhatsApp usage frequency, importance, usage duration, and perceived addiction are provided in Table 1. The participants indicate their reasons for using BBM or WhatsApp are to communicate with family and friends (M = 4.40, SD = .85), obtain the latest news and information (M = 4.10, SD = .92), seek entertainment (M = 3.94, SD = .97), escape from boredom (M = 3.92, SD = 1.04), express themselves (M = 3.74, SD = .97), meet new people (M = 3.11, SD = 1.12), and talk only (M = 3.01, SD = .99), sorted from the most important to the least important (see Table 2). These gratifications have also been identified by previous researchers for other CMC technologies (Courtois, Merchant, Marez, & Verleye, 2009; Harrison & Gilmore, 2012; Krishnamurthy & Dou, 2008; Park, Kee, & Valenzuela, 2009; Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2008; Shao, 2009).

Attitudes toward BBM & WhatsApp

SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

3.84 3.38

3.24

3.18

Extraverts Introverts

Shy (High Social Anxiety) Fearless (Low Social Anxiety) Social Anxiety

Fig. 2. The interaction effect of extraversion and social anxiety on consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp.

p < .001. However, for participants who exhibit low social anxiety, the difference is non-significant: MExtraverts = 3.24, MIntroverts = 3.18, t(287) = .55, p = .58; see Fig. 2. These findings support the theoretical arguments underpinning the study. Lastly, the method for identifying mediation proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) is utilized to test for the mediation effect of addiction to BBM and WhatsApp (hypothesis 2). This method requires checking for three regressions. As illustrated in Table 3, the interaction between extraversion and social anxiety is significant when consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp are regressed on the factors (B = .19, p < .01). The same interaction is significant when the addiction to BBM and WhatsApp measure is regressed on the factors (B = .16, p < .01). Furthermore, when the addiction to BBM and WhatsApp measure is entered as a covariate in the first regression equation, the interaction is not significant (B = .104, p = .13), and the addiction main effect is significant (B = .51, p < .001); thus, hypothesis 2 is supported.

Table 3 A summary of the moderated mediation analysis.

4.2. Hypothesis testing

Parameter

To test for the research hypotheses, regression analysis using SPSS is utilized. When consumer attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp are regressed on extraversion and social anxiety, the interaction between the two factors is significant (B = .19, p < .01); hence, hypothesis 1 is supported. To further understand this interaction, the means of extraverts and introverts are compared in the context of high and low levels of social anxiety. A median split is used to identify participants who are extraverts or introverts and who exhibit high social anxiety – shyness – or low social anxiety – fearlessness. For participants who exhibit high social anxiety, the difference between extraverts and introverts is significant: MExtraverts = 3.84, MIntroverts = 3.38, t(261) = 3.99,

Moderation analysis (1) 3.677 .633 1 Intercept −.391 .269 1 Social anxiety −.247 .171 1 Extraversion .186 .074 1 Social anxiety × Extraversion Note: Dependent variable: attitudes toward BBM & WhatsApp

.000 .146 .149 .012

Moderation analysis (2) 2.034 .459 1 Intercept −.073 .195 1 Social anxiety −.204 .125 1 Extraversion .160 .054 1 Social anxiety × Extraversion Note: Dependent variable: addiction to BBM & WhatsApp

.000 .708 .101 .003

of application type on the participants’ responses. Therefore, aggregated data is used for all future analyses.

B

Std. error

Df

Sig.

Moderation analysis (3) with addiction to BBM and WhatsApp as a covariate 2.640 .599 1 .000 Intercept −.354 .249 1 .157 Social anxiety −.143 .159 1 .370 Extraversion .510 .055 1 .000 Addiction to BBM & WhatsApp .104 .069 1 .134 Social anxiety × Extraversion Note: Dependent variable: attitudes toward BBM & WhatsApp

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model

ARTICLE IN PRESS

SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

7

Fearless (Low Social Anxiety)

Fearless Introverts

Fearless Extraverts

Introversion

Extraversion Shy Introverts

Shy Extraverts

Shy (High Social Anxiety) Illustration 1. Grouping individuals based on their extraversion and social anxiety levels.

5. General discussion and implications The main objectives of the current research are to explore the usage behaviors of BBM and WhatsApp consumers and to identify potential factors that draw consumers to use these applications so frequently. To address this gap in the literature, this study uses general knowledge about how CMC technologies, specifically the Internet and text messaging, influence the lives of individuals and then narrowly assesses the personality traits of BBM and WhatsApp consumers. The findings show that BBM and WhatsApp consumers turn to these applications primarily for socializing with family and friends, acquiring information, and seeking entertainment. Some of these findings support previous researchers’ findings regarding other forms of CMC technology (Courtois et al., 2009; Harrison & Gilmore, 2012; Krishnamurthy & Dou, 2008; Park et al., 2009; Raacke & Bonds-Raacke, 2008; Shao, 2009). Startlingly, the data demonstrate that more than 32% of participants report using BBM or WhatsApp more than 12 times per hour, and 53% of the participants perceive themselves to be either BBM or WhatsApp addicts or do not know whether they are addicts. As predicted in the research, the data provide support for the notion that higher extraversion levels result in more favorable attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp, but the relationship is moderated by different levels of social anxiety. That is, the difference between extraverts and introverts in their attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp is more pronounced among consumers who exhibit high social anxiety compared to consumers who exhibit low social anxiety. This is because shy extraverts who tend to want to be social and active have difficulty exercising their extraverted tendencies in anxiety-inducing situations such as face-to-face interactions; they are thus more likely to turn to BBM or WhatsApp to fulfill their unmet social needs compared with shy introverts who have tendencies to be less social and less active. These findings suggest that consumers who depend on these applications more frequently are likely to be extraverts who exhibit high social anxiety – shy extraverts. However, this difference is not pronounced between extraverts and introverts who exhibit

low social anxiety – fearless extraverts and introverts – because consumers who exhibit low social anxiety generally do not have problems exercising their extraverted or introverted tendencies in face-to-face interactions and do not need a more protected environment, such as that found in BBM and WhatsApp. Finally, the data provide empirical evidence that the interaction effect of extraversion and social anxiety on attitudes toward BBM and WhatsApp is mediated by consumers’ addiction to BBM and WhatsApp. This finding indicates that consumers who use these applications frequently are doing so because they are addicted to these applications. In general, the research does not suggest that these advanced communication applications are inherently harmful. In fact, they have been proven to be quite useful on certain occasions. Indeed, BBM and WhatsApp have more advantages than simply being a relatively inexpensive means of sending information to others. These applications provide a faster and easier method of communicating than phone calls or SMS. Such applications also have the potential to bring people closer to one another regardless of distance. However, the use of these applications may be pointless in some cases in which individuals initiate conversations simply for the sake of texting only, especially when those individuals are in near proximity to one another. There is a great difference between interacting with people face-to-face and interacting through BBM and WhatsApp text messaging. It is generally accepted that socializing through CMC media does not meet the standards for what is termed “healthy” socialization and does not address underlying feelings of social disconnection (e.g., Anderson, Fagan, Woodnutt, & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2012; Kujath, 2011; Ellison et al., 2007), even if it may offer a tempting coping device for the lonely (Sheldon, Abad, & Hinsch, 2011). Therefore, BBM or WhatsApp should be used with a healthy amount of self-control to avoid addictive usage behaviors that could ultimately result in the degradation of face-to-face communication skills. Drawing on the strength model of self-control (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996), strengthening selfcontrol via exercises could increase individual self-control resources and decrease addictive behaviors that could

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS

8

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

result from frequent BBM and WhatsApp uses. Just like a physical exercise can strengthen a muscle over time, these self-control exercises can enhance users’ self-control resources over time (cf., Oaten & Cheng, 2006, 2007; Sultan, Joireman, & Sprott, 2012). Therefore, the current researcher suggests that users could exercise their selfcontrol by initially specifying a few times during a day to check their BBM or WhatsApp messages. They can further limit their usage time by specifying only a couple of days during the week to use these applications. After a few weeks, these users should be in control well enough to expand the periods of BBM and WhatsApp inaccessibility and to check their messages once per week. In addition to controlling the usage behaviors through self-control exercises, the researcher recommends that BBM and WhatsApp users attempt to make it a habit to visit with their friends and family members during social occasions, to engage in face-to-face interactions rather than sending BBM or WhatsApp text messages. Such acts may help emphasize the importance of face-to-face communication and are useful for developing stronger relationships among individuals. Furthermore, the researcher suggests that BBM and WhatsApp consumers should turn off their smart phones in situations that require conscious attendance, such as while driving, while gathering with friends and family members, and while enjoying a romantic date with a partner. From a practitioner’s perspective, the findings of the current research have important implications. First, understanding the effect of personality traits on BBM and WhatsApp consumers allows marketers to design marketing campaigns that fit the social and personal needs of consumers. Second, consumer ethicists can develop a better understanding of factors that have effects on consumer affairs, which would in turn increase consumer awareness of the negative consequences of BBM and WhatsApp. Third, consumers can learn to make smarter consumption choices by controlling their BBM and WhatsApp usage and attempting to optimize the advantages of these applications. Finally, public policy makers can help society by making stringent rules and laws that control the usage of BBM and WhatsApp during certain situations, such as driving – which is particularly significant, as it has been shown that text messaging increases the risk of crashing 23-fold compared with driving without distraction (NHTSA, 2009). To reduce the number of car accidents, the manufacturers of such applications should consider including a safety feature that can disable the usage of these applications while

driving. Such a feature would be possible in practical terms because the majority of smart phones are connected to the Internet and are equipped with a global position system (GPS) that determines whether a person is on the move. 6. Limitations and future research The current study has certain limitations that should be considered when interpreting its findings and that could be addressed in future research. First, the findings are specific to the Middle East region. Although there is no reason to believe the findings cannot be replicated in other regions, it is worth testing whether these findings are generalizable to other cultures. Second, future researchers should test for cultural invariance, as it is possible that different cultures have different scale dimensions that are specific to their regions, which might not have been captured in this research that relied on back translations to develop Arabic scales. Such research requires data from different regions of the world. Third, this study used Qualitrics, an online data collection site, to collect the research data, and different checks were used to ensure that each data point is unique; however, it is possible that some participants completed more than one survey. To control for this common flaw of online surveys, future researchers should employ a more controlled data collection technique, such as controlled labs. Finally, as far as can be determined, this research is the first of this type to focus on BBM and WhatsApp usage behaviors and thus provides insight into critical aspects of BBM and WhatsApp social and personal problems. It is important to note that although the Middle East region has recently increased its connectivity via different forms of CMC technology, little is understood about the usage behaviors of CMC technology and the motivation behind their acceptance in this part of the developing world (Rouibah & Hamdy, 2009). This region places great emphasis on social relationships based on oral communication and face-to-face interactions. Therefore, these cultural norms may be impaired by BBM and WhatsApp addictive usage behaviors; more research must to be conducted to understand the potential effects, both positive and negative, of these behaviors on consumer social life, specifically in high-context cultures. Acknowledgement This work was supported and funded by Kuwait University Research Grant No. IM01/12.

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Appendix.

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

9

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS

10

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

References Al-Banna, H. K., Abdel-Khalek, A. M., & Mourad, S. A. (2006). Social anxiety and its relation to automatic negative thinking among Kuwait university undergraduates. Derasat Nafseyah, 16(2), 291–312. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author. Amichai-Hamburger, Y., & Furnham, A. (2007). The positive net. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(2), 1033–1045. Amichai-Hamburger, Y., Wainapel, G., & Fox, S. (2002). On the Internet no one knows I’man introvert: Extraversion, neuroticism, and Internet interaction. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 5(2), 125–128. Anderson, B., Fagan, P., Woodnutt, T., & Chamorro-Premuzic, T. (2012). Facebook psychology: Popular questions answered by research. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 1(1), 23–37. Argyle, M. (2001). The psychology of happiness. London: Routledge. Argyle, M. (1996). The psychology of leisure. London: Routledge. Argyle, M. (1989). The psychology of work. London: Penguin. Bai, Y. M., Lin, C. C., & Chen, J. Y. (2001). Internet addiction disorder among clients of a virtual clinic. Psychiatric Services, 52(10), 1397–1397. Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182. Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7, 1–15. Bianchi, A., & Phillips, J. G. (2005). Psychological predictors of problem mobile phone use. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 8(1), 39–51. Brenner, J. (2012, August). Pew Internet: Mobile. Retrieved from www. pewinternet.org/commentary/2012/February/per-internet-mobile. aspx Buckner, J. V., Castille, C. M., & Sheets, T. L. (2012). The five factor model of personality and employees’ excessive use of technology. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1947–1953. Butt, S., & Phillips, J. G. (2008). Personality and self-reported mobile phone use. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 346–360.

11

Byrne, R., & Findlay, B. (2004). Preference for SMS versus telephone calls in initiating romantic relationships. Australian Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society, 2(1), 48–61. Campbell, A. J., Cumming, S. R., & Hughes, I. (2006). Internet use by the socially fearful: Addiction or therapy? CyberPsychology and Behavior, 9(1), 69–81. Chen, K., Yen, D. C., & Huang, A. H. (2004). Media selection to meet communications contexts: Comparing e-mail and instant messaging in an undergraduate population. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 14, 387–4051. Chou, C., Condron, L., & Bellan, J. C. (2006). A review of the research on Internet addiction. Educational Psychology Review, 17, 368–388. Courtois, C., Mechant, P., DeMarez, L., & Verleye, G. (2009). Gratifications and seeding behavior of online adolescents. Journal of ComputerMediated Communication, 15, 109–137. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–339. Demetrovics, Z., Szeredi, B., & Rozsa, S. (2008). The three-factor model of Internet addiction: The development of the problematic Internet use questionnaire. Behavior Research Methods, 40(2), 563–574. Ehrenberg, A., Juckes, S., White, K. M., & Walsh, S. P. (2008). Personality and self-esteem as predictors of young people’s technology use. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 11(6), 739–741. Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). Connection strategies: Social capital implications of Facebook-enabled communication practices. New Media and Society, 13, 878–892. Eysenck, H. J., & Eysenck, S. B. G. (1975). Manual of the Eysenck personality questionnaire (junior and adult). London, England: Hodder & Stoughton. Forbes. (2012). WhatsApp: The biggest social network you’ve never heard of. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/ benedictevans/2012/10/19/whatsapp-the-biggest-social-networkyouve-never-heard-of/ Global Mobile Statistics. (2012). Retrieved from http://mobithinking.com/ mobile-marketing-tools/latest-mobile-stats Grellhest, M., & Punyanunt-Carter, M. (2012). Using the uses and gratifications theory to understand gratifications sought through text

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS

12

A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

messaging practices of male and female undergraduate students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 2175–2181. Griffiths, M. D. (2012). Facebook addiction: Concerns, criticism, and recommendations – A response to Anderson and Colleagues. Psychological Reports, 110(2), 518–520. Griffiths, M. D. (2010). The Internet abuse and Internet addiction in the workplace. The Journal of Workplace Learning, 22(7), 463–472. Griffiths, M. D. (2003). Internet abuse in the workplace: Issues and concerns for employers and employment counselors. Journal of Employment Counseling, 40(2), 87–96. Griffiths, M. D. (2000). Does Internet and computer addiction exist? Some case study evidence. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 3, 211–218. Griffiths, M. D. (1998). Internet addiction: Does it really exist? In J. Gackenbach (Ed.), Psychology and the Internet: Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and transpersonal applications (pp. 61–75). New York: Academic Press. Griffiths, M. D. (1996). Gambling on the Internet: A brief note. Journal of Gambling Studies, 12, 471–473. Harman, B., & Sato, T. (2011). Cell phone use and grade point average among undergraduate university students. College Student Journal, 45(3), 544–549. Harrison, M. A., & Gilmore, A. L. (2012). U txt when? College students’ social contexts of text messaging. The Social Science Journal, 49, 513–518. Hong, F., Chiu, S., & Huang, D. (2012). A model of the relationship between psychological characteristic, mobile phone addiction and use of mobile phones by Taiwanese university female students. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 2152–2159. Hosking, S. G., Young, K. L., & Regan, M. A. (2009). The effects of text messaging on young drivers. Human Factors, 51, 582–592. Huang, A. H., Hung, S. Y., & Yen, D. C. (2007). An exploratory investigation of two Internet-based communication modes. Computer Standards and Interfaces, 29(2), 238–243. Igrarashi, T., Motoyoshi, T., Takai, J., & Yoshida, T. (2008). No mobile, no life: Self-perception and text-message dependency among Japanese high school students. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 2311–2324. John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Previn (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 114–158). New York: Guilford Press. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. Previn, & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research. New York: Guilford Press. Joinson, A. N. (2003). Understanding the psychology of Internet behavior: Virtual worlds, real lives. Pagrave: Macmillan. Kraut, R., Kiesler, S., Boneva, B., Cummings, J., Helgeson, V., & Crawford, A. (2002). Internet paradox revisited. Journal of Social Issues, 58(1), 49–74. Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukopadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998). Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being? American Psychologist, 53, 1017–1031. Krishnamurthy, S., & Dou, W. (2008). Advertising with user-generated content: A framework and research agenda. Journal of Interactive Advertising, 8(2), 1–7. Kujath, C. L. (2011). Facebook and MySpace: Complement or substitute for face-to-face interaction? Cyber Psychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(1/2), 75–78. Kuss, D. J., & Griffiths, M. D. (2011). Excessive online social networking: Can adolescents become addicted to Facebook? Education and Health, 29(4), 68–71. Lancaster, S., & Yen, D. C. (2007). The selection of instant messaging or e-mail college students’ perspective for computer communication. Information Management and Computer Security, 15(1), 5–22. LaRose, R., Lin, C. A., & Eastin, M. S. (2003). Unregulated Internet usage: Addiction, habit, or deficient self-regulation? Media Psychology, 5(3), 225–253. Ledbetter, A. M. (2009). Measuring online communication attitude: Instrument development and validation. Communication Monographs, 76(4), 463–489. Lee, Y., Han, D., Yang, K., Daniels, M., Na, C., Kee, B., et al. (2009). Depression like characteristics of 5HTTLPR polymorphism and temperament in excessive Internet users. Journal of Affective Disorders, 109(1), 165–169. Liu, C. Y., & Kuo, F. Y. (2007). A study of Internet addiction through the lens of the interpersonal theory. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10(6), 779–804. Lu, X., Waqtanabe, J., Liu, Q., Uji, M., Shono, M., & Kitamura, T. (2011). Internet and mobile phone text-messaging dependency: Factor structure

and correlation with dyphoric mood among Japanese adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 1702–1709. McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (2002). Can you see the real me? Activation and expression of the true shelf on the Internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 33–48. McKenna, K. Y. A., & Bargh, J. A. (2000). Plan 9 from cyberspace: The implications of the Internet for personality and social psychology. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 4(1), 57–75. Merlo, L. J., & Stone, A. M. (2009). Poster: Comorbidity of anxiety symptoms and cellular phone. Gainesville: Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida. NHTSA. (2009). Driver distraction in commercial vehicle operRetrieved from http://www.distraction.gov/research/ ations. PDF-Files/Driver-Distraction-Commercial-Vehicle-Operations.pdf Oaten, M., & Cheng, K. (2006). Longitudinal gains in self-regulation from regular physical exercise. British Journal of Health Psychology, 11, 717–733. Oaten, M., & Cheng, K. (2007). Improvements in self-control from financial monitoring. Journal of Economic Psychology, 28, 487–501. Orsillo, S. M., & Hammond, C. (2001). Social phobia: A brief overview and guide to assessment. In M. M. Antony, S. M. Orsillo, & L. Roemer (Eds.), Practitioner’s guide to empirically based measures of anxiety. New York, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. Park, N., Kee, K. F., & Valenzuela, S. (2009). Being immersed in social networking environment: Facebook groups, uses and gratifications, and social outcomes. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 12(6), 729–733. Peters, C. S., & Malesky, L. A. (2008). Problematic usage among highlyengaged players of massively multiplayer online role playing games. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 11, 481–484. Pew Internet & American Life Project. (2012). Retrieved from http://www. pewinternet.org/Press-Releases/2013/Teens-and-Technology-2013. aspx Phillips, J. G. (2006). The psychology of Internet use and misuse. In M. Anadarajan, T. Thompson, & C. Simmers (Eds.), The Internet and workplace transformation (2nd ed., pp. 41–62). Armonk: Sharpe. Rachlin, H. (1990). Why do people gamble and keep gambling despite heavy losses? Psychological Science, 1, 294–297. Raacke, J., & Bonds-Raacke, J. (2008). MySpace and Facebook: Applying the uses and gratifications theory to exploring friend-networking sites. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 11(2), 169–174. Rouibah, K., & Hamdy, H. (2009). Factors affecting information communication technologies usage and satisfaction: Perspective from instant messaging in Kuwait. Journal of Global Information Management, 17(2), 1–29. Reid, D. J., & Reid, F. J. M. (2007). Text or talk? Social anxiety, loneliness, and divergent preferences for cell phone use. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10(3), 424–435. Rutland, J. B., Sheets, T. L., & Young, T. (2007). Development of a scale to measure problem use of short message service: The SMS problem use diagnostic questionnaire. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 10, 841–844. Shao, G. (2009). Understanding the appeal of user-generated media: The uses and gratification perspective. Internet Research, 19(1), 7–25. Shapira, N., Goldsmith, T., Keck, P., Jr., Khosla, D., & McElroy, S. (2000). Psychiatric features of individuals with problematic Internet use. Journal of Affective Disorders, 57, 267–272. Sheldon, K. M., Abad, N., & Hinsch, C. (2011). A two-process view of Facebook use and relatedness need-satisfaction: Disconnection drives use, and connection rewards it. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(4), 766–775. Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. London: Taylor and Francis. Skierkowski, D., & Wood, R. M. (2012). To text or not to text? The importance of text messaging among college-aged youth. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 744–756. Sultan, A. J., Joireman, J., & Sprott, D. E. (2012). The effect of self-control exercise on impulse buying urges. Marketing Letters, 23(10), 61–72. Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2007). Online communication and adolescent well-being: Testing the simulation versus the displacement hypothesis. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(4), article 2 Valkenburg, P. M., Schouten, A. P., & Peter, J. (2005). Adolescents’ identity experiments on the Internet. New Media and Society, 7(3), 383–402. Walker, M. B. (1989). Some problems with the concept of gambling addiction: Should theories of addiction be generalized to include excessive gambling? Journal of Gambling Behavior, 5, 179–200. Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and hyper personal interaction. Communication Research, 23(1), 3–43.

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003

G Model SOCSCI-1104; No. of Pages 13

ARTICLE IN PRESS A.J. Sultan / The Social Science Journal xxx (2013) xxx–xxx

Weinstein, A., & Lejoyeux, M. (2010). Internet addiction or excessive Internet use. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 36(5), 277–283. Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. D. (2009). Unraveling the web: Adolescents and Internet addiction. In R. Zheng, J. Burrow-Sanchez, & C. Drew (Eds.), Adolescent online social communication and behavior: Relationship formation on the Internet (pp. 29–49). Hershey, PA: Idea Publishing. Widyanto, L., & Griffiths, M. (2006). ‘Internet addiction’: A critical review. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 4(1), 31–51.

13

Wilson, K., Fornasier, S., & White, K. M. (2010). Psychological predictors of young adults’ use of social networking sites. CyberPsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 13(2), 173–177. Wittchen, H. U. (2000). The many faces of social anxiety disorder. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 75(Suppl. 1), S7–S12. Young, K. S. (2004). Internet addiction: A new clinical phenomenon and its consequences. The American Behavioral Scientist, 48(4), 402–415. Young, K. S., & Rogers, R. C. (1998). The Relationship between depression and Internet addiction. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 1, 25–28.

Please cite this article in press as: Sultan, A.J. Addiction to mobile text messaging applications is nothing to “lol” about. The Social Science Journal (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2013.09.003