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Additive Manufacturing Techniques in Manufacturing -An Overview
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ScienceDirect Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 3873–3882
www.materialstoday.com/proceedings
ICMPC 2017
Additive Manufacturing Techniques in Manufacturing An Overview K.Satish Prakasha, T.Nancharaihb, V.V.Subba Raoc
a
Assistant Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Amrita Sai Institute of Science and Technology, Vijayawada, INDIA b Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, INDIA c Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., University College of Engg., JNTUK., Kakinada, INDIA
Abstract Research projects have been taken up on additive manufacturing (AM) technology and has been getting developed for more than 25 years, but without removing or replacing materials, AM processes are useful to produce 3D parts directly from CAD models by joining materials layer by layer which offers beneficial ability to build parts with geometric and material complexities that could not be formed by subtractive manufacturing processes. Through intensive research over the past two decades, significant progress has been achieved in the development and commercialization of new and innovative AM processes, and the applications in automotive, energy sectors, aerospace, biomedical, and other fields as well. This paper reviews the main processes, materials and applications of the current AM technology. © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of 7th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization.
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing (AM), AM processes, AM materials, AM applications
1. Introduction Additive manufacturing (AM) is a group of modern manufacturing technologies that are used to produce three dimensional prototypes from CAD representations. These methods are generally similar to each other in that they add and bond materials in a layered fashion to form objects. These techniques are also referred to as layered manufacturing technique. In conventional processes, 2D models are used where as In the AM process complete 3D models are used. This 3D geometric data from the CAD is divides into layer data and the layers are constructing directly with the aid of computer. * Corresponding author. Tel.: + 27 115592931. E-mail address: [email protected]
2214-7853© 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of 7th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization.
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Rapid prototyping (RP) is one of the fastest growing automated manufacturing technologies with the capacity to go directly from CAD models to finished components. In layered manufacturing (i.e. the methodology of RP), three dimensional parts of arbitrarily complex geometries are build by sequential deposition of material layers. One of the main advantages of RP methodologies ability to build complex parts in a . Rapid prototyping (RP) is one of the fastest growing automated manufacturing technologies with the capacity to go directly from CAD models to finished components. In layered manufacturing (i.e. the methodology of RP), three dimensional parts of arbitrarily complex geometries are build by sequential deposition of material layers. One of the main advantages of RP methodologies ability to build complex parts in a very short time with very less human intervention. The present and future significance is to produce “form-fit-functional” parts rather than prototypes for visualization which ultimately lead towards the concept of AM process. 2. Principles of Additive manufacturing RP process refers to the AM processes forms not at all like subtractive procedures, for example, lathing, milling, grinding, boring and so on in which there are manufacture by material expulsion process. The parts which are made by accumulation of layers shaped in a (x-y) plane two dimensionally in a precise way of all the commercial RP forms. The third dimension (z) comes about because of single layers being assembled on top of each other, however not as a continuous z-coordinate. Along these lines, the models are extremely correct on the x-y plane however have stair-stepping impact in z-direction. If the model is accumulated with fine layers, i.e., littler zstepping, model looks like unique. Rapid prototyping as the generative manufacturing processes are categorized into two major process steps i.e Creation of the mathematical layer information and Creation of the physical layer model is model is essential. AM belongs to a class of innovations that can automatically develop the physical models specifically from Computer Aided Design (CAD) information. It is a layer-by-layer manufacturing technology. RP processes, in general, begin with a three-dimensional computer model of the part to be made. This digital representation of the part is sliced into virtual layers by computer software. Each layer, representing a cross-section of the desired part, is sent to the RP machine where it is built upon the previous layer. This process, building the part layer-by-layer from the ground up, is repeated until the part is completed as shown in figure 1. RP systems can produce models from 3D CAD data, CT and MRI scans, as well as 3D digitizing systems. Using an additive approach, RP systems join liquid, powder or sheet materials to form physical objects on a layer by layer basis. RP machines process plastic, paper, ceramic, metal and composite materials from thin, horizontal cross sections of computer models.
Fig.1 Rapid prototyping principle
3. Fundamentals Of Additive manufacturing technology 1. 2.
AM technology consists of five basic steps: A computerized 3D solid model is developed and Converted into a standard AM file format such as the traditional standard tessellation language format [1] or the recent additive manufacturing file format [2].
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3. 4. 5.
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The file is sent to an AM machine where it is manipulated, e.g., changing the position and orientation of the part or scaling the part. The part is built layer by layer on the AM machine Cleaning and Finishing the model CAD Model
Surface/Solid Surface/Solid Model Model
Pre Process Generate STL Generate file
STL file
RP Process
Build Prototype
Build Prototype
Post Process Remove Remove Supports Supports
Clean Surface
Build Build Supports, Supports, if if needed needed nedded
Clean Surface
Post Cure Post Cure
Slicing Slicing
Part Completed
Part Completed
Figure 2: RP Process Work Flow
4. Additive manufacturing processes Different AM processes build and consolidate layers in different ways. Some processes use thermal energy from laser or electron beams, which is directed via optics to melt or sinter (form a coherent mass without melting) metal or plastic powder together. Other processes use inkjet-type printing heads to accurately spray binder or solvent onto powdered ceramic or polymer. Major AM processes are briefly summarized as follows as shown in above Fig 2. 4.1. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an 3DP process in which a thin layers of thermo plastic wire filament to give a machine where a print head melts it and thrust out in a thickness typically of 0.20 mm Materials which are used to process polycarbonate (PC), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), which is a medical grade of PC. The material is heated to around 2 °C above of its melting point, so that it solidifies almost immediately after discharge and cold welds to the previous layers. The materials used have since been expanded to include investment casting wax, metals, and ceramics [3]. Machines with two nozzles have also been developed, one for part material and the other for support material that is cheaper and breaks away from the part without impairing its surface [4]. A good variety of materials can be used in FDM and the part accuracy can reach ±0.08 mm. FDM equipment has a compact size, and the maintenance cost is low. One of the disadvantage is when the resolution on the z-axis is always low compared to AM process (0.20mm). Requirement of finishing process is necessary to get a smooth surface, but it is a slow process and requires large complex parts to be fabricated. Two types of modes are used to save time to permit some models. Firstly a fully dense mode and secondly a scattered mode but by these modes the mechanical properties are reduced.
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4.2. Laminated Object Manufacturing(LOM) Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) is a process that combines additive and subtractive processes to construct a part layer upon another layer. With the help of this process, the materials are derived in a very thin sheet form. The layers are adhesive together by pressure and heat application and using a thermal adhesive coating. A laser cuts the material to the shape of each layer gives the information of the 3D model from the CAD and STL file. The advantages of this process are the low cost, and this process has no post processing and supporting structures are not required, no deformation or phase change during the process, and the possibility of constructing large parts. The disadvantages are low surface finish, low accuracy , and complex internal cavities which are very difficult to be built. Papers, composites, and metals can be used for these type of models in this process A variety of materials can be used, including paper, metals, thermoplastics, fabrics, synthetic materials, and composites [5, 6]. 4.3. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) :In this additive manufacturing process, a section is worked by liquefying metal powder that is infused into a particular area. It gets to be liquid with the utilization of a powerful laser bar. The material solidifies when it is cooled down. The process happens in a closed chamber with an argon gas. This process allows the usage of a high assortment of metals and mix of them like stainless steel, nickel-based combinations, titanium, vanadium, tooling steel, copper etc. Alumina can be utilized as well. This procedure is additionally used to repair parts that by different procedures will be incomprehensible or more costly to do. One issue in this process could be the residual stresses by uneven heating and cooling forms that can be huge in high-precession process like turbine blades repair [7-8]. LENS can be utilized to repair parts and additionally create new ones. It doesn't require secondary firing operations. However, LENS still needs post production process and the part should be cut from the fabricate substrate. It additionally has an uneven surface finish which may require machining or cleaning. 4.4. Stereo lithography (SLA) Stereo lithography (SLA) is the most common RP technique that employs layer-by-layer manufacturing based on photo polymerization by using UV laser at a time. It requires support structures to attach the part to the build platform. The laser beam checks the cross section of the part on the surface liquid resin to harden the pattern on each and every layer. The build platform is then lowered in order to coat the part thoroughly. It is then raised to a level such that a blade wipes the resin, leaving exactly one layer of resin above the part. The part is then lowered by one layer and left until the liquid has settled to ensure an even surface before the next layer is built [9]. Once the part is completed, the support structures may be removed manually. SLA is particularly suitable in the manufacturing industry as it lessens the time it takes for a prototype part to be produced and can achieve a good surface finish. The main limitation of SLA is that the product size is relatively small, roughly no larger than a 3-foot cube. Another disadvantage is the cost. The photopolymer alone costs $200 to $450, not to mention the machine itself. Also, the materials used in SLA are relatively limited compared to other AM processes [10] 4.5. Selective laser sintering (SLS) This is a three dimensional process in which a powder is sintered or melds by the utilization of a Co2 laser beam. The chamber is heated to nearly melting point of the material. The laser binds the powder at a particular area for every layer determined by the design. The particles lie freely in a bed, which is controlled by a piston that is lower down same amount of the layer thickness every time a layer is done. This process offers a great variety of materials that could be used: plastics, metals, combination of metals, combinations of metals and polymers, and combinations of metals and ceramics [11-12]. SLS offers the freedom to quickly build complex parts that are more durable and provide better functionality over other AM processes. No post curing is required, and the build time is fast. However, SLS operation is complicated as many build variables need to be decided. The achievable surface finish is not as good as that from SLA, and the material changeover is difficult .The main advantages of this technology are the wide range of materials that can be used. Unused powder can be recycled. The disadvantages are that the accuracy is limited by the size of particles of the material, oxidation needs to be avoided by executing the process in
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an inert gas atmosphere and for the process to occur at constant temperature near the melting point. This process is also called direct metal laser sintering as shown in below Table 1. Table 1: Working principles of AM processes State of starting material
Process
Liquid
SLA MJM RFP
Filament/ Paste
FDM Robot casting
Material preparation
Layer creation technique
Liquid resin in a Laser scanning/ light vat projection Liquid polymer in Ink-jet printing jet Liquid droplet in On-demand droplet deposition nozzle Filament melted in Continuous extrusion nozzle Paste in nozzle
Phase change Photo polymerization Cooling Photo polymerization Solidification by freezing Solidification by cooling
Water Thermoplastics, waxes
Functional parts
Ceramic paste
Functional parts
Paste in nozzle
Continuous extrusion
SLS
Powder in bed
Laser scanning
Partial melting
SLM
Powder in bed
Laser scanning
Full melting
EBM
Powder in bed
Electron beam scanning
Full melting
LOM
Prototypes, casting patterns, soft tooling Prototypes, casting patterns Prototypes, casting patterns Prototypes, casting patterns
Ceramic paste
Powder
Solid sheet
UV curable resin, ceramic suspension UV curable acrylic plastic, wax
–
FEF
3DP
Applications
Continuous extrusion
Solidification by freezing
LMD
Typical materials
On-demand powder Powder injection injection and melted by through nozzle laser Drop-on-demand binder Powder in bed printing Feeding and binding of Laser cutting sheets with adhesives
Prototypes, casting Thermoplastics, waxes, patterns, metal and metal powder, ceramic ceramic performs (to be powder sintered and infiltrated) Tooling, functional Metal parts Tooling, functional Metal parts
Full melting
Metal
–
Polymer, Metal, ceramic, other powders
–
Paper, plastic, metal
Tooling, metal part repair, functional parts Prototypes, casting Prototypes, casting models
5. Advantages Of AM Technologies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Apart from the enormous time and cost savings, AM has several advantages: A physical model that can be delivered quickly from CAD documents, can permit form, fit and function tests much prior in the design cycle. Errors from incorrect interpretation of the design are reduced and designs to Prototype iterations are faster. It is possible to go from a CAD model to a prototype without using a skilled machinist, a fixture designer or a NC programmer. Core/Cavity can be built for plastic moulding, investment casting, and die-casting applications. Apart from directly producing plastic prototype models, some of the parts produced can be used as patterns for investment or sand casting, depending on the technology used. for producing dies and moulds Longer lead-time is required. By AM technology, tooling can be produced in a shorter time. This helps in bringing the products to the market in a lesser time. With appropriate materials, the model can be utilized as a part of consequent assembling operations to create the final parts. This also serves as a manufacturing technology
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6. Compared to conventional manufacturing processes, AM processes have the following advantages 6.1. Material efficiency Unlike conventional subtractive manufacturing where large amount of materials need to be removed, AM uses raw materials efficiently by building parts layer by layer. Leftover materials can often be reused with minimum processing. 6.2. Resource efficiency Conventional manufacturing processes require auxiliary resources such as jigs, fixtures, cutting tools, and coolants in addition to the main machine tool. AM does not require these additional resources. As a result, parts can be made by small manufacturers that are close to customers. This presents an opportunity for improved supply chain dynamics. 6.3. Part flexibility Because there are no tooling constraints, parts with complex features can be made in a single piece. In other words, there is no need to sacrifice part functionality for the ease of manufacture. In addition, it is possible to build a single part with varying mechanical properties (flexible in one part and stiffer in another part). This opens up opportunities for design innovation. 6.4. Production flexibility AM machines do not require costly setups and hence is economical in small batch production. The quality of the parts depends on the process rather than operator skills. As such, production can be easily synchronized with customer demand. In addition, the problems of line balancing and production bottle-necks are virtually eliminated because complex parts are produced in single pieces. 7. Drawbacks However, AM technology still cannot fully compete with conventional manufacturing, especially in the mass production field because of the following drawbacks [17] 7.1. Size limitations. AM processes often use liquid polymers, or a powder comprised of resin or plaster, to build object layers. These materials render AM unable to produce large-sized objects due to lack of material strength. Large-sized objects also often are impractical due to the extended amount of time need to complete the build process. 7.2. Imperfections. Parts produced using AM processes often possess a rough and ribbed surface finish. This appearance is due to plastic beads or large-sized powder particles that are stacked on top of each other, giving the end product an unfinished look 7.3. Cost AM equipment is considered an expensive investment. Entry level 3D printers average approximately $3,000 and can go as high as $30,000 for higher-end models, not including the cost of accessories and resins or other operational materials as shown in below Table 2.
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Table 2: Materials and corresponding AM
Note: R &D materials under research and development Material type Polymers
Thermo-setting Thermo-plastic
Metals (R & D)
Ceramics (R &D)
Composites (R &D)
SLA, MJM MJM
Manufacturer/research institute(s) 3D Systems 3D Systems
SLS
EOS
FDM 3DP
Stratasys 3D Systems
SLM
EOS
LDM/LENS
Optomech
EBM
Arc am
SLA
[18-19]
FDM
[20-21]
SLS
[22-23]
3DP
[24-26]
FDM
[27-29]
3DP
[26]
LOM
[30-33]
SLS, SLM
[34-39]
LENS
[40-41]
AM process(e's)
Uniform composites
Material(s) Photo-curable polymers Wax Polyamide 12, GF polyamide, polystyrene ABS, PC-ABS, PC, ULTEM Acrylic plastics, wax Stainless steel GP1, PH1 and 17-4, cobalt chrome MP1, titanium Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al4V ELI and TiCP, IN718, mar aging steel MS1, AlSi20Mg Steel H13, 17-4 PH, PH 13-8 Mo, 304, 316 and 420, aluminium 4047, titanium Ti CP, Ti-6-4, Ti6-2-4-2 and Ti6- 2-4-6, IN625, IN617, Cu-Ni alloy, cobalt satellite 21 Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al4V ELI, cobalt chrome Suspension of zirconium, silica, alumina, or other ceramic particles in liquid resin Alumina, PZT, Si3N4, zirconium, silica, bioceramic Alumina, silica, zirconium ZrB2, bio-ceramic, graphite, bio-glass, and various sands zirconium ,silica, alumina, Ti3SiC2, bio-ceramic, and various sands Polymer-metal, polymerceramic, short fibrereinforced composites Polymer-matrix, metalceramic, ceramic-ceramic short fibre-reinforced composites Polymer-matrix, ceramicmatrix, fibre and particulate- reinforced composites Metal-metal, metalceramic, ceramic-ceramic, polymer- matrix, short fibre-reinforced composites CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V, TiC/Ti, Ti/TiO2, Ti6Al4V/IN718
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8. Applications The improvement of innovative, progressed AM techniques has advanced highly, yielding more extensive and more extensive industry applications. Compared with subtractive manufacturing, AM is especially suitable for producing low volumes of products, particularly for parts with complex geometries. AM processes offer high potential for customization, such as manufacturing, customized inserts for hip and knee replacements. The following review AM applications in the aerospace, automobile, biomedical and energy fields. 8.1. Aerospace Aerospace components often have complex geometries and are made usually from advanced materials, such as titanium alloys, nickel super alloys, special steels or ultra-high-temperature ceramics, which are difficult, costly and time-consuming to manufacture. Additionally, aerospace production runs are usually small, limited to a maximum of several thousand parts. Therefore, AM technology is highly suitable for aerospace applications. 8.2. Automotive New product development is critical for the automotive industry, but developing a new product is often a very costly and time-consuming process. The automotive industry has been using AM technology as an important tool in the design and development of automotive components because it can shorten the development cycle and reduce manufacturing and product costs. AM processes also have been used to make small quantities of structural and functional parts, such as engine exhausts, drive shafts, gear box components and breaking systems for luxury, lowvolume vehicles. Unlike passenger cars, vehicles for motorsports usually use light-weight alloys (e.g., titanium) and have highly complex structures and low production volumes. Companies and research institutes also have successfully applied AM techniques to manufacture functional components for racing vehicles. 8.3. Bio-medical Recent developments in AM technology, as well as in biomaterials, biologic sciences and biomedicine, have broadened the application of AM techniques in the biomedical field to such products substantially as orthopedic implants, tissue scaffolds, artificial organs, medical devices, micro-vasculature networks, and biologic chips (produced by printing/patterning cells and proteins [42] 8.4. Energy Renewable energy (e.g., solar energy, wind energy) and clean energy (e.g., hydrogen energy) are promising solutions for reducing environmental burden and the dependence on fossil energy. As one of the “green” energy devices, fuel cells provide great advantages such as high efficiency, high power density, and low emissions. The potential applications include portable power supply, automotive system, and distributed power system. How-ever, the high cost and low durability obstruct the wide application of fuel cells [43] 9. Future Developments In Additive Manufacturing 1. 2. 3.
4.
Faster computers, complex control systems and improved materials will be the future of RP systems to reduce build time. Part accuracy and surface finish can be improved and can be attained by made better laser optics and machine controls. Introduction about non-polymeric materials including metals, ceramics, and Furthermore composites demonstrates much-anticipated developments On RP. Moreover, metals and composite materials will significantly expand the scope of products that can be made RP. Currently most RP machines are limited to objects 0.125 cubic meters or less and they are aiming to directly build large metal parts using robotically guided lasers.
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10. Conclusions Various additive manufacturing processes, techniques and systems have been developed for over 10 years. With advances in this technology, the applications of AM processes have continued to shift from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing of tooling and end-use parts for aerospace, automotive, biomedical and other applications. AM processes, materials, applications and future research needs are reviewed in this paper. Based on the state of starting material, AM processes are classified into four categories: liquid, filament/paste, powder, and solid sheet. The techniques of creating a layer include UV light induced polymerization, ink-jet printing, extrusion, laser melting, etc. Polymers are the initially investigated materials in AM technology, and recently more and more attention has been paid to AM of metals, ceramics and composite materials to fabricate functional parts. High-power laser and electron beam based AM processes have demonstrated the capability of additive technology to manufacture fully dense metal components with mechanical properties comparable to those of bulk metal. Although attempts have been made to directly fabricate ceramic components by AM, intensive research is still needed before successful commercialization can be made. Various uniform composites including polymer-ceramic, metal-metal, metal-ceramic, and ceramic-ceramic have been investigated using AM processes. With the ability to locally control the material composition, AM technology has been developed to build functionally graded materials having new properties that conventional materials do not possess. AM technology has begun to exhibit great application potential and advantages in the aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and energy fields, by providing a cost-effective and time-efficient way to produce low-volume, customized products with complicated geometries and advanced material properties. Although AM technology offers numerous advantages over subtractive manufacturing methods, it is still regarded as a niche technology by most industries. To gain further acceptance from industry, research and development is needed in terms of designs, materials, novel processes and machines, process modeling and control, biomedical applications, and energy and sustainability applications in order to broaden the applications of AM technology and elevate it to a mainstream technology. References [1].
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ScienceDirect Materials Today: Proceedings 5 (2018) 3873–3882
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ICMPC 2017
Additive Manufacturing Techniques in Manufacturing An Overview K.Satish Prakasha, T.Nancharaihb, V.V.Subba Raoc
a
Assistant Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Amrita Sai Institute of Science and Technology, Vijayawada, INDIA b Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., Bapatla Engineering College, Bapatla, INDIA c Professor, Mech. Engg. Dept., University College of Engg., JNTUK., Kakinada, INDIA
Abstract Research projects have been taken up on additive manufacturing (AM) technology and has been getting developed for more than 25 years, but without removing or replacing materials, AM processes are useful to produce 3D parts directly from CAD models by joining materials layer by layer which offers beneficial ability to build parts with geometric and material complexities that could not be formed by subtractive manufacturing processes. Through intensive research over the past two decades, significant progress has been achieved in the development and commercialization of new and innovative AM processes, and the applications in automotive, energy sectors, aerospace, biomedical, and other fields as well. This paper reviews the main processes, materials and applications of the current AM technology. © 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of 7th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization.
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing (AM), AM processes, AM materials, AM applications
1. Introduction Additive manufacturing (AM) is a group of modern manufacturing technologies that are used to produce three dimensional prototypes from CAD representations. These methods are generally similar to each other in that they add and bond materials in a layered fashion to form objects. These techniques are also referred to as layered manufacturing technique. In conventional processes, 2D models are used where as In the AM process complete 3D models are used. This 3D geometric data from the CAD is divides into layer data and the layers are constructing directly with the aid of computer. * Corresponding author. Tel.: + 27 115592931. E-mail address: [email protected]
2214-7853© 2017 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or Peer-review under responsibility of 7th International Conference of Materials Processing and Characterization.
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Rapid prototyping (RP) is one of the fastest growing automated manufacturing technologies with the capacity to go directly from CAD models to finished components. In layered manufacturing (i.e. the methodology of RP), three dimensional parts of arbitrarily complex geometries are build by sequential deposition of material layers. One of the main advantages of RP methodologies ability to build complex parts in a . Rapid prototyping (RP) is one of the fastest growing automated manufacturing technologies with the capacity to go directly from CAD models to finished components. In layered manufacturing (i.e. the methodology of RP), three dimensional parts of arbitrarily complex geometries are build by sequential deposition of material layers. One of the main advantages of RP methodologies ability to build complex parts in a very short time with very less human intervention. The present and future significance is to produce “form-fit-functional” parts rather than prototypes for visualization which ultimately lead towards the concept of AM process. 2. Principles of Additive manufacturing RP process refers to the AM processes forms not at all like subtractive procedures, for example, lathing, milling, grinding, boring and so on in which there are manufacture by material expulsion process. The parts which are made by accumulation of layers shaped in a (x-y) plane two dimensionally in a precise way of all the commercial RP forms. The third dimension (z) comes about because of single layers being assembled on top of each other, however not as a continuous z-coordinate. Along these lines, the models are extremely correct on the x-y plane however have stair-stepping impact in z-direction. If the model is accumulated with fine layers, i.e., littler zstepping, model looks like unique. Rapid prototyping as the generative manufacturing processes are categorized into two major process steps i.e Creation of the mathematical layer information and Creation of the physical layer model is model is essential. AM belongs to a class of innovations that can automatically develop the physical models specifically from Computer Aided Design (CAD) information. It is a layer-by-layer manufacturing technology. RP processes, in general, begin with a three-dimensional computer model of the part to be made. This digital representation of the part is sliced into virtual layers by computer software. Each layer, representing a cross-section of the desired part, is sent to the RP machine where it is built upon the previous layer. This process, building the part layer-by-layer from the ground up, is repeated until the part is completed as shown in figure 1. RP systems can produce models from 3D CAD data, CT and MRI scans, as well as 3D digitizing systems. Using an additive approach, RP systems join liquid, powder or sheet materials to form physical objects on a layer by layer basis. RP machines process plastic, paper, ceramic, metal and composite materials from thin, horizontal cross sections of computer models.
Fig.1 Rapid prototyping principle
3. Fundamentals Of Additive manufacturing technology 1. 2.
AM technology consists of five basic steps: A computerized 3D solid model is developed and Converted into a standard AM file format such as the traditional standard tessellation language format [1] or the recent additive manufacturing file format [2].
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3. 4. 5.
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The file is sent to an AM machine where it is manipulated, e.g., changing the position and orientation of the part or scaling the part. The part is built layer by layer on the AM machine Cleaning and Finishing the model CAD Model
Surface/Solid Surface/Solid Model Model
Pre Process Generate STL Generate file
STL file
RP Process
Build Prototype
Build Prototype
Post Process Remove Remove Supports Supports
Clean Surface
Build Build Supports, Supports, if if needed needed nedded
Clean Surface
Post Cure Post Cure
Slicing Slicing
Part Completed
Part Completed
Figure 2: RP Process Work Flow
4. Additive manufacturing processes Different AM processes build and consolidate layers in different ways. Some processes use thermal energy from laser or electron beams, which is directed via optics to melt or sinter (form a coherent mass without melting) metal or plastic powder together. Other processes use inkjet-type printing heads to accurately spray binder or solvent onto powdered ceramic or polymer. Major AM processes are briefly summarized as follows as shown in above Fig 2. 4.1. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is an 3DP process in which a thin layers of thermo plastic wire filament to give a machine where a print head melts it and thrust out in a thickness typically of 0.20 mm Materials which are used to process polycarbonate (PC), Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), which is a medical grade of PC. The material is heated to around 2 °C above of its melting point, so that it solidifies almost immediately after discharge and cold welds to the previous layers. The materials used have since been expanded to include investment casting wax, metals, and ceramics [3]. Machines with two nozzles have also been developed, one for part material and the other for support material that is cheaper and breaks away from the part without impairing its surface [4]. A good variety of materials can be used in FDM and the part accuracy can reach ±0.08 mm. FDM equipment has a compact size, and the maintenance cost is low. One of the disadvantage is when the resolution on the z-axis is always low compared to AM process (0.20mm). Requirement of finishing process is necessary to get a smooth surface, but it is a slow process and requires large complex parts to be fabricated. Two types of modes are used to save time to permit some models. Firstly a fully dense mode and secondly a scattered mode but by these modes the mechanical properties are reduced.
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4.2. Laminated Object Manufacturing(LOM) Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) is a process that combines additive and subtractive processes to construct a part layer upon another layer. With the help of this process, the materials are derived in a very thin sheet form. The layers are adhesive together by pressure and heat application and using a thermal adhesive coating. A laser cuts the material to the shape of each layer gives the information of the 3D model from the CAD and STL file. The advantages of this process are the low cost, and this process has no post processing and supporting structures are not required, no deformation or phase change during the process, and the possibility of constructing large parts. The disadvantages are low surface finish, low accuracy , and complex internal cavities which are very difficult to be built. Papers, composites, and metals can be used for these type of models in this process A variety of materials can be used, including paper, metals, thermoplastics, fabrics, synthetic materials, and composites [5, 6]. 4.3. Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) :In this additive manufacturing process, a section is worked by liquefying metal powder that is infused into a particular area. It gets to be liquid with the utilization of a powerful laser bar. The material solidifies when it is cooled down. The process happens in a closed chamber with an argon gas. This process allows the usage of a high assortment of metals and mix of them like stainless steel, nickel-based combinations, titanium, vanadium, tooling steel, copper etc. Alumina can be utilized as well. This procedure is additionally used to repair parts that by different procedures will be incomprehensible or more costly to do. One issue in this process could be the residual stresses by uneven heating and cooling forms that can be huge in high-precession process like turbine blades repair [7-8]. LENS can be utilized to repair parts and additionally create new ones. It doesn't require secondary firing operations. However, LENS still needs post production process and the part should be cut from the fabricate substrate. It additionally has an uneven surface finish which may require machining or cleaning. 4.4. Stereo lithography (SLA) Stereo lithography (SLA) is the most common RP technique that employs layer-by-layer manufacturing based on photo polymerization by using UV laser at a time. It requires support structures to attach the part to the build platform. The laser beam checks the cross section of the part on the surface liquid resin to harden the pattern on each and every layer. The build platform is then lowered in order to coat the part thoroughly. It is then raised to a level such that a blade wipes the resin, leaving exactly one layer of resin above the part. The part is then lowered by one layer and left until the liquid has settled to ensure an even surface before the next layer is built [9]. Once the part is completed, the support structures may be removed manually. SLA is particularly suitable in the manufacturing industry as it lessens the time it takes for a prototype part to be produced and can achieve a good surface finish. The main limitation of SLA is that the product size is relatively small, roughly no larger than a 3-foot cube. Another disadvantage is the cost. The photopolymer alone costs $200 to $450, not to mention the machine itself. Also, the materials used in SLA are relatively limited compared to other AM processes [10] 4.5. Selective laser sintering (SLS) This is a three dimensional process in which a powder is sintered or melds by the utilization of a Co2 laser beam. The chamber is heated to nearly melting point of the material. The laser binds the powder at a particular area for every layer determined by the design. The particles lie freely in a bed, which is controlled by a piston that is lower down same amount of the layer thickness every time a layer is done. This process offers a great variety of materials that could be used: plastics, metals, combination of metals, combinations of metals and polymers, and combinations of metals and ceramics [11-12]. SLS offers the freedom to quickly build complex parts that are more durable and provide better functionality over other AM processes. No post curing is required, and the build time is fast. However, SLS operation is complicated as many build variables need to be decided. The achievable surface finish is not as good as that from SLA, and the material changeover is difficult .The main advantages of this technology are the wide range of materials that can be used. Unused powder can be recycled. The disadvantages are that the accuracy is limited by the size of particles of the material, oxidation needs to be avoided by executing the process in
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an inert gas atmosphere and for the process to occur at constant temperature near the melting point. This process is also called direct metal laser sintering as shown in below Table 1. Table 1: Working principles of AM processes State of starting material
Process
Liquid
SLA MJM RFP
Filament/ Paste
FDM Robot casting
Material preparation
Layer creation technique
Liquid resin in a Laser scanning/ light vat projection Liquid polymer in Ink-jet printing jet Liquid droplet in On-demand droplet deposition nozzle Filament melted in Continuous extrusion nozzle Paste in nozzle
Phase change Photo polymerization Cooling Photo polymerization Solidification by freezing Solidification by cooling
Water Thermoplastics, waxes
Functional parts
Ceramic paste
Functional parts
Paste in nozzle
Continuous extrusion
SLS
Powder in bed
Laser scanning
Partial melting
SLM
Powder in bed
Laser scanning
Full melting
EBM
Powder in bed
Electron beam scanning
Full melting
LOM
Prototypes, casting patterns, soft tooling Prototypes, casting patterns Prototypes, casting patterns Prototypes, casting patterns
Ceramic paste
Powder
Solid sheet
UV curable resin, ceramic suspension UV curable acrylic plastic, wax
–
FEF
3DP
Applications
Continuous extrusion
Solidification by freezing
LMD
Typical materials
On-demand powder Powder injection injection and melted by through nozzle laser Drop-on-demand binder Powder in bed printing Feeding and binding of Laser cutting sheets with adhesives
Prototypes, casting Thermoplastics, waxes, patterns, metal and metal powder, ceramic ceramic performs (to be powder sintered and infiltrated) Tooling, functional Metal parts Tooling, functional Metal parts
Full melting
Metal
–
Polymer, Metal, ceramic, other powders
–
Paper, plastic, metal
Tooling, metal part repair, functional parts Prototypes, casting Prototypes, casting models
5. Advantages Of AM Technologies 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Apart from the enormous time and cost savings, AM has several advantages: A physical model that can be delivered quickly from CAD documents, can permit form, fit and function tests much prior in the design cycle. Errors from incorrect interpretation of the design are reduced and designs to Prototype iterations are faster. It is possible to go from a CAD model to a prototype without using a skilled machinist, a fixture designer or a NC programmer. Core/Cavity can be built for plastic moulding, investment casting, and die-casting applications. Apart from directly producing plastic prototype models, some of the parts produced can be used as patterns for investment or sand casting, depending on the technology used. for producing dies and moulds Longer lead-time is required. By AM technology, tooling can be produced in a shorter time. This helps in bringing the products to the market in a lesser time. With appropriate materials, the model can be utilized as a part of consequent assembling operations to create the final parts. This also serves as a manufacturing technology
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6. Compared to conventional manufacturing processes, AM processes have the following advantages 6.1. Material efficiency Unlike conventional subtractive manufacturing where large amount of materials need to be removed, AM uses raw materials efficiently by building parts layer by layer. Leftover materials can often be reused with minimum processing. 6.2. Resource efficiency Conventional manufacturing processes require auxiliary resources such as jigs, fixtures, cutting tools, and coolants in addition to the main machine tool. AM does not require these additional resources. As a result, parts can be made by small manufacturers that are close to customers. This presents an opportunity for improved supply chain dynamics. 6.3. Part flexibility Because there are no tooling constraints, parts with complex features can be made in a single piece. In other words, there is no need to sacrifice part functionality for the ease of manufacture. In addition, it is possible to build a single part with varying mechanical properties (flexible in one part and stiffer in another part). This opens up opportunities for design innovation. 6.4. Production flexibility AM machines do not require costly setups and hence is economical in small batch production. The quality of the parts depends on the process rather than operator skills. As such, production can be easily synchronized with customer demand. In addition, the problems of line balancing and production bottle-necks are virtually eliminated because complex parts are produced in single pieces. 7. Drawbacks However, AM technology still cannot fully compete with conventional manufacturing, especially in the mass production field because of the following drawbacks [17] 7.1. Size limitations. AM processes often use liquid polymers, or a powder comprised of resin or plaster, to build object layers. These materials render AM unable to produce large-sized objects due to lack of material strength. Large-sized objects also often are impractical due to the extended amount of time need to complete the build process. 7.2. Imperfections. Parts produced using AM processes often possess a rough and ribbed surface finish. This appearance is due to plastic beads or large-sized powder particles that are stacked on top of each other, giving the end product an unfinished look 7.3. Cost AM equipment is considered an expensive investment. Entry level 3D printers average approximately $3,000 and can go as high as $30,000 for higher-end models, not including the cost of accessories and resins or other operational materials as shown in below Table 2.
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Table 2: Materials and corresponding AM
Note: R &D materials under research and development Material type Polymers
Thermo-setting Thermo-plastic
Metals (R & D)
Ceramics (R &D)
Composites (R &D)
SLA, MJM MJM
Manufacturer/research institute(s) 3D Systems 3D Systems
SLS
EOS
FDM 3DP
Stratasys 3D Systems
SLM
EOS
LDM/LENS
Optomech
EBM
Arc am
SLA
[18-19]
FDM
[20-21]
SLS
[22-23]
3DP
[24-26]
FDM
[27-29]
3DP
[26]
LOM
[30-33]
SLS, SLM
[34-39]
LENS
[40-41]
AM process(e's)
Uniform composites
Material(s) Photo-curable polymers Wax Polyamide 12, GF polyamide, polystyrene ABS, PC-ABS, PC, ULTEM Acrylic plastics, wax Stainless steel GP1, PH1 and 17-4, cobalt chrome MP1, titanium Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al4V ELI and TiCP, IN718, mar aging steel MS1, AlSi20Mg Steel H13, 17-4 PH, PH 13-8 Mo, 304, 316 and 420, aluminium 4047, titanium Ti CP, Ti-6-4, Ti6-2-4-2 and Ti6- 2-4-6, IN625, IN617, Cu-Ni alloy, cobalt satellite 21 Ti6Al4V, Ti6Al4V ELI, cobalt chrome Suspension of zirconium, silica, alumina, or other ceramic particles in liquid resin Alumina, PZT, Si3N4, zirconium, silica, bioceramic Alumina, silica, zirconium ZrB2, bio-ceramic, graphite, bio-glass, and various sands zirconium ,silica, alumina, Ti3SiC2, bio-ceramic, and various sands Polymer-metal, polymerceramic, short fibrereinforced composites Polymer-matrix, metalceramic, ceramic-ceramic short fibre-reinforced composites Polymer-matrix, ceramicmatrix, fibre and particulate- reinforced composites Metal-metal, metalceramic, ceramic-ceramic, polymer- matrix, short fibre-reinforced composites CoCrMo/Ti6Al4V, TiC/Ti, Ti/TiO2, Ti6Al4V/IN718
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8. Applications The improvement of innovative, progressed AM techniques has advanced highly, yielding more extensive and more extensive industry applications. Compared with subtractive manufacturing, AM is especially suitable for producing low volumes of products, particularly for parts with complex geometries. AM processes offer high potential for customization, such as manufacturing, customized inserts for hip and knee replacements. The following review AM applications in the aerospace, automobile, biomedical and energy fields. 8.1. Aerospace Aerospace components often have complex geometries and are made usually from advanced materials, such as titanium alloys, nickel super alloys, special steels or ultra-high-temperature ceramics, which are difficult, costly and time-consuming to manufacture. Additionally, aerospace production runs are usually small, limited to a maximum of several thousand parts. Therefore, AM technology is highly suitable for aerospace applications. 8.2. Automotive New product development is critical for the automotive industry, but developing a new product is often a very costly and time-consuming process. The automotive industry has been using AM technology as an important tool in the design and development of automotive components because it can shorten the development cycle and reduce manufacturing and product costs. AM processes also have been used to make small quantities of structural and functional parts, such as engine exhausts, drive shafts, gear box components and breaking systems for luxury, lowvolume vehicles. Unlike passenger cars, vehicles for motorsports usually use light-weight alloys (e.g., titanium) and have highly complex structures and low production volumes. Companies and research institutes also have successfully applied AM techniques to manufacture functional components for racing vehicles. 8.3. Bio-medical Recent developments in AM technology, as well as in biomaterials, biologic sciences and biomedicine, have broadened the application of AM techniques in the biomedical field to such products substantially as orthopedic implants, tissue scaffolds, artificial organs, medical devices, micro-vasculature networks, and biologic chips (produced by printing/patterning cells and proteins [42] 8.4. Energy Renewable energy (e.g., solar energy, wind energy) and clean energy (e.g., hydrogen energy) are promising solutions for reducing environmental burden and the dependence on fossil energy. As one of the “green” energy devices, fuel cells provide great advantages such as high efficiency, high power density, and low emissions. The potential applications include portable power supply, automotive system, and distributed power system. How-ever, the high cost and low durability obstruct the wide application of fuel cells [43] 9. Future Developments In Additive Manufacturing 1. 2. 3.
4.
Faster computers, complex control systems and improved materials will be the future of RP systems to reduce build time. Part accuracy and surface finish can be improved and can be attained by made better laser optics and machine controls. Introduction about non-polymeric materials including metals, ceramics, and Furthermore composites demonstrates much-anticipated developments On RP. Moreover, metals and composite materials will significantly expand the scope of products that can be made RP. Currently most RP machines are limited to objects 0.125 cubic meters or less and they are aiming to directly build large metal parts using robotically guided lasers.
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10. Conclusions Various additive manufacturing processes, techniques and systems have been developed for over 10 years. With advances in this technology, the applications of AM processes have continued to shift from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing of tooling and end-use parts for aerospace, automotive, biomedical and other applications. AM processes, materials, applications and future research needs are reviewed in this paper. Based on the state of starting material, AM processes are classified into four categories: liquid, filament/paste, powder, and solid sheet. The techniques of creating a layer include UV light induced polymerization, ink-jet printing, extrusion, laser melting, etc. Polymers are the initially investigated materials in AM technology, and recently more and more attention has been paid to AM of metals, ceramics and composite materials to fabricate functional parts. High-power laser and electron beam based AM processes have demonstrated the capability of additive technology to manufacture fully dense metal components with mechanical properties comparable to those of bulk metal. Although attempts have been made to directly fabricate ceramic components by AM, intensive research is still needed before successful commercialization can be made. Various uniform composites including polymer-ceramic, metal-metal, metal-ceramic, and ceramic-ceramic have been investigated using AM processes. With the ability to locally control the material composition, AM technology has been developed to build functionally graded materials having new properties that conventional materials do not possess. AM technology has begun to exhibit great application potential and advantages in the aerospace, automotive, biomedical, and energy fields, by providing a cost-effective and time-efficient way to produce low-volume, customized products with complicated geometries and advanced material properties. Although AM technology offers numerous advantages over subtractive manufacturing methods, it is still regarded as a niche technology by most industries. To gain further acceptance from industry, research and development is needed in terms of designs, materials, novel processes and machines, process modeling and control, biomedical applications, and energy and sustainability applications in order to broaden the applications of AM technology and elevate it to a mainstream technology. References [1].
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