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Adjunctive behavior in humans in a group gambling situation
Physiology & Behavior, Vol, 18, pp. 1 5 9 - 1 6 1 . P e r g a m o n Press a n d Brain Research Publ., 1977. Printed in the U.S.A.
BRIEF COMMUNICATION Adjunctive Behavior in Humans in a Group Gambling Situation J O H N C L A R K E , M A R J O R I E G A N N O N , IAN H U G H E S , C L A R E K E O G H , G E O R G E S I N G E R AND MEREDITH WALLACE
Department o f Psychology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia 3083 (Received 11 N o v e m b e r 1976) CLARKE, J., M. GANNON, I. HUGHES, C. KEOGH, G. SINGER AND M. WALLACE. Adjunctive behavior in humans in A nonreinforced increase in activity described as adjunctive behavior has been demonstrated in animals and humans placed on an FI or VI schedule in isolation. In the present experiment two groups of four subjects were observed playing a poker dice gambling game where turns to throw dice were restricted to an FI 120 schedule. Mean percentage movement scores taken during four 40 rain gambling sessions were significantly higher than similar scores obtained from a nonscheduled baseline session. It is concluded that the presence of a group does not inhibit the occurrence of adjunctive behavior in individuals.
a group gambling situation. PHYSIOL. BEHAV. 18(1) 159-161, 1977.
Adjunctive behavior
Group gambling
A D J U N C T I V E b e h a v i o r is an increase in activity observed during intervals b e t w e e n s c h e d u l e c o n t r o l l e d responses. It is schedule i n d u c e d b u t n o t schedule c o n t r o l l e d and has b e e n r e p o r t e d to o c c u r in b o t h animals a n d h u m a n s [ 6 ] . In animals it has b e e n f o u n d to o c c u r m o s t l y as polydipsia in a food deprived organism [ 1 ] , b u t o t h e r behaviors such as wheel r u n n i n g can also b e c o m e schedule i n d u c e d [31. F u r t h e r m o r e , schedule c o n t r o l l e d c o n s u m m a t o r y b e h a v i o r is n o t an essential r e q u i r e m e n t [4] for a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r
gambling game, involving four players. The basic assumption u n d e r l y i n g the choice of activity was t h a t it was reinforcing for each player to have a t u r n at t h r o w i n g the dice. The aim of the e x p e r i m e n t was to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r adjunctive b e h a v i o r would o c c u r within such a social situation. METHOD
Sub/ects
to occur.
Two groups of four people p a r t i c i p a t e d in the siudy. Subjects answered a d v e r t i s e m e n t s in university news sheets for v o l u n t e e r s to assist in research i n t o gambling. The first group, aged b e t w e e n 20 and 4 0 years, consisted of three male university employees, w h o o f t e n spent l u n c h - t i m e t o g e t h e r in various card games, and one male s t u d e n t . These four subjects could be described as keen gamblers. By contrast, the s e c o n d group were all u n k n o w n to each o t h e r . were all s t u d e n t s and could best be described as only occasional gamblers. This group was c o m p o s e d of one female and three males aged b e t w e e n 18 and 21 years.
In h u m a n s , a d j u n c t i v e pacing a n d d r i n k i n g has been observed in s c h i z o p h r e n i c p a t i e n t s w h o were on a t o k e n e c o n o m y p r o g r a m and w h o were required to pull a cord to o b t a i n p e n n i e s on a range of FI schedules [21. A d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r has also been studied in n o r m a l h u m a n subjects during game playing on an FI 60 schedule [ 5 ] . A c o m p u t e r console was used to simulate a j a c k p o t m a c h i n e , similar to those f o u n d in g a m b l i n g casinos. All subjects h a d food and soft drink available. The types of a d j u n c t i v e behaviors and t h e i r m a g n i t u d e varied b e t w e e n individuals, and ranged f r o m grooming, eating, drinking, pacing, t h r o u g h a n i m a t e d play acting to some r a t h e r bizarre behaviors. A d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r has also been s h o w n in h u m a n s w h e n a cognitive task which did n o t involve a c o n t i n g e n t m o n e t a r y reward was s c h e d u l e c o n t r o l l e d [ 7 ] . All previous studies, a n i m a l or h u m a n , have tested subjects individually. The p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t was designed to test w h e t h e r a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r would o c c u r in h u m a n s w h e n placed on an FI s c h e d u l e within a group situation. The schedule c o n t r o l l e d b e h a v i o r utilised a p o k e r dice
Apparatus A p p a r a t u s used by the players during the game consisted of 5 p o k e r dice, with Ace, King, Q u e e n . Jack, 10 and 9 on the faces of each dice, and a flat r e c t a n g u l a r b o x 35 x 25 × 12 cm in which the dice were t h r o w n . T h e r e were also n u m b e r e d tickets and a pen for recording bets and throws. A t h i r t y m i n u t e video tape d e m o n s t r a t e d the rules, gambling odds and strategies of the game. 159
160
C L A R K E , G A N N O N , H U G H E S , K E O G H , SING~'~R A N D W A L 1 , A ( I .
The players sat at a table in an o b s e r v a t i o n l a b o r a t o r y , 3 m x 8 m, w h i c h was lined o n two walls w i t h o n e - w a y mirrors. In a d d i t i o n , this r o o m c o n t a i n e d a small table and stool a n d c u p b o a r d s . A 200 msec beep, w h i c h could be h e a r d in the e x p e r i m e n t a l r o o m , was c o n t r o l l e d by 2 c h a n n e l s of a (~ c h a n n e l logic system. A n o t h e r b e e p e r s o u n d e d in the o b s e r v a t i o n r o o m every 5 sec t o e n a b l e c o n s t a n t time sampling.
70;. • ..i *J
'.'.'.'.'.'21
%
Results The p e r c e n t a g e of samples d u r i n g w h i c h m o v e m e n t o c c u r r e d ( p e r c e n t a g e m o v e m e n t score) is s h o w n in Fig. 1. T h e data were derived f r o m 7 subjects, since the female of the s e c o n d group did n o t c o m p l e t e all e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions. (To m a i n t a i n t h e g r o u p size, a n o t h e r female subject w h o h a d b e e n s h o w n the v i d e o tape briefing was s u b s t i t u t e d . Her data were n o t i n c l u d e d . ) Data for t h e t w o groups were c o m p a r e d because o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in g a m b l i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d i n t r a g r o u p f r i e n d s h i p , n o t e d earlier. T h e m e a n s for t h a t session w h i c h h a d t h e greatest difference b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s ' d a t a (Session 3) were f o u n d
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MOVEMENT SCORES 50-
Procedure All sessions were c o n d u c t e d b e t w e e n 1 p.m. and 2 p.m. Subjects were told t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t was c o n c e r n e d with g a m b l i n g strategies. T h e seating p o s i t i o n s at t h e h e x a g o n a l table were such t h a t t h e t w o u n o c c u p i e d sides were closest to t h e o b s e r v a t i o n mirror. This gave observers an o p t i m a l view o f l i m b m o v e m e n t s a n d the f r o n t a l aspects of all subjects. A baseline level for m o v e m e n t scores was o b t a i n e d in the first session, w h e n subjects viewed the v i d e o tape u n d e r nonscheduled conditions. Each of t h e four e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions lasted 4 0 rain, with t h e s u b j e c t s playing in turn. Each player o p e r a t e d o n a s c h e d u l e of FI 120 sec w i t h 4 0 sec t i m e - o u t s p e n t playing. The 4 0 sec intervals were signalled by t h e beeper, and players were r e q u e s t e d to c o m p l e t e t h e i r t u r n w i t h i n this time. Subjects were asked to keep c o n v e r s a t i o n to a m i n i m u m . During the 4 0 sec turns, players r e c o r d e d t h e i r bet and the o u t c o m e of b o t h throws. T w o pairs of e x p e r i m e n t e r s s t a t i o n e d b e h i n d a one-way mirror r e c o r d e d t h e activity of two subjects. Each pair scored the t w o s u b j e c t s a l t e r n a t e l y every 5 sec, t h u s o b t a i n i n g a d u p l i c a t e r e c o r d of m o v e m e n t for each s u b j e c t every l 0 sec. Eight categories of activity were scored .... m o v e m e n t , wriggling, fidgeting, g r o o m i n g , doodling, vocalising, s m o k i n g a n d quiet. These were l a t e r collapsed i n t o two m a j o r categories - m o v e m e n t a n d quiet. S u b j e c t s were n o t scored d u r i n g t i m e - o u t periods. Cross-check reliability was o b t a i n e d b y tallying the a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t e r s over q u i e t and movem e n t scores. A c u m u l a t i v e a c c o u n t of winnings was k e p t and r e p o r t e d to s u b j e c t s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of every session. Each p l a y e r began a n e w session w i t h a b a n k of $ 1 . 5 0 and any p l a y e r w h o finished t h e session w i t h less t h a n $ 1 . 0 0 was subsidised to t h a t a m o u n t . Bets r a n g e d f r o m 2~ to 10~ per h a n d . T h e h o u s e paid triple t h e bet o f t h e w i n n i n g h a n d and the losers paid to t h e h o u s e the a m o u n t bet. Subjects were d e b r i e f e d at the end of the f i f t h session and paid t h e i r t o t a l winnings.
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2 3; SESSIONS FIG. 1. Percentage movement scores f,~r the basehne and :our experimental sessions
BASEUNE
to be n o t significantly d i f f e r e n t ~, = !.278. d.[ = 5.,~ , ( / . 5 ) Accordingly. the data were c o m b i n e u . A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t e r pa~rs on cross-check reliability was b e t w e e n 9 2 . 9 ~ a n d 98.2';~;. A t-test b e t w e e n t h e m e a n baseline and the m e a n tor e x p e r i m e n t a l session 2, which h a d the lowest p e r c e n t a g e m o v e m e n t score of t h e 4 e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions~ i n d i c a t e d the d i f f e r e n c e was significant (t = 2,1 17. d f = 6. p < 0 . 0 5 L
DiscussIott I'he results d e m o n s t r a t e that w h e n p e o p l e are in a socml situation, on a s c h e d u l e of FI 120 sec. the level of n o n r e i n f o r c e d activity is greater than t h a t during a nons c h e d u l e d baseline. This is in a g r e e m e n t with previous findings t h a t the a m o u n t o f activity increases from baseline levels with s c h e d u l e s o f l o n g intervals. In such studies a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in isolated h u m a n s was o b s e r v e d , the results of the present s t u d y provide strong evidence that a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r also o c c u r s in g r o u p s i t u a t i o n s The o c c u r r e n c e of a d j u n c t i v e behavior in isolated subjects on an FI 120 sec s c h e d u l e has been d e m o n s t r a t e d in o u r l a b o r a t o r y [ 7 ] . In the p r e s e n t s t u d y similar p e r c e n t a g e increases in a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r were f o u n d u n d e r similar c o n d i t i o n s , b u t m a g r o u p situation, t h i s suggests t h a t the p r e s e n c e of a g r o u p does n o t r e d u c e t h e level of adjunctive behavior a l t h o u g h f u r t h e r investigation is necessary to clarify this point. All subjects d e m o n s t r a t e d a d j u n c t i v e behavior, t h o u g h t h e r e were c o n s i d e r a b l e individual differences. It appears, f r o m these data, t h a t s u b j e c t s generally e x h i b i t e d greater levels of a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in the i m m e d i a t e p o s t r e i n f o r c e m e n t period. This is in a g r e e m e n t with t h e findings r e p o r t e d with n o n h u m a n subjects [ 1 ]. Social psychologists have studied m a n y variables all e t t i n g individual behaviors in a g r o u p s i t u a t i o n : e.g., it has been f o u n d t h a t s t a t u s affects imitative behavior. Such findings c o u l d be used to e x t e n d the s t u d y of a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in a g r o u p s i t u a t i o n to investigate t r e n d s in specific activities r a t h e r t h a n general m o v e m e n t . In turn. social psychologists m i g h t bear in m i n d t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r a d i g m s used t o s t u d y g r o u p behavior may involve the p r e s e n c e of a schedule, w h i c h c o u l d lead to adjunctive b e h a v i o r n o t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of the e x p e r i m e n t e r .
A D J U N C T I V E B E H A V I O R IN G R O U P G A M B L I N G
161
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.
Falk, J. L. The nature and determinants of adjunctive behavior. Physiol. Behav. 6" 577-588, 1971. Kachanoff, R., R, Leveille, J. P. McLelland and M, J. Wayner. Schedule induced behavior in humans. Physiol. Behav. l l : 395-398, 1973. King, G. D. Wheel running in the rat induced by a fixed-time presentation of water. Anita. Learn. Behav. 2: 325-328, 1974. Singer, G., M. J. Wayner, J. Stein, K. Cimino and K. King. Adjunctive behavior induced by wheel running. Physiol. Behav. 12:493 495, 1974.
5.
6.
7.
Wallace, M., G. Singer, M. J. Wayner and P. Cook. Adjunctive behavior in humans during game playing. Physiol. Behar. 14: 651 654, 1975. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Schedule induced behavior: A review of its generality, determinants and pharmacological data. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 5:483 490, 1976. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior and smoking induced by a maze solving schedule in humans. Physiol. Behav. 17: 849-852, 1976.
BRIEF COMMUNICATION Adjunctive Behavior in Humans in a Group Gambling Situation J O H N C L A R K E , M A R J O R I E G A N N O N , IAN H U G H E S , C L A R E K E O G H , G E O R G E S I N G E R AND MEREDITH WALLACE
Department o f Psychology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia 3083 (Received 11 N o v e m b e r 1976) CLARKE, J., M. GANNON, I. HUGHES, C. KEOGH, G. SINGER AND M. WALLACE. Adjunctive behavior in humans in A nonreinforced increase in activity described as adjunctive behavior has been demonstrated in animals and humans placed on an FI or VI schedule in isolation. In the present experiment two groups of four subjects were observed playing a poker dice gambling game where turns to throw dice were restricted to an FI 120 schedule. Mean percentage movement scores taken during four 40 rain gambling sessions were significantly higher than similar scores obtained from a nonscheduled baseline session. It is concluded that the presence of a group does not inhibit the occurrence of adjunctive behavior in individuals.
a group gambling situation. PHYSIOL. BEHAV. 18(1) 159-161, 1977.
Adjunctive behavior
Group gambling
A D J U N C T I V E b e h a v i o r is an increase in activity observed during intervals b e t w e e n s c h e d u l e c o n t r o l l e d responses. It is schedule i n d u c e d b u t n o t schedule c o n t r o l l e d and has b e e n r e p o r t e d to o c c u r in b o t h animals a n d h u m a n s [ 6 ] . In animals it has b e e n f o u n d to o c c u r m o s t l y as polydipsia in a food deprived organism [ 1 ] , b u t o t h e r behaviors such as wheel r u n n i n g can also b e c o m e schedule i n d u c e d [31. F u r t h e r m o r e , schedule c o n t r o l l e d c o n s u m m a t o r y b e h a v i o r is n o t an essential r e q u i r e m e n t [4] for a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r
gambling game, involving four players. The basic assumption u n d e r l y i n g the choice of activity was t h a t it was reinforcing for each player to have a t u r n at t h r o w i n g the dice. The aim of the e x p e r i m e n t was to d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r adjunctive b e h a v i o r would o c c u r within such a social situation. METHOD
Sub/ects
to occur.
Two groups of four people p a r t i c i p a t e d in the siudy. Subjects answered a d v e r t i s e m e n t s in university news sheets for v o l u n t e e r s to assist in research i n t o gambling. The first group, aged b e t w e e n 20 and 4 0 years, consisted of three male university employees, w h o o f t e n spent l u n c h - t i m e t o g e t h e r in various card games, and one male s t u d e n t . These four subjects could be described as keen gamblers. By contrast, the s e c o n d group were all u n k n o w n to each o t h e r . were all s t u d e n t s and could best be described as only occasional gamblers. This group was c o m p o s e d of one female and three males aged b e t w e e n 18 and 21 years.
In h u m a n s , a d j u n c t i v e pacing a n d d r i n k i n g has been observed in s c h i z o p h r e n i c p a t i e n t s w h o were on a t o k e n e c o n o m y p r o g r a m and w h o were required to pull a cord to o b t a i n p e n n i e s on a range of FI schedules [21. A d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r has also been studied in n o r m a l h u m a n subjects during game playing on an FI 60 schedule [ 5 ] . A c o m p u t e r console was used to simulate a j a c k p o t m a c h i n e , similar to those f o u n d in g a m b l i n g casinos. All subjects h a d food and soft drink available. The types of a d j u n c t i v e behaviors and t h e i r m a g n i t u d e varied b e t w e e n individuals, and ranged f r o m grooming, eating, drinking, pacing, t h r o u g h a n i m a t e d play acting to some r a t h e r bizarre behaviors. A d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r has also been s h o w n in h u m a n s w h e n a cognitive task which did n o t involve a c o n t i n g e n t m o n e t a r y reward was s c h e d u l e c o n t r o l l e d [ 7 ] . All previous studies, a n i m a l or h u m a n , have tested subjects individually. The p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t was designed to test w h e t h e r a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r would o c c u r in h u m a n s w h e n placed on an FI s c h e d u l e within a group situation. The schedule c o n t r o l l e d b e h a v i o r utilised a p o k e r dice
Apparatus A p p a r a t u s used by the players during the game consisted of 5 p o k e r dice, with Ace, King, Q u e e n . Jack, 10 and 9 on the faces of each dice, and a flat r e c t a n g u l a r b o x 35 x 25 × 12 cm in which the dice were t h r o w n . T h e r e were also n u m b e r e d tickets and a pen for recording bets and throws. A t h i r t y m i n u t e video tape d e m o n s t r a t e d the rules, gambling odds and strategies of the game. 159
160
C L A R K E , G A N N O N , H U G H E S , K E O G H , SING~'~R A N D W A L 1 , A ( I .
The players sat at a table in an o b s e r v a t i o n l a b o r a t o r y , 3 m x 8 m, w h i c h was lined o n two walls w i t h o n e - w a y mirrors. In a d d i t i o n , this r o o m c o n t a i n e d a small table and stool a n d c u p b o a r d s . A 200 msec beep, w h i c h could be h e a r d in the e x p e r i m e n t a l r o o m , was c o n t r o l l e d by 2 c h a n n e l s of a (~ c h a n n e l logic system. A n o t h e r b e e p e r s o u n d e d in the o b s e r v a t i o n r o o m every 5 sec t o e n a b l e c o n s t a n t time sampling.
70;. • ..i *J
'.'.'.'.'.'21
%
Results The p e r c e n t a g e of samples d u r i n g w h i c h m o v e m e n t o c c u r r e d ( p e r c e n t a g e m o v e m e n t score) is s h o w n in Fig. 1. T h e data were derived f r o m 7 subjects, since the female of the s e c o n d group did n o t c o m p l e t e all e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions. (To m a i n t a i n t h e g r o u p size, a n o t h e r female subject w h o h a d b e e n s h o w n the v i d e o tape briefing was s u b s t i t u t e d . Her data were n o t i n c l u d e d . ) Data for t h e t w o groups were c o m p a r e d because o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e s in g a m b l i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d i n t r a g r o u p f r i e n d s h i p , n o t e d earlier. T h e m e a n s for t h a t session w h i c h h a d t h e greatest difference b e t w e e n t h e g r o u p s ' d a t a (Session 3) were f o u n d
.S.S'S
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~
. . . . . . . . . . . .
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MOVEMENT SCORES 50-
Procedure All sessions were c o n d u c t e d b e t w e e n 1 p.m. and 2 p.m. Subjects were told t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t was c o n c e r n e d with g a m b l i n g strategies. T h e seating p o s i t i o n s at t h e h e x a g o n a l table were such t h a t t h e t w o u n o c c u p i e d sides were closest to t h e o b s e r v a t i o n mirror. This gave observers an o p t i m a l view o f l i m b m o v e m e n t s a n d the f r o n t a l aspects of all subjects. A baseline level for m o v e m e n t scores was o b t a i n e d in the first session, w h e n subjects viewed the v i d e o tape u n d e r nonscheduled conditions. Each of t h e four e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions lasted 4 0 rain, with t h e s u b j e c t s playing in turn. Each player o p e r a t e d o n a s c h e d u l e of FI 120 sec w i t h 4 0 sec t i m e - o u t s p e n t playing. The 4 0 sec intervals were signalled by t h e beeper, and players were r e q u e s t e d to c o m p l e t e t h e i r t u r n w i t h i n this time. Subjects were asked to keep c o n v e r s a t i o n to a m i n i m u m . During the 4 0 sec turns, players r e c o r d e d t h e i r bet and the o u t c o m e of b o t h throws. T w o pairs of e x p e r i m e n t e r s s t a t i o n e d b e h i n d a one-way mirror r e c o r d e d t h e activity of two subjects. Each pair scored the t w o s u b j e c t s a l t e r n a t e l y every 5 sec, t h u s o b t a i n i n g a d u p l i c a t e r e c o r d of m o v e m e n t for each s u b j e c t every l 0 sec. Eight categories of activity were scored .... m o v e m e n t , wriggling, fidgeting, g r o o m i n g , doodling, vocalising, s m o k i n g a n d quiet. These were l a t e r collapsed i n t o two m a j o r categories - m o v e m e n t a n d quiet. S u b j e c t s were n o t scored d u r i n g t i m e - o u t periods. Cross-check reliability was o b t a i n e d b y tallying the a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t e r s over q u i e t and movem e n t scores. A c u m u l a t i v e a c c o u n t of winnings was k e p t and r e p o r t e d to s u b j e c t s at t h e b e g i n n i n g of every session. Each p l a y e r began a n e w session w i t h a b a n k of $ 1 . 5 0 and any p l a y e r w h o finished t h e session w i t h less t h a n $ 1 . 0 0 was subsidised to t h a t a m o u n t . Bets r a n g e d f r o m 2~ to 10~ per h a n d . T h e h o u s e paid triple t h e bet o f t h e w i n n i n g h a n d and the losers paid to t h e h o u s e the a m o u n t bet. Subjects were d e b r i e f e d at the end of the f i f t h session and paid t h e i r t o t a l winnings.
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BASEUNE
to be n o t significantly d i f f e r e n t ~, = !.278. d.[ = 5.,~ , ( / . 5 ) Accordingly. the data were c o m b i n e u . A g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n e x p e r i m e n t e r pa~rs on cross-check reliability was b e t w e e n 9 2 . 9 ~ a n d 98.2';~;. A t-test b e t w e e n t h e m e a n baseline and the m e a n tor e x p e r i m e n t a l session 2, which h a d the lowest p e r c e n t a g e m o v e m e n t score of t h e 4 e x p e r i m e n t a l sessions~ i n d i c a t e d the d i f f e r e n c e was significant (t = 2,1 17. d f = 6. p < 0 . 0 5 L
DiscussIott I'he results d e m o n s t r a t e that w h e n p e o p l e are in a socml situation, on a s c h e d u l e of FI 120 sec. the level of n o n r e i n f o r c e d activity is greater than t h a t during a nons c h e d u l e d baseline. This is in a g r e e m e n t with previous findings t h a t the a m o u n t o f activity increases from baseline levels with s c h e d u l e s o f l o n g intervals. In such studies a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in isolated h u m a n s was o b s e r v e d , the results of the present s t u d y provide strong evidence that a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r also o c c u r s in g r o u p s i t u a t i o n s The o c c u r r e n c e of a d j u n c t i v e behavior in isolated subjects on an FI 120 sec s c h e d u l e has been d e m o n s t r a t e d in o u r l a b o r a t o r y [ 7 ] . In the p r e s e n t s t u d y similar p e r c e n t a g e increases in a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r were f o u n d u n d e r similar c o n d i t i o n s , b u t m a g r o u p situation, t h i s suggests t h a t the p r e s e n c e of a g r o u p does n o t r e d u c e t h e level of adjunctive behavior a l t h o u g h f u r t h e r investigation is necessary to clarify this point. All subjects d e m o n s t r a t e d a d j u n c t i v e behavior, t h o u g h t h e r e were c o n s i d e r a b l e individual differences. It appears, f r o m these data, t h a t s u b j e c t s generally e x h i b i t e d greater levels of a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in the i m m e d i a t e p o s t r e i n f o r c e m e n t period. This is in a g r e e m e n t with t h e findings r e p o r t e d with n o n h u m a n subjects [ 1 ]. Social psychologists have studied m a n y variables all e t t i n g individual behaviors in a g r o u p s i t u a t i o n : e.g., it has been f o u n d t h a t s t a t u s affects imitative behavior. Such findings c o u l d be used to e x t e n d the s t u d y of a d j u n c t i v e b e h a v i o r in a g r o u p s i t u a t i o n to investigate t r e n d s in specific activities r a t h e r t h a n general m o v e m e n t . In turn. social psychologists m i g h t bear in m i n d t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l p a r a d i g m s used t o s t u d y g r o u p behavior may involve the p r e s e n c e of a schedule, w h i c h c o u l d lead to adjunctive b e h a v i o r n o t u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l of the e x p e r i m e n t e r .
A D J U N C T I V E B E H A V I O R IN G R O U P G A M B L I N G
161
REFERENCES 1. 2. 3. 4.
Falk, J. L. The nature and determinants of adjunctive behavior. Physiol. Behav. 6" 577-588, 1971. Kachanoff, R., R, Leveille, J. P. McLelland and M, J. Wayner. Schedule induced behavior in humans. Physiol. Behav. l l : 395-398, 1973. King, G. D. Wheel running in the rat induced by a fixed-time presentation of water. Anita. Learn. Behav. 2: 325-328, 1974. Singer, G., M. J. Wayner, J. Stein, K. Cimino and K. King. Adjunctive behavior induced by wheel running. Physiol. Behav. 12:493 495, 1974.
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Wallace, M., G. Singer, M. J. Wayner and P. Cook. Adjunctive behavior in humans during game playing. Physiol. Behar. 14: 651 654, 1975. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Schedule induced behavior: A review of its generality, determinants and pharmacological data. Pharmac. Biochem. Behav. 5:483 490, 1976. Wallace, M. and G. Singer. Adjunctive behavior and smoking induced by a maze solving schedule in humans. Physiol. Behav. 17: 849-852, 1976.