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Addressing the current remote area electrification problems with solar and microhydro systems in Central Africa
Renewable Energy 67 (2014) 10e19
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Addressing the current remote area electrification problems with solar and microhydro systems in Central Africa Joseph Kenfack a, *, Olivier Videme Bossou b, Joseph Voufo a, Samuel Djom c a
National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon University of Maroua, Cameroon c Rural Electrification Agency, Yaounde, Cameroon b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 15 October 2013 Accepted 14 November 2013 Available online 5 December 2013
Situated at equator level, Central Africa is a wetted area, sunny and not that windy. The region owns important renewable energy potential, namely solar, hydro and biomass. For a number of reasons, this important potential is still suffering from poor development. The main cause of the poor use of renewable energy is the poor commitment and dedication of governments who have not taken the necessary measures to boost enough decentralized and renewable energy. Thermal plants are hence unfortunately heavily used where other alternatives are possible. The purpose of this paper is among other things aiming at showing how solar and hydro energy sources of Central Africa are currently developed and addressing the problems faced. The work also addresses the issue of filling the gap between the abundant solar and hydro resources and its poor development compare to the rest of the world. Based on some case studies in Cameroon, actions to sustain ongoing initiatives and promote their development are suggested. This paper also addresses the problems actually faced and recommends actions for mitigation for a significant improvement of energy infrastructure in remote areas. In such areas, the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency are very important for poverty alleviation. From lessons learned, suggestions will be made to help the countries of the region develop a vision aiming at developing adequate clean energy policy to increase the status of solar and microhydro energy sources and, thus, better contribute to fight against climate change. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Renewable energy Solar power Hydropower Central Africa Energy policy Cameroon
1. Introduction Central Africa is in equatorial zone, hence wet and sunny zone. The gross domestic product per capita of some countries in the region is among the lowest of the world, ranging below 800 $US to 4000 $US (up to 80 000 $US in Europe) [1]. The remote areas in central Africa are characterized by poor transport (road, bridges, etc.) systems and poor purchase power of the villagers. Modern infrastructures are hence lacking, as well as schools, health centers, and potable water. The situation of the electricity access and supply is far from being better. This paper intends to show how solar and hydro energy sources of Central Africa, although being currently developed, are facing many problems that need to be addressed. Filling the gap between the abundant solar and hydro resources and its poor development compared to the rest of the world will also retain our attention. From field experience in many countries
* Corresponding author. P.O. Box 7048, Yaounde, Cameroon. Tel.: þ237 99416002; fax: þ237 22229116. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Kenfack). 0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.11.044
in the region and based on lessons learned, actions to sustain ongoing initiatives and promote their development are suggested. For the long term, a contribution is made to what might be a vision aiming at developing adequate clean energy policy to increase the status of solar and micro hydro energy sources and better contribute to fight against climate change. The choice of microhydro is motivated by the size of the localities in rural areas Figs. 1 and 2. The rural electrification rate in the region is very low, despite the efforts made by the authorities. The situation of Cameroon depicted below is an idea of the region Table 1. The issue we are addressing is a real concern today in developing countries [2] as well as in some developed countries [3]. 2. Methodology We have assessed the renewable energy potential in Central Africa, quantifying it where possible. Afterwards, we have also assessed the level of development of hydro and solar energy. Some data collection was conducted in Cameroon, Republic of Congo,
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Table 1 Rural electrification rate in Cameroon in 2003. Total Total population Rural POPULATION Rural communities Rural communities to be electrified Rural subscribers Size of household Rural electricity access rate
14,027,069 8,671,190 9000 7307 55,755 5 2%
Source: Rural electrification Agency.
for instance) is poor, even in some state institutions. Systematic records of some statistics are hence really lacking. Some efforts made by people living in remote areas are not known to the public. We have made the analysis with respect to what the stakeholders at all levels found important or relevant for the promotion of rural electrification. We have also made the analysis taking into account the comparison of the findings to the champions in the existing literature. Cameroon case study was very important for us because we had relatively easy access to some information, site survey and some officials. 3. Renewable energy potential in Central Africa Fig. 1. Gross domestic product of some African countries.
3.1. Hydro potential Gabon, Central African Republic and Chad in 2008e2009 during the implementation phase of the suburban electrification project funded in the framework of the European Union Energy facility. We also conducted a literature survey, interviews with power sector stakeholders in national and regional levels and site observations during some regional events. We visited operating grid connected and off-grid systems using solar, diesel generators, and pico-hydro to complement the knowledge of the sector and to have a better idea of what’s going one. We stressed on the problems faced by local actors. Going to the field provided us with better understanding of the way technologies were implemented and the reforms needed to enhance the sector. Some weaknesses of the methodology are subject to discussion. But in order to better understand, we need to point out the fact that poor formal administrative procedures are widely used in the region. Furthermore, modern communications (High speed Internet
The Central African countries own important hydro potential. Although 3.4 GW has already been developed, above 100 more GW of hydro power still remain untapped with an economically feasible hydropower potential above 900 TWh. The region is experiencing regularly power shortage mainly in the rural and sub urban areas. Given the importance of the hydrographic network, tidal energy can also be envisaged, as well as ocean energy along the guinea golf. Table 2 below shows the hydro potential of each country, the hydro installed capacity and the high level of thermal plats development. 3.2. Wind potential According to GEOS-1 satellite measures from NASA [8] from July 1983 to June 1993, the wind potential of the region is poor within the equator as depicted in the figure. Chad is the only country with an average speed above 5 m/s allowing the possibility for wind development Fig. 3. 3.3. Geothermal potential Some hot water sources are identified in the region (e.g., Adamaoua in Cameroon and Uvira in Democratic Republic of Congo,
Table 2 Hydropower potential and development and thermal power in Central Africa.
Fig. 2. Road in a remote area.
Country
Installed hydro capacity (MW)
Potential (MW)
Democratic Republic of Congo Cameroon Gabon Republic of Congo Central Africa Republic Equatorial Guinea Chad
2584
100,000
37
725 311 135 19 121 0
20,000 6000 2500 2800 2400 0
547 176 471 24 38 200
Source: [4e7].
Installed thermal plants (MW)
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be found in the world with an area around 500 million acres, spanning the boundaries of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of Congo. Inadequate and improper forest management practices is a threat to the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts. Over 50 percent [11] of the Congo Basin’s forests are under commercial logging leases. Despite several sustainable forest management programs, Central Africa tropical forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. The Tropical Forest Foundation (TFF) recognized that inadequate and improper forest management practices were threatening the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts Fig. 6. Fig. 3. Annual average wind speed between July.
4. Micro hydro and solar ongoing development Mount Cameroon), but detailed study for the assessment of the geothermal potential have not yet been done so far in Central Africa. The eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo might have important geothermal potential since it is part of the ring of fire as depicted in the Fig. 4 below. 3.4. Solar potential Africa is situated from one side to another at the Equator level, hence making this continent one of the sunniest in the world. Based on the data from Solar Radiation project (SoDa) [10], the lowest daily mean radiation ranges from around 4 kWh/day/m2 (wet forest) to above 8 kWh (dry desert in Chad). The modified map below from SoDa shows the average solar radiation of the region. It appears that Central Africa has a great solar potential Fig. 5. 3.5. Biomass potential Central Africa holds up to one-quarter of the world’s tropical forests. This forest is the second largest tropical forest in the world after the Amazon forest. Its mosaic of ecosystems regulates local climate and the flow of water. The forest covers an important area, from the Albertine Rift (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda) to the Gulf of Guinea (Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Cameroon) and harbors a variety of forests. It’s one of the place where wild dense forests can still
Each country in the region has one or several interconnected grid, but it is available mainly in big cities, where profitability is guaranteed. The coverage for the high voltage power line ranging from 63 kV to 225 kV is poor. Gabon (area of 267 667 km2) for instance as well as Cameroon (area of 475 000 km2) has up to three isolated grid instead of one for the whole country. Electricity is provided to rural communities using several solutions. The first option is grid extension. This is done through tree phase medium voltage ranging up to 30 kV. When the remote demand is not important (less than 25 kVA), only one phase is used for the construction of the medium voltage power line. The single wire earth return (SWER) is hence used. This solution experiences many difficulties given the remoteness of the sites, the poor transport system (bad roads), the subsequent billing system and money recovery. The poor coverage of the grid makes very expensive power line construction for remote areas. Besides, the well known poor profitability of rural electrification makes this activity not attractive for the utilities. Standalone systems are hence very often used, particularly in environments where other options are very expensive. In order to ensure the sustainability of the projects, renewable energy sources are currently being promoted. As mentioned above, it is possible to implement electricity generation from solar, hydro, wind, biomass, geothermal and ocean energy. When we look at the technical issue and the cost effectiveness of each solution, hydro and solar are the
Fig. 4. Pacific ring of fire. Source: [9].
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Fig. 5. World yearly mean radiation.
Fig. 6. Forest fragmentation by roads in Central Africa. Source: [12].
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Table 3 Number of micro hydro sites identified per country. Country
Number of sites below 1 MW
Democratic Republic of Congo Cameroon Gabon Congo Central Africa Republic Equatorial Guinea Chad
134 110 NA 15 25 NA
NA: Not available. Source [14].
most interesting. Given the size of the communities in rural area, micro power generation stations are developed. 4.1. Micro hydro energy The countries have an important hydrographical network, hence important micro hydro potential. Although one part of this potential has been assessed, another important part is still to be identified. Table 3 below shows the number of sites identified in some countries. The average electrification rate is below 15% [13] in Central Africa. Given the needs and the potential, the hydro sector is hence under exploited up to the point where the countries lack energy during the dry season due to water shortage. Much is still to be done in hydro development. Given the poor development of communication and power infrastructures, decentralized solutions might be a good approach to electrification in remote areas. This can be done through microhydro plants in the region.
4.1.2. Micro hydro under operation in Central Africa Power sector in Central Africa heavily relies on hydropower with 94% of capacity under operation being in Democratic Republic of Congo as depicted above. So many micro hydro sites are under operation in remote areas in some countries. The list depicted in the table below shows that there is a room for replication of success stories. This Table 4 shows how far the Democratic Republic of Congo has gone. Despite the huge hydro capacity in Central Africa, many thermal plants have been developed and are under operation. We have for instance more than 330 MW in Republic of Congo, more the 400 MW in Cameroon and more than 174 MW in Gabon. 4.1.3. Microhydro failures So many micro hydro plants are no more running in some villages (Fig. 8). The reasons are poor support from different aspects. In fact, the sizing and design and construction are key issues. Once the plant is completely developed, maintaining it is another serious issue. Table 4 Microhydro plants under operation in Democratic Republic of Congo. ID
Location
Site
P (MW)
Country
1 2 3 4 5
Gboyo Fontem Hopital Katale Rutshuru (Ruanguba) Musienene Hôpital Musienene Séminaire Musienene Croisier Kipese Butembo (PROELKI) Moga Butembo (UCG) Kasanza (pp Trapistes) Nyabiondo SAIBU (Butembo) Moba Ruanguba Saint Joseph Maboya Lubingu Idiofa (DPP) Lemera Lobogo Kailo Gombo Butuhe BUTUHE (Butembo) Kampene Mitwaba (FMZA) Tshikaji Rutshuru (Diocèse) Mokotos Karawa Lemfu (Bas Congo) Kunda Mani Lubilu
Gboyo Fontem Hopital Katale Rutshuru (Ruanguba) Musienene Hôpital Musienene Séminaire Musienene Croisier Kipese Beni
0.01 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.03
Central African Republic Cameroon Central African Republic Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03 0.05
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
Kananga Beni
0.06 0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
Gungu
0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo
Masisi SAIBU (Butembo) Moba Rutshuru Kananga Maboya Walungu Idiofa Uvira Masisi Masisi Rutshuru Butembo BUTUHE (Butembo) Butembo Mitwaba
0.06 0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.20
Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic
0.26 0.30
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.30 0.30
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.31 0.37 0.40
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.50 0.50 0.70
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
6 7 8
4.1.1. Micro hydro development Although more than 30 micro hydro plants are currently running in Democratic Republic of Congo for instance, the region has not specifically taken the necessary measures towards promoting microhydro energy. But given the need in remote areas, some people have taken some local initiatives. There are a number of microhydro plants locally developed running in many villages. These plants provide electricity to villagers in a situation where there is no other cost-effective sustainable alternative (Fig. 7). What makes the projects successful is the involvement of the community and the local technical solution.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Fig. 7. Locally made 5 kW micro hydro plant under operation in Cameroon.
Source: [14].
Kananga Rutshuru (Diocèse) Masisi Karawa Lemfu (Bas Congo) Kunda Mani Lubilu
Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic
of of of of of of of of of of of of
Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo
J. Kenfack et al. / Renewable Energy 67 (2014) 10e19
Fig. 8. 3 kW broken locally made micro pelton turbine.
Among the weaknesses identified, we have noticed a lack of infrastructure for manufacturing. Villagers are used to manufacturing micro pelton turbine using aluminum. The device has a very poor efficiency and is not of course resistant enough to withstand long term operation. Other electric equipments are second hand. Furthermore, they use low pressure pipes instead of the high pressure ones for penstocks. This often leads to the underutilization of the capacity of the site and frequent problems like overpressure and poor lifetime of the turbine. This is the result of poor local capacity to design and properly develop a micro hydropower schemes, specifically in remote areas. Because of the poor quality of the equipment and sizing, the plants experience frequent blackouts during low water and high water levels. Energy efficiency is also a crucial issue because the plants regularly experience overload, raising the point of specific circuit breakers for subscribers. Most of the time, the community is not really involved or well organized. The projects are in general supported by some elites. So there is a need for the villagers to build their own capacity to run the project (Fig. 9). After assessing the situation in 6 villages, we got the following results.
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There is very little knowledge about the uses and effectiveness of micro-hydro systems. The technology is low cost and can be implemented easily in all the countries. Hydro energy technology remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to firewood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies. The micro-hydro market does almost not exist and is dominated by poor quality, low-cost systems. Absence or poor long period support of renewable energy projects (till reaching profitability). Lack of consumer awareness on benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions. Poor decentralized solutions for energy services (generation, distribution.). Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome in order to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets. Lack of specific access to key energy infrastructure such as the national electricity grid. Poor availability of funds for development of micro hydro energy Poor organization and sector institutions 4.2. Solar energy 4.2.1. Solar development Unlike hydro power, the sun is available everywhere, giving opportunity to develop solar plants everywhere. Africa needs the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies. In fact, the remoteness of the areas, coupled with the poor purchase power recommends long term sustainable solution for energy production. This will have huge longer-term benefits. The development of an electricity source based on the availability of the sun will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. Last but not the least is the protection of the forest. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. Solar plants are most of the time used in places where there is no hydro potential. The implementation of this technology is facing some difficulties in remote area, difficulties related to poor institutional management and poor capacity of the actors. Most of the time, components are not sized properly, leading to premature break down of the systems. The main issues concern the size and type of batteries, the regulation and control of the charger/ discharger and the size of the solar panel. Many projects are successfully conducted, with adequate sizing and correct maintenance. But the promotion of this technology is still to be enhanced Figs. 10 and 11. 4.2.2. Solar system failures Solar standalone systems (home solar systems or kits) are most of the time used in remote area. But small communities are being electrified via micro grid. Here again, the lack of know how associated with poor regulation in rural electrification is not helping the villagers. In fact, the remote areas should have specific regulations to attract actors in the rural electrification sector Figs. 12e15. 5. Lessons learned from failures
Fig. 9. Abandoned micro hydro power plant in remote area (poor maintenance).
In order to ensure the sustainability of the project, it should be community based right from beginning. The Government should be
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Fig. 10. Solar plant for private telecommunication company in Gouna (Cameroon).
Fig. 12. PV minigrid power plant not running in Adamaoua region (Cameroon).
involved throughout the process from the training of the institutions to the financial support. The national policy on the issue of solar and micro hydro energy should be encouraged, including efforts to build a domestic capacity to support a solar and micro hydro industry. The existing markets should also be assessed. This will lead to the identification of potential market and barriers for solar and micro-hydro diffusion in the region. In order to ensure the dissemination of the technology, solar and micro-hydro pilot projects should be developed in all regions in each country. After ensuring the capacity building and/or capacity enhancement of the installers/developers, training seminars and/or full trainings should be organized on the monitoring of a plant and with other solar and micro-hydro systems retailers/developers. To make sure the initiative has the expected impact, pilot projects will have to be monitored for at least one year after installation to ensure it withstands the two rainy and two dry seasons. Dissemination of information on successfully projects is another key issue. Therefore, regional seminars on successful projects from champions in many countries will be welcomed, stressing on business opportunities. Actions also need to be taken to promote the access of reliable and life-span good quality solar and micro
hydro equipment. Some standards for the development of solar and micro hydro systems need to be set, in order to avoid project failures. Technology transfer from champions and co-operation between good quality manufacturers in developing countries will be welcomed.
Fig. 11. Solar pump in Ndjamena (Chad).
Fig. 13. PV minigrid off in Adamaoua region (Cameroon).
6. Barriers to renewable energy There are significant barriers to the further implementation of solar and micro hydro energy that need to be addressed. The key issues include the following: Hydro and solar energy technologies remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to firewood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies, Poor long period support of solar and hydro energy projects (till reaching profitability) Lack of consumer awareness on benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions. Poor decentralized solutions for energy services (generation, distribution.)
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Central Africa in general is suffering from a poor vision on the issue of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Very few countries have developed a vision on this issue and other are still looking forward to doing it. The strategies and programs exist in some countries. They should match the vision and meet the targets. The region should identify the long term perspective action on the issue of promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. Where there is no vision on this issue, it is important to focus on stakeholder’s capacity to define and adopt a long-term perspective on renewable energy and energy efficiency. If need be, capacity building and/or capacity enhancement should be prior to the formulation of the vision. In order to meet the renewable energy and energy efficiency targets for the coming decades, effective leadership is a key issue for the attainment of the targets within Central Africa. At national and regional levels, political authorities should be involved and support the action. This would lead to the generation of champions. Other important points are: Fig. 14. Solar equipment being fixed in Brazzaville (Republic of Congo).
Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome in order to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets. Lack of specific access to key energy infrastructure such as the national electricity grid, Poor availability of funds for development of renewable energy
7. Suggestions 7.1. Vision The region needs to develop a vision leading to strategies and programs. This should be politically sustained in order to mitigate the poor leadership and poor renewable energy policy formulation in the sector. In order to sustainably fight against climate change, strategic action plans should be developed or reviewed where available to fit with clean development mechanism. This should be done through capacity building and capacity enhancement of stakeholders in the region.
Fig. 15. Abandoned solar power plant for telecommunication station in Kye Ossi (Cameroon).
enforce energy policy at the regional level, promote and develop power trade and ancillary services, increase access to clean energy to populations and reduce poverty, create a free regional energy market and improve energy system reliability and quality of supply in the whole region. initiate pilot projects funded to help develop the market for sustainable energy, create favorable regulatory and policy frameworks, promote innovative finance and business models to activate the private sector, develop and support policy-maker networks at regional level with initiatives in the field of energy efficiency, sustainable energy regulation, renewable energy and regional regulatory board disseminate mirroring of well-reasoned input
7.2. Enabling environment Given the purchase power of the population in rural area and the economic constraints, solar and hydro energy requires an enabling environment for its promotion. As mentioned above, the renewable energy initial capital cost is high compared to conventional energy sources. This can only lead to making them commercially uncompetitive in the short to medium-term. To overcome this situation, specific actions need to be taken at several levels, namely fiscal, financial, social and legislative levels. This includes commitment and dedication of actors for a good leadership and encouragement of champions. National and international bodies hosting development agencies based in each country should also work together to attain the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency targets. Full implementation of free trade within Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) will facilitate regional programs and collaboration among states. Addressing the human resource issue is a key point for attaining the objectives. The region experiences poor human resources in the field of designing, evaluating and implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Good governance and good regulation in the sector are also very important for promoting and enabling environment for scaling up investments and mobilizing public and private initiatives. The real potential and benefits of all hydro energy sources in remote areas is still to be assessed. Because some studies are not done or not fully done, the costs for developing renewable energy tend to be very high and there is a reluctance to invest in what are sometimes considered to be risky investments.
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7.3. Role of financial instruments
8.2. Institutional reform
The profitability of renewable energy is subject to discussion in a market driven energy economy. To address this issue, many countries in Europe have adopted different specific renewable power generation approaches (feed in tariff, certificates, fixed tariff). In order to achieve the target, the introduction of renewable energy technologies into a market driven energy economy will require the allocation of funding to assist in overcoming the initial high capital cost. It could be done through government bodies, private institutions sustained by government or simply through dedicated funds (budgetary allocation, subsidies, incentives...). The process should be stopped as soon as the renewable energy technologies become competitive and are driven by market forces alone. Other actions to be undertaken are:
Prior to the current status, electricity was supplied in Cameroon by a single vertically integrated company that had the responsibility for production, transmission, distribution and retail sales. The country established a sector regulator (ARSEL), a rural electrification Agency (AER) and also created the Electricity Development Corporation (EDC) which, as Government of Cameroon’s asset holding company, is responsible for the management of public sector assets in the power sector, in particular hydropower assets, as well as the regulation of power flows. Nowadays, more than 20 texts govern the sector which is liberalized since 1998. The aim of liberalization was to attract private sector investments to help the country develop its power sector. The generation, transmission, distribution and sales of power are submitted to concession agreement, license or authorization, declaration regime, free regime and the special regime for rural electrification.
Establishment of a good organizational framework and robust energy policy and strategy Public sensitization Promotion of efficient techniques and marketing strategies (4 Ps) Knowledge management and networking with other partners and projects, governmental and private sector partnership 8. Cameroon case study Cameroon has 721 MW [15] of hydro schemes developed since 1986 over the total installed capacity of above 1000 MW. According to the World Bank Investment Climate Assessment, limited access to reliable electricity is among the 5 top obstacles to doing business in Cameroon. It is estimated that the lack of reliable energy services is costing Cameroon close to 2% of the gross domestic product growth. In order to rehabilitate existing power station, as well as transmission and distribution networks, the electricity utility AES SONEL recently secure a EURO 260 million loan financing for its five year investment program. In order to secure energy supply for the country, the Government of Cameroon commissioned a least cost power sector development plan (PDSE 2030) which is on the way to being updated. Given the time needed for the studies, development and funding of hydro plants, the country has been obliged to take emergency measures based on thermal solutions to cover current and foreseen energy shortages in the short term. If the funding doesn’t follow, emergency measures taken for electricity production might become permanent, producing more than one million tons of carbon dioxide per year. 8.1. Main current and future thermal plants From 2004 to 2011, thermal plants capacity from fossil energy has been multiply by four. Several thermal plants are permanently under operation. The most important are the Limbe thermal plant and the Yassa thermal plant with an installed capacity of 85 MW each. The development of Kribi thermal plant (gas) with a capacity of up to 300 MW is ongoing and more than 100 MW is already available. To meet energy shortage foreseen in the country in the short term, the Government has developed up to 100 MW additional thermal capacity in the cities of Bamenda (20 MW), Ebolowa (10 MW), Mbalmayo (30 MW) and the capital city Yaounde (40 MW). To face the growth of the demand estimated above 50 MW per year, important reforms and midterm development plans have been done. As demonstrated above, renewable energy is far from being the first short term solution for addressing the immediate energy shortage issues in Cameroon.
8.3. Renewable energy promotion No specific action dedicated to the promotion of renewable energy technology in remote area has been undertaken so far by government. Programs for efficient stoves are ongoing for energy efficiency but many other issues still to be addressed. The country also has a rural electricity fund funded by the World Bank (Rural electricity fund) for the promotion of rural electricity. This program is intended to stress on renewable energy. The projects to be financed are still waiting for the completion of the selection process. The formulation of strategic actions to boost the energy sector in all parts of the country is still ongoing in the Ministry of Energy and Water. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency is among these actions. But given the poor experience of the stakeholders, pilot projects should be initiated and disseminated. 8.4. Identified regulatory barriers to renewable energy Challenges (regulatory and others) to sustainable energy in Cameroon include: The restructuring of the electricity utility AES-SONEL mission; The establishment of connection charges and tariffs from renewable sources; The update and implementation of low cost solutions and safety standards for rural electrification; The encouragement of the ongoing policy for entrepreneurs willing to enter the electrical service contracting business; The consolidation of the provision of incentives to encourage entry of new electricity retailers in cities and rural areas through rural electrification fund; The promotion of energy efficiency The dissemination of bests practices. The mission of the electricity utility should be restructured to encourage energy from renewable sources, through attractive connection charges and feed in tariffs. In order to boost the sector, the rural electricity fund should promote the development of hydro and solar plants where need be and disseminate information about champions. 8.5. Weaknesses of the institutions The country will be experiencing in the future for the first time a true management of new operators [16], for only two licenses are granted so far. All the projects are currently facing poor visibility on the issue of feed-in, transport and tariffs. The electricity regulatory
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agency (ARSEL) created in the framework of liberalization hence has limited experience. For each of the ongoing projects, there will be specific negotiations if necessary measures concerning regulations are not taken in time. The sector is also suffering from a lack of transborder regulation for interconnection among countries, because Cameroon can be a net electricity exporter. Options for encouraging decentralized solutions in remote areas are currently ongoing through rural electricity fund, but the experience is still limited. To address these issues, Cameroon is developing several strategic action plans. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency hence still has a long way to go.
9. Conclusion Central Africa is a region with great renewable energy potential, a place were almost all renewable energy sources can be found. The region owns the first hydro potential of the continent, the second tropical forest in the world and an important solar radiation all year long. Despite the great hydro and solar energy potential, the region is experiencing very poor renewable energy development. Although some actions are ongoing, more specific actions in the region are still needed at several levels. Suggestions have been made to help the region develop a good vision to address the issue
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and take the necessary measures at all levels to learn from failures and contribute to promoting solar and hydro energy.
References [1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa-GDP.svg; June 2010. [2] Wijayatunga DC. Priyantha, regulation for renewable energy development: lessons from Sri Lanka experience. Renew Energ 2014;61:29e32. [3] Aslani Alireza, Wong V Kau-Fui. Analysis of renewable energy development to power generation in the United States. Renew Energ 2014;63:153e61. [4] The International journal on hydropower and dams. World Atlas & Industry Guide; 2009. [5] Conseil mondial de l’énergie. Potentiel de développement intégré de l’énergie au plan régional en Afrique: Document de Travail; 2003. [6] Kenfack J, Fogue M, Tamo Tatietse t. Assessing the hydro potential of Central Africa. Int J Hydropower Dams 2009;16(6):62e5. [7] Ministry of Energy and Water of Cameroon. Long term development plan for electricity sector PDSE2030; 2008. [8] http://www.climate-charts.com/World-Climate-Maps.html#wind-speed. [9] http://www.laterredufutur.com/; June 2013. [10] http://www.soda-is.com; June 2013. [11] http://www.tropicalforestfoundation.org/projects/gabon; June 2013. [12] http://www.globalchange.umich.edu; June 2013. [13] http://www.cemac-energie.org/; June 2013. [14] CICOS, elaboration of geographic database for hydro infrastructures; 2010. [15] Système d’information énergétique du Cameroun, Rapport. Yaoundé: Ministère de l’énergie et de l’eau; 2007. [16] Kenfack J, Hamandjoda O, Demenou Tapamo H, Nghonnang Zekeyo JP, Fogue M, Lejeune AGH. Public and private hydro initiatives in Cameroon. Int J Hydropower Dams 2010;17(6):74e8.
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Renewable Energy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene
Addressing the current remote area electrification problems with solar and microhydro systems in Central Africa Joseph Kenfack a, *, Olivier Videme Bossou b, Joseph Voufo a, Samuel Djom c a
National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Yaounde I, Cameroon University of Maroua, Cameroon c Rural Electrification Agency, Yaounde, Cameroon b
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 15 October 2013 Accepted 14 November 2013 Available online 5 December 2013
Situated at equator level, Central Africa is a wetted area, sunny and not that windy. The region owns important renewable energy potential, namely solar, hydro and biomass. For a number of reasons, this important potential is still suffering from poor development. The main cause of the poor use of renewable energy is the poor commitment and dedication of governments who have not taken the necessary measures to boost enough decentralized and renewable energy. Thermal plants are hence unfortunately heavily used where other alternatives are possible. The purpose of this paper is among other things aiming at showing how solar and hydro energy sources of Central Africa are currently developed and addressing the problems faced. The work also addresses the issue of filling the gap between the abundant solar and hydro resources and its poor development compare to the rest of the world. Based on some case studies in Cameroon, actions to sustain ongoing initiatives and promote their development are suggested. This paper also addresses the problems actually faced and recommends actions for mitigation for a significant improvement of energy infrastructure in remote areas. In such areas, the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency are very important for poverty alleviation. From lessons learned, suggestions will be made to help the countries of the region develop a vision aiming at developing adequate clean energy policy to increase the status of solar and microhydro energy sources and, thus, better contribute to fight against climate change. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Renewable energy Solar power Hydropower Central Africa Energy policy Cameroon
1. Introduction Central Africa is in equatorial zone, hence wet and sunny zone. The gross domestic product per capita of some countries in the region is among the lowest of the world, ranging below 800 $US to 4000 $US (up to 80 000 $US in Europe) [1]. The remote areas in central Africa are characterized by poor transport (road, bridges, etc.) systems and poor purchase power of the villagers. Modern infrastructures are hence lacking, as well as schools, health centers, and potable water. The situation of the electricity access and supply is far from being better. This paper intends to show how solar and hydro energy sources of Central Africa, although being currently developed, are facing many problems that need to be addressed. Filling the gap between the abundant solar and hydro resources and its poor development compared to the rest of the world will also retain our attention. From field experience in many countries
* Corresponding author. P.O. Box 7048, Yaounde, Cameroon. Tel.: þ237 99416002; fax: þ237 22229116. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Kenfack). 0960-1481/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2013.11.044
in the region and based on lessons learned, actions to sustain ongoing initiatives and promote their development are suggested. For the long term, a contribution is made to what might be a vision aiming at developing adequate clean energy policy to increase the status of solar and micro hydro energy sources and better contribute to fight against climate change. The choice of microhydro is motivated by the size of the localities in rural areas Figs. 1 and 2. The rural electrification rate in the region is very low, despite the efforts made by the authorities. The situation of Cameroon depicted below is an idea of the region Table 1. The issue we are addressing is a real concern today in developing countries [2] as well as in some developed countries [3]. 2. Methodology We have assessed the renewable energy potential in Central Africa, quantifying it where possible. Afterwards, we have also assessed the level of development of hydro and solar energy. Some data collection was conducted in Cameroon, Republic of Congo,
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Table 1 Rural electrification rate in Cameroon in 2003. Total Total population Rural POPULATION Rural communities Rural communities to be electrified Rural subscribers Size of household Rural electricity access rate
14,027,069 8,671,190 9000 7307 55,755 5 2%
Source: Rural electrification Agency.
for instance) is poor, even in some state institutions. Systematic records of some statistics are hence really lacking. Some efforts made by people living in remote areas are not known to the public. We have made the analysis with respect to what the stakeholders at all levels found important or relevant for the promotion of rural electrification. We have also made the analysis taking into account the comparison of the findings to the champions in the existing literature. Cameroon case study was very important for us because we had relatively easy access to some information, site survey and some officials. 3. Renewable energy potential in Central Africa Fig. 1. Gross domestic product of some African countries.
3.1. Hydro potential Gabon, Central African Republic and Chad in 2008e2009 during the implementation phase of the suburban electrification project funded in the framework of the European Union Energy facility. We also conducted a literature survey, interviews with power sector stakeholders in national and regional levels and site observations during some regional events. We visited operating grid connected and off-grid systems using solar, diesel generators, and pico-hydro to complement the knowledge of the sector and to have a better idea of what’s going one. We stressed on the problems faced by local actors. Going to the field provided us with better understanding of the way technologies were implemented and the reforms needed to enhance the sector. Some weaknesses of the methodology are subject to discussion. But in order to better understand, we need to point out the fact that poor formal administrative procedures are widely used in the region. Furthermore, modern communications (High speed Internet
The Central African countries own important hydro potential. Although 3.4 GW has already been developed, above 100 more GW of hydro power still remain untapped with an economically feasible hydropower potential above 900 TWh. The region is experiencing regularly power shortage mainly in the rural and sub urban areas. Given the importance of the hydrographic network, tidal energy can also be envisaged, as well as ocean energy along the guinea golf. Table 2 below shows the hydro potential of each country, the hydro installed capacity and the high level of thermal plats development. 3.2. Wind potential According to GEOS-1 satellite measures from NASA [8] from July 1983 to June 1993, the wind potential of the region is poor within the equator as depicted in the figure. Chad is the only country with an average speed above 5 m/s allowing the possibility for wind development Fig. 3. 3.3. Geothermal potential Some hot water sources are identified in the region (e.g., Adamaoua in Cameroon and Uvira in Democratic Republic of Congo,
Table 2 Hydropower potential and development and thermal power in Central Africa.
Fig. 2. Road in a remote area.
Country
Installed hydro capacity (MW)
Potential (MW)
Democratic Republic of Congo Cameroon Gabon Republic of Congo Central Africa Republic Equatorial Guinea Chad
2584
100,000
37
725 311 135 19 121 0
20,000 6000 2500 2800 2400 0
547 176 471 24 38 200
Source: [4e7].
Installed thermal plants (MW)
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be found in the world with an area around 500 million acres, spanning the boundaries of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and the Republic of Congo. Inadequate and improper forest management practices is a threat to the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts. Over 50 percent [11] of the Congo Basin’s forests are under commercial logging leases. Despite several sustainable forest management programs, Central Africa tropical forests are disappearing at an alarming rate. The Tropical Forest Foundation (TFF) recognized that inadequate and improper forest management practices were threatening the long-term viability of these forests, significantly reducing their economic potential and resulting in negative social and environmental impacts Fig. 6. Fig. 3. Annual average wind speed between July.
4. Micro hydro and solar ongoing development Mount Cameroon), but detailed study for the assessment of the geothermal potential have not yet been done so far in Central Africa. The eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo might have important geothermal potential since it is part of the ring of fire as depicted in the Fig. 4 below. 3.4. Solar potential Africa is situated from one side to another at the Equator level, hence making this continent one of the sunniest in the world. Based on the data from Solar Radiation project (SoDa) [10], the lowest daily mean radiation ranges from around 4 kWh/day/m2 (wet forest) to above 8 kWh (dry desert in Chad). The modified map below from SoDa shows the average solar radiation of the region. It appears that Central Africa has a great solar potential Fig. 5. 3.5. Biomass potential Central Africa holds up to one-quarter of the world’s tropical forests. This forest is the second largest tropical forest in the world after the Amazon forest. Its mosaic of ecosystems regulates local climate and the flow of water. The forest covers an important area, from the Albertine Rift (Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda) to the Gulf of Guinea (Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Cameroon) and harbors a variety of forests. It’s one of the place where wild dense forests can still
Each country in the region has one or several interconnected grid, but it is available mainly in big cities, where profitability is guaranteed. The coverage for the high voltage power line ranging from 63 kV to 225 kV is poor. Gabon (area of 267 667 km2) for instance as well as Cameroon (area of 475 000 km2) has up to three isolated grid instead of one for the whole country. Electricity is provided to rural communities using several solutions. The first option is grid extension. This is done through tree phase medium voltage ranging up to 30 kV. When the remote demand is not important (less than 25 kVA), only one phase is used for the construction of the medium voltage power line. The single wire earth return (SWER) is hence used. This solution experiences many difficulties given the remoteness of the sites, the poor transport system (bad roads), the subsequent billing system and money recovery. The poor coverage of the grid makes very expensive power line construction for remote areas. Besides, the well known poor profitability of rural electrification makes this activity not attractive for the utilities. Standalone systems are hence very often used, particularly in environments where other options are very expensive. In order to ensure the sustainability of the projects, renewable energy sources are currently being promoted. As mentioned above, it is possible to implement electricity generation from solar, hydro, wind, biomass, geothermal and ocean energy. When we look at the technical issue and the cost effectiveness of each solution, hydro and solar are the
Fig. 4. Pacific ring of fire. Source: [9].
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Fig. 5. World yearly mean radiation.
Fig. 6. Forest fragmentation by roads in Central Africa. Source: [12].
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Table 3 Number of micro hydro sites identified per country. Country
Number of sites below 1 MW
Democratic Republic of Congo Cameroon Gabon Congo Central Africa Republic Equatorial Guinea Chad
134 110 NA 15 25 NA
NA: Not available. Source [14].
most interesting. Given the size of the communities in rural area, micro power generation stations are developed. 4.1. Micro hydro energy The countries have an important hydrographical network, hence important micro hydro potential. Although one part of this potential has been assessed, another important part is still to be identified. Table 3 below shows the number of sites identified in some countries. The average electrification rate is below 15% [13] in Central Africa. Given the needs and the potential, the hydro sector is hence under exploited up to the point where the countries lack energy during the dry season due to water shortage. Much is still to be done in hydro development. Given the poor development of communication and power infrastructures, decentralized solutions might be a good approach to electrification in remote areas. This can be done through microhydro plants in the region.
4.1.2. Micro hydro under operation in Central Africa Power sector in Central Africa heavily relies on hydropower with 94% of capacity under operation being in Democratic Republic of Congo as depicted above. So many micro hydro sites are under operation in remote areas in some countries. The list depicted in the table below shows that there is a room for replication of success stories. This Table 4 shows how far the Democratic Republic of Congo has gone. Despite the huge hydro capacity in Central Africa, many thermal plants have been developed and are under operation. We have for instance more than 330 MW in Republic of Congo, more the 400 MW in Cameroon and more than 174 MW in Gabon. 4.1.3. Microhydro failures So many micro hydro plants are no more running in some villages (Fig. 8). The reasons are poor support from different aspects. In fact, the sizing and design and construction are key issues. Once the plant is completely developed, maintaining it is another serious issue. Table 4 Microhydro plants under operation in Democratic Republic of Congo. ID
Location
Site
P (MW)
Country
1 2 3 4 5
Gboyo Fontem Hopital Katale Rutshuru (Ruanguba) Musienene Hôpital Musienene Séminaire Musienene Croisier Kipese Butembo (PROELKI) Moga Butembo (UCG) Kasanza (pp Trapistes) Nyabiondo SAIBU (Butembo) Moba Ruanguba Saint Joseph Maboya Lubingu Idiofa (DPP) Lemera Lobogo Kailo Gombo Butuhe BUTUHE (Butembo) Kampene Mitwaba (FMZA) Tshikaji Rutshuru (Diocèse) Mokotos Karawa Lemfu (Bas Congo) Kunda Mani Lubilu
Gboyo Fontem Hopital Katale Rutshuru (Ruanguba) Musienene Hôpital Musienene Séminaire Musienene Croisier Kipese Beni
0.01 0.04 0.06 0.02 0.03
Central African Republic Cameroon Central African Republic Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03
Democratic Republic of Congo
0.03 0.05
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
Kananga Beni
0.06 0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
Gungu
0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo
Masisi SAIBU (Butembo) Moba Rutshuru Kananga Maboya Walungu Idiofa Uvira Masisi Masisi Rutshuru Butembo BUTUHE (Butembo) Butembo Mitwaba
0.06 0.06
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.20
Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic Democratic
0.26 0.30
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.30 0.30
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.31 0.37 0.40
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
0.50 0.50 0.70
Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo Democratic Republic of Congo
6 7 8
4.1.1. Micro hydro development Although more than 30 micro hydro plants are currently running in Democratic Republic of Congo for instance, the region has not specifically taken the necessary measures towards promoting microhydro energy. But given the need in remote areas, some people have taken some local initiatives. There are a number of microhydro plants locally developed running in many villages. These plants provide electricity to villagers in a situation where there is no other cost-effective sustainable alternative (Fig. 7). What makes the projects successful is the involvement of the community and the local technical solution.
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37
Fig. 7. Locally made 5 kW micro hydro plant under operation in Cameroon.
Source: [14].
Kananga Rutshuru (Diocèse) Masisi Karawa Lemfu (Bas Congo) Kunda Mani Lubilu
Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic Republic
of of of of of of of of of of of of
Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo Congo
J. Kenfack et al. / Renewable Energy 67 (2014) 10e19
Fig. 8. 3 kW broken locally made micro pelton turbine.
Among the weaknesses identified, we have noticed a lack of infrastructure for manufacturing. Villagers are used to manufacturing micro pelton turbine using aluminum. The device has a very poor efficiency and is not of course resistant enough to withstand long term operation. Other electric equipments are second hand. Furthermore, they use low pressure pipes instead of the high pressure ones for penstocks. This often leads to the underutilization of the capacity of the site and frequent problems like overpressure and poor lifetime of the turbine. This is the result of poor local capacity to design and properly develop a micro hydropower schemes, specifically in remote areas. Because of the poor quality of the equipment and sizing, the plants experience frequent blackouts during low water and high water levels. Energy efficiency is also a crucial issue because the plants regularly experience overload, raising the point of specific circuit breakers for subscribers. Most of the time, the community is not really involved or well organized. The projects are in general supported by some elites. So there is a need for the villagers to build their own capacity to run the project (Fig. 9). After assessing the situation in 6 villages, we got the following results.
15
There is very little knowledge about the uses and effectiveness of micro-hydro systems. The technology is low cost and can be implemented easily in all the countries. Hydro energy technology remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to firewood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies. The micro-hydro market does almost not exist and is dominated by poor quality, low-cost systems. Absence or poor long period support of renewable energy projects (till reaching profitability). Lack of consumer awareness on benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions. Poor decentralized solutions for energy services (generation, distribution.). Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome in order to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets. Lack of specific access to key energy infrastructure such as the national electricity grid. Poor availability of funds for development of micro hydro energy Poor organization and sector institutions 4.2. Solar energy 4.2.1. Solar development Unlike hydro power, the sun is available everywhere, giving opportunity to develop solar plants everywhere. Africa needs the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies. In fact, the remoteness of the areas, coupled with the poor purchase power recommends long term sustainable solution for energy production. This will have huge longer-term benefits. The development of an electricity source based on the availability of the sun will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. Last but not the least is the protection of the forest. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. Solar plants are most of the time used in places where there is no hydro potential. The implementation of this technology is facing some difficulties in remote area, difficulties related to poor institutional management and poor capacity of the actors. Most of the time, components are not sized properly, leading to premature break down of the systems. The main issues concern the size and type of batteries, the regulation and control of the charger/ discharger and the size of the solar panel. Many projects are successfully conducted, with adequate sizing and correct maintenance. But the promotion of this technology is still to be enhanced Figs. 10 and 11. 4.2.2. Solar system failures Solar standalone systems (home solar systems or kits) are most of the time used in remote area. But small communities are being electrified via micro grid. Here again, the lack of know how associated with poor regulation in rural electrification is not helping the villagers. In fact, the remote areas should have specific regulations to attract actors in the rural electrification sector Figs. 12e15. 5. Lessons learned from failures
Fig. 9. Abandoned micro hydro power plant in remote area (poor maintenance).
In order to ensure the sustainability of the project, it should be community based right from beginning. The Government should be
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Fig. 10. Solar plant for private telecommunication company in Gouna (Cameroon).
Fig. 12. PV minigrid power plant not running in Adamaoua region (Cameroon).
involved throughout the process from the training of the institutions to the financial support. The national policy on the issue of solar and micro hydro energy should be encouraged, including efforts to build a domestic capacity to support a solar and micro hydro industry. The existing markets should also be assessed. This will lead to the identification of potential market and barriers for solar and micro-hydro diffusion in the region. In order to ensure the dissemination of the technology, solar and micro-hydro pilot projects should be developed in all regions in each country. After ensuring the capacity building and/or capacity enhancement of the installers/developers, training seminars and/or full trainings should be organized on the monitoring of a plant and with other solar and micro-hydro systems retailers/developers. To make sure the initiative has the expected impact, pilot projects will have to be monitored for at least one year after installation to ensure it withstands the two rainy and two dry seasons. Dissemination of information on successfully projects is another key issue. Therefore, regional seminars on successful projects from champions in many countries will be welcomed, stressing on business opportunities. Actions also need to be taken to promote the access of reliable and life-span good quality solar and micro
hydro equipment. Some standards for the development of solar and micro hydro systems need to be set, in order to avoid project failures. Technology transfer from champions and co-operation between good quality manufacturers in developing countries will be welcomed.
Fig. 11. Solar pump in Ndjamena (Chad).
Fig. 13. PV minigrid off in Adamaoua region (Cameroon).
6. Barriers to renewable energy There are significant barriers to the further implementation of solar and micro hydro energy that need to be addressed. The key issues include the following: Hydro and solar energy technologies remain expensive (high capital costs), compared to firewood, charcoal, petrol and gas energy supplies, Poor long period support of solar and hydro energy projects (till reaching profitability) Lack of consumer awareness on benefits and opportunities of renewable energy solutions. Poor decentralized solutions for energy services (generation, distribution.)
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Central Africa in general is suffering from a poor vision on the issue of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Very few countries have developed a vision on this issue and other are still looking forward to doing it. The strategies and programs exist in some countries. They should match the vision and meet the targets. The region should identify the long term perspective action on the issue of promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. Where there is no vision on this issue, it is important to focus on stakeholder’s capacity to define and adopt a long-term perspective on renewable energy and energy efficiency. If need be, capacity building and/or capacity enhancement should be prior to the formulation of the vision. In order to meet the renewable energy and energy efficiency targets for the coming decades, effective leadership is a key issue for the attainment of the targets within Central Africa. At national and regional levels, political authorities should be involved and support the action. This would lead to the generation of champions. Other important points are: Fig. 14. Solar equipment being fixed in Brazzaville (Republic of Congo).
Financial, legal, regulatory and organizational barriers need to be overcome in order to implement renewable energy technologies and develop markets. Lack of specific access to key energy infrastructure such as the national electricity grid, Poor availability of funds for development of renewable energy
7. Suggestions 7.1. Vision The region needs to develop a vision leading to strategies and programs. This should be politically sustained in order to mitigate the poor leadership and poor renewable energy policy formulation in the sector. In order to sustainably fight against climate change, strategic action plans should be developed or reviewed where available to fit with clean development mechanism. This should be done through capacity building and capacity enhancement of stakeholders in the region.
Fig. 15. Abandoned solar power plant for telecommunication station in Kye Ossi (Cameroon).
enforce energy policy at the regional level, promote and develop power trade and ancillary services, increase access to clean energy to populations and reduce poverty, create a free regional energy market and improve energy system reliability and quality of supply in the whole region. initiate pilot projects funded to help develop the market for sustainable energy, create favorable regulatory and policy frameworks, promote innovative finance and business models to activate the private sector, develop and support policy-maker networks at regional level with initiatives in the field of energy efficiency, sustainable energy regulation, renewable energy and regional regulatory board disseminate mirroring of well-reasoned input
7.2. Enabling environment Given the purchase power of the population in rural area and the economic constraints, solar and hydro energy requires an enabling environment for its promotion. As mentioned above, the renewable energy initial capital cost is high compared to conventional energy sources. This can only lead to making them commercially uncompetitive in the short to medium-term. To overcome this situation, specific actions need to be taken at several levels, namely fiscal, financial, social and legislative levels. This includes commitment and dedication of actors for a good leadership and encouragement of champions. National and international bodies hosting development agencies based in each country should also work together to attain the promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency targets. Full implementation of free trade within Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS) will facilitate regional programs and collaboration among states. Addressing the human resource issue is a key point for attaining the objectives. The region experiences poor human resources in the field of designing, evaluating and implementing renewable energy and energy efficiency projects. Good governance and good regulation in the sector are also very important for promoting and enabling environment for scaling up investments and mobilizing public and private initiatives. The real potential and benefits of all hydro energy sources in remote areas is still to be assessed. Because some studies are not done or not fully done, the costs for developing renewable energy tend to be very high and there is a reluctance to invest in what are sometimes considered to be risky investments.
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7.3. Role of financial instruments
8.2. Institutional reform
The profitability of renewable energy is subject to discussion in a market driven energy economy. To address this issue, many countries in Europe have adopted different specific renewable power generation approaches (feed in tariff, certificates, fixed tariff). In order to achieve the target, the introduction of renewable energy technologies into a market driven energy economy will require the allocation of funding to assist in overcoming the initial high capital cost. It could be done through government bodies, private institutions sustained by government or simply through dedicated funds (budgetary allocation, subsidies, incentives...). The process should be stopped as soon as the renewable energy technologies become competitive and are driven by market forces alone. Other actions to be undertaken are:
Prior to the current status, electricity was supplied in Cameroon by a single vertically integrated company that had the responsibility for production, transmission, distribution and retail sales. The country established a sector regulator (ARSEL), a rural electrification Agency (AER) and also created the Electricity Development Corporation (EDC) which, as Government of Cameroon’s asset holding company, is responsible for the management of public sector assets in the power sector, in particular hydropower assets, as well as the regulation of power flows. Nowadays, more than 20 texts govern the sector which is liberalized since 1998. The aim of liberalization was to attract private sector investments to help the country develop its power sector. The generation, transmission, distribution and sales of power are submitted to concession agreement, license or authorization, declaration regime, free regime and the special regime for rural electrification.
Establishment of a good organizational framework and robust energy policy and strategy Public sensitization Promotion of efficient techniques and marketing strategies (4 Ps) Knowledge management and networking with other partners and projects, governmental and private sector partnership 8. Cameroon case study Cameroon has 721 MW [15] of hydro schemes developed since 1986 over the total installed capacity of above 1000 MW. According to the World Bank Investment Climate Assessment, limited access to reliable electricity is among the 5 top obstacles to doing business in Cameroon. It is estimated that the lack of reliable energy services is costing Cameroon close to 2% of the gross domestic product growth. In order to rehabilitate existing power station, as well as transmission and distribution networks, the electricity utility AES SONEL recently secure a EURO 260 million loan financing for its five year investment program. In order to secure energy supply for the country, the Government of Cameroon commissioned a least cost power sector development plan (PDSE 2030) which is on the way to being updated. Given the time needed for the studies, development and funding of hydro plants, the country has been obliged to take emergency measures based on thermal solutions to cover current and foreseen energy shortages in the short term. If the funding doesn’t follow, emergency measures taken for electricity production might become permanent, producing more than one million tons of carbon dioxide per year. 8.1. Main current and future thermal plants From 2004 to 2011, thermal plants capacity from fossil energy has been multiply by four. Several thermal plants are permanently under operation. The most important are the Limbe thermal plant and the Yassa thermal plant with an installed capacity of 85 MW each. The development of Kribi thermal plant (gas) with a capacity of up to 300 MW is ongoing and more than 100 MW is already available. To meet energy shortage foreseen in the country in the short term, the Government has developed up to 100 MW additional thermal capacity in the cities of Bamenda (20 MW), Ebolowa (10 MW), Mbalmayo (30 MW) and the capital city Yaounde (40 MW). To face the growth of the demand estimated above 50 MW per year, important reforms and midterm development plans have been done. As demonstrated above, renewable energy is far from being the first short term solution for addressing the immediate energy shortage issues in Cameroon.
8.3. Renewable energy promotion No specific action dedicated to the promotion of renewable energy technology in remote area has been undertaken so far by government. Programs for efficient stoves are ongoing for energy efficiency but many other issues still to be addressed. The country also has a rural electricity fund funded by the World Bank (Rural electricity fund) for the promotion of rural electricity. This program is intended to stress on renewable energy. The projects to be financed are still waiting for the completion of the selection process. The formulation of strategic actions to boost the energy sector in all parts of the country is still ongoing in the Ministry of Energy and Water. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency is among these actions. But given the poor experience of the stakeholders, pilot projects should be initiated and disseminated. 8.4. Identified regulatory barriers to renewable energy Challenges (regulatory and others) to sustainable energy in Cameroon include: The restructuring of the electricity utility AES-SONEL mission; The establishment of connection charges and tariffs from renewable sources; The update and implementation of low cost solutions and safety standards for rural electrification; The encouragement of the ongoing policy for entrepreneurs willing to enter the electrical service contracting business; The consolidation of the provision of incentives to encourage entry of new electricity retailers in cities and rural areas through rural electrification fund; The promotion of energy efficiency The dissemination of bests practices. The mission of the electricity utility should be restructured to encourage energy from renewable sources, through attractive connection charges and feed in tariffs. In order to boost the sector, the rural electricity fund should promote the development of hydro and solar plants where need be and disseminate information about champions. 8.5. Weaknesses of the institutions The country will be experiencing in the future for the first time a true management of new operators [16], for only two licenses are granted so far. All the projects are currently facing poor visibility on the issue of feed-in, transport and tariffs. The electricity regulatory
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agency (ARSEL) created in the framework of liberalization hence has limited experience. For each of the ongoing projects, there will be specific negotiations if necessary measures concerning regulations are not taken in time. The sector is also suffering from a lack of transborder regulation for interconnection among countries, because Cameroon can be a net electricity exporter. Options for encouraging decentralized solutions in remote areas are currently ongoing through rural electricity fund, but the experience is still limited. To address these issues, Cameroon is developing several strategic action plans. The promotion of renewable energy and energy efficiency hence still has a long way to go.
9. Conclusion Central Africa is a region with great renewable energy potential, a place were almost all renewable energy sources can be found. The region owns the first hydro potential of the continent, the second tropical forest in the world and an important solar radiation all year long. Despite the great hydro and solar energy potential, the region is experiencing very poor renewable energy development. Although some actions are ongoing, more specific actions in the region are still needed at several levels. Suggestions have been made to help the region develop a good vision to address the issue
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and take the necessary measures at all levels to learn from failures and contribute to promoting solar and hydro energy.
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