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Adoption of biomass improved cookstoves in a patriarchal society: an example from Sudan
The Science of the Total Environment 307 (2003) 259–266
Short communication
Adoption of biomass improved cookstoves in a patriarchal society: an example from Sudan Siddig El Tayeb Muneera,*, El Waseilah Mukhtar Mohamedb a
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, King Saud University Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia b Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan Received 23 May 2002; received in revised form 28 August 2002; accepted 18 October 2002
Abstract The economic, social, ecological and environmental roles and benefits of forests are obvious and need no emphasis. Inefficient use of fuel wood is considered one of the important causes of deforestation. Use of more efficient improved cookstoves is proposed as one of the measures that can reduce demand for fuel wood and charcoal and help in lowering the annoying deforestation rate in many developing countries. During the 1980s and 1990s several programs aiming at testing and disseminating energy saving technologies were implemented in Sudan. One of these technologies was improved cookstoves, which was intended to increase the efficiency of using energy from biomass sources. This study is carried out to examine the adoption rate and the factors affecting adoption of improved cookstoves in Khartoum State. The study is based on primary data collected through personal interviews with husbands and wives in 300 randomly selected households. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that the device’s adoption rate was very low. The improved cookstove’s relative advantage, housewife’s exposure to messages about improved cookstoves, educational level of the housewife and the average educational level of the female household’s members had significant positive effect on the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstove. Wife’s age and the educational level of the husband had negative significant effects. In the Sudanese patriarchal society all the household domestic tasks, particularly food preparation and related activities, are considered women’s responsibilities and all the decisions related to them are taken by women. Therefore, these results could be understood as a reflection of the division of labor, gender relations and decision-making process in the Sudanese household. 䊚 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Deforestation; Tropical forests; Natural resources conservation; Innovation; Social system; Gender relations; Decisionmaking; Division of labor
1. Introduction *Corresponding author. Tel.: q966-1-4676979. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. El Tayeb Muneer).
Forests are considered one of the important natural resources that play a critical role in the
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economy and livelihood of the rural people in many countries. They provide fuel wood, wood for lumber and paper, building materials and in some countries they are an important source of foreign exchange. Furthermore, millions of people depend directly on forests for food, medicines and other basic needs. From an environmental perspective, forests help in maintaining soil quality, limit erosion, stabilize hillsides, modulate seasonal flooding and protect waterways and marine sources from accelerated siltation. However, forests are destroyed faster than most other natural resources. A study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) indicated that during the period 1980– 1990, the world tropical forests were reduced by an average rate of 15.4 million hectares per year (i.e. annual deforestation rate of 0.8%) (Agyei, 1998). According to the Forests Assessment Program of the FAO the annual global deforestation rate during the 1990s had declined to 0.2% (FAO, 2000). However, the methodology used to calculate the 1990s’ deforestation rate has been questioned and criticized for being different and not comparable to that used in the 1980s’ assessment (Matthews, 2001). It is argued that the 1990s’ annual deforestation rate of 0.2% may be lower than that of the 1980s just because of the methodological differences. Therefore, the comparison between the two rates may be misleading and actually the deforestation rate during the 1990s may be as high as that of the 1980s if not higher (Matthews, 2001). Nevertheless, there is a consensus that the annual deforestation rate of the tropical forest in Africa had increased from 0.7% during the 1980s to 0.8% during the 1990s (FAO, 1997, 2000; Matthews, 2001). The annual deforestation rate in Sudan is higher than that of Africa and is estimated at 1.1% (World Bank, 1997). A wide range of causes of deforestation and forest degradation have been identified in different social, economic, cultural and environmental contexts (Elnagheeb and Bromley, 1994; Verolme and Moussa, 1999; Angelsen and Kaimowitz, 1999). This includes commercial logging, large scale andy or unsustainable agricultural practices, ranching, lack of empowerment and participation of local communities in decisions over forest management,
promotion of large scale development projects (e.g. mining, industrial development and hydroelectric schemes) fire, poverty and other forms of social exclusion and fuel wood harvesting. However, in several third world countries, particularly in rural areas, one of the main causes of deforestation is the heavy dependence on biomass energy. It is estimated that more than three fourths of the population in the developing countries depended on wood and other biomass fuels for their domestic energy requirements (International Labor Organization, 1987). In Sudan approximately 79% of the country energy needs are met from biomass resources; mainly wood and charcoal, and 98% of the felled wood is used as fuel for domestic purposes (de Jang-Boom, 1990). The problem of heavy dependence on biomass as a source of energy is aggravated by the low efficiency with which it is utilized. The low efficiency with which energy from biomass sources is utilized, is considered one of the important factors that have resulted in high demand for firewood and charcoal (Agyei, 1998). Thus, some believe that one of the promising means to lower the deforestation rate in the developing countries is the development and adoption of more efficient fuel wood and charcoal utilization technology, such as the improved cookstoves. Consequently, many African countries have started to develop, disseminate and use more efficient cookstoves to replace the traditional ones so as to improve the efficiency of firewood and charcoal utilization. Moreover, improved cookstoves are also expected to minimize the health hazard (respiratory diseases) that is caused by the choking smoke from indoor fires. However, the stoves programs, on the whole, have failed to achieve widespread dissemination of improved designs and address the household fuel shortage (Gill, 1985). This is because of the mismatch between the felt needs of the rural poor and the assumptions of the institutions and individuals designing and promoting improved stoves (Gill, 1985). Another reason is that not all improved stoves have been more efficient andyor smokeless than the traditional designs (Howes et al., 1983; French, 1984; Gill, 1985). In addition, the traditional modes of cooking serve a number
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of socio-cultural and practical functions, which have been neglected in the stoves’ programs. Moreover, in Africa the fact that collection, purchase and use of firewood and charcoal are almost entirely women’s responsibility, does not help in the adoption of improved stoves (Foley and Van Buren, 1981; Barnes et al., 1994). In many African countries, particularly in rural areas, firewood is gathered by women as free good and rarely enters commercial markets. Thus, it remains even when scarce, outside the realm of economic decisions, which are usually made by men. This is true even in the urban areas where charcoal and firewood are generally purchased by women from the disproportionately meager share of the family income they control. This gender based division of labor and responsibilities in the African societies was not fully acknowledged at the beginning of the improved cookstoves development and dissemination programs and the conducted training courses and extension campaigns were mostly attended by and directed to men. Failure to fully understand the social setting in Africa had impeded both quick development of appropriate designs of the improved stoves and its adoption, and only when women and women’s organizations were consulted and targeted this was accomplished (Kammen, 1995). In Sudan, the energy research council, CARE InternationalySudan and other public and private research and aid organizations started experiments on the efficiency of different types of improved cookstoves designed to suit local usage. Some of the improved stoves proved to be efficient and convenient. The results of laboratory tests, carried out in 1984, showed that while the traditional stove was 17.8% efficient, the average efficiency of the improved cookstoves was approximately 24.8% (Ali and Huff, 1984). It is expected that adoption of such stoves will lead to a significant reduction in the country total demand for firewood and charcoal and helps reduce pressure on forests. However, despite its relatively high efficiency the diffusion of improved cookstoves and its adoption by the household sector was rather low and was not at the level expected to reduce the high demand for firewood and charcoal. Therefore, this study is intended to determine the adoption rate of the
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improved cookstove in Khartoum State, which has the highest consumption of charcoal and firewood in the country. The study will also attempt to explore the factors that influence the households’ innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstoves. 2. Methodology During late 1980s and early 1990s several international and national NGOs were working in coordination with the Energy Research Center to disseminate improved cookstoves in Khartoum State particularly in Omdurman area which is considered one of the most populous areas in the State. As great efforts to disseminate the improved cookstoves (e.g. extension campaigns, seminars and training workshops) were carried out in Omdurman, it was selected as the study area. Multistage stratified random sampling technique was used to select the study sample. First, the ten localities in the study area were divided into urban and rural localities. Then, three localities were selected randomly from each group. A sampling frame was established by obtaining the list of households in each selected locality from its headquarter. Finally, 50 households were selected randomly from each of the six selected localities to have a total sample of 300 households; 150 rural households and 150 urban ones. The data were collected through personal interviews with the wife and husband in the household. Different regression models (linear models, curvilinear models, models with interaction effect etc.) were tried to explore the relationship between the hypothesized independent variables and the households’ innovativeness regarding adoption of the improved cookstove; the dependent variable. The linear regression model gave the best goodness of fit for the study data. The correlation matrix was examined to detect the presence of multicollinearity between the independent variables (Johnson et al., 1987). The highest correlation was between the husband’s educational level and the husband’s age and it was (y0.42). This indicates the absence of multicollinearity problem, which is an important assumption for using the linear regression model. The stepwise regression procedure of the SPSS
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software was used. Variables that had regression coefficients less than 0.01 (e.g. husband’s exposure to information about improved cookstoves) were not included in the final model. 3. Measurement of some variables 3.1. The education level The educational level of each household member was measured by the total number of years of formal education sheyhe completed. The wife’s educational level has a mean of 5 years and standard deviation of 5.02 and the husband’s educational level has a mean of 8 years and a standard deviation of 5.6. Furthermore, the average educational level of the male household’s members was obtained by dividing the total number of years of formal education completed by the male household’s members of age 7 years and more by the number of the male household’s members of age 7 years and more. It has a mean of 8.2 years and a standard deviation of 4.86. The average educational level of the female household’s members was measured in the same way. It has a mean of 7.3 years and a standard deviation of 5.27. Both of the average educational level of the male and female household’s members were included in the model because of the important role that educated children play in enabling their families to get information. Because of the high illiteracy rate in the Sudanese society, parents usually resort to their educated children to read them any written material. Educated children also play an important role in explaining issues and topics that are discussed in the mass media (TV, radio) to their uneducated family members. Therefore, families with educated children are expected to be in a better position to get and comprehend information about the improved stoves.
members per month. It has a mean of 21104.22 Sudanese pounds and a standard deviation of 2700.24. 3.4. Housewife exposure to information about improved cookstoves It was measured in terms of the degree of the housewife exposure to messages about the improved cookstoves from the different communication channels (e.g. TV, radio, conferences, exhibitions, lectures, posters). It was quantified by giving a 0 score for not hearing about the improved cookstove through any communication channel, a score of 1 for hearing about the improved stoves through any one of the communication channels, a score of 2 for hearing through any two communication channels and so on. The husband’s exposure to information about the improved cookstoves was measured in the same way. 3.5. Availability alternatives
of
improved
cookstoves
This concept was used to indicate the family ownership of cooking devices other than the improved cookstoves such as gas and electric cooking devices. A family that had no alternative device was given a 0 score, the household that had one device was given a score of 1 and that had two devices was given a score of 2 and so on. 3.6. Perceived relative advantage of the improved cookstoves
The age of each of the household’s member was measured in years.
It was measured by a scale ranging from 0 to 5 reflecting the number of the improved stove’s relative advantages expected to be indicated by the respondents. The improved stove’s relative advantages forming the scale are: (1) time saving, (2) fuel wood saving, (3) easy to use, (4) less smoke and (5) other. A respondent who mentioned five relative advantages was given a score of 5 and that who failed to mention any one was given a 0 score.
3.3. Family monthly income
3.7. Innovativeness
It was measured by the total sum of money in Sudanese pounds gained by all of the family
It was measured by the time (in years) that the household took to adopt the innovation (started
3.2. Age
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using the improved cookstove) and each household was given a score according to the time it had taken to adopt since 1984; the time the technology was disseminated. The period 1985–1998 was considered as the adoption period. Therefore, a scale of 13 was used. The households that adopted in 1985 were given a score of 13 (the most innovative) while those adopted in 1998 were given a score of 1 and those who did not adopt were given a 0 score. It ranges between 0 and 12 and has a mean of 1.1 and a standard deviation of 2.6. 4. Results and discussion The study results indicated that during the period 1984–1998, only 17.6% of the households in the study area had possessed improved cookstoves. This is a very low adoption rate, particularly if we take into consideration the relatively high efficiency of the improved cookstoves (24.8%) compared to that of the traditional ones (17.8%) (Ali and Huff, 1984). This could be attributed to the heuristic assumption that in such patriarchal society the husband is the primary decision-maker regarding all the household’s issues. Consequently, he should be the target of all the efforts intended to enhance adoption of innovations. In the Sudanese society the household decision-making process is complicated. Primary decision-makers are issue specific and are determined by the gender relations and division of labor in the household; there are different decision-makers regarding different issues. According to the gender relations and division of labor in the Sudanese society, all the household’s domestic tasks (e.g. food preparation and related activities, purchase of utensils) are considered women’s responsibilities. Thus, all decisions related to them are made by women. Furthermore, even within their recognized decision-making domain, women are constrained by the limited financial resources that they control which are not proportionate to their responsibilities and needs (e.g. purchase of household utensils). To cope with the problem of financial resources limitation women have adopted several strategies. Describing indigenous forms of cooperation in Sudan, Mann (1978) identified a type of indige-
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nous cooperation (Idda), means utensils, which is unique to women. In this type of indigenous cooperation women in the village pay small amount of money and use the total amount collected to buy household’s utensils (Idda) for each member of the group at a time in an well-organized rotation. The (Idda) cooperation is used to cope with the situation where the financial resources available to women are too small to buy utensils and other household’s needs which are not considered a priority for men who control most of the family’s financial resources. Failure to recognize women as the decision-makers regarding adoption of improved cookstove, resulted in a situation where they were not targeted by the dissemination and adoption efforts and activities. Also, the fact that improved stove is purchased from the very meager proportion of the household’s financial resources that the wife controls, was not taken into consideration when setting its marketing and pricing policy. The price of the improved cookstove was 750 Sudanese pounds, which is relatively very high price compared to the women’s purchasing power. Special marketing and pricing policies are needed for dissemination and adoption of environment and natural resources conservation innovations that are not intended for direct financial profit maximization particularly when the potential adopters have limited purchasing power (Brown, 1981). The low adoption rate of improved cookstoves in Sudan adds to the many examples of potentially useful technologies that had not been widely adopted. This is because of failure to fully understand the social settings in which they were introduced and identify the actual decision-makers regarding their adoption (Bruce, 1993; Stockdill and Morehouse, 1992; Suvry and Farquhar, 1996; Rogers, 1995). Thus, it should always be recognized that the complex of social relations in which an innovation is introduced is as important as its functional specifications (efficiency and relative advantage) in determining its adoption rate. The effect of the social system’s characteristics on the improved cookstove’s adoption becomes clear when the factors affecting the household’s innovativeness regarding its adoption were examined. Variables that have significant effect on the
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Table 1 Effect of some independent variables on the household innnovativeness Dependent variable
Independent variables
Standardized regression coefficient
The household’s innovativeness
Perceived improved stove’s relative advantage Wife’s educational level Family income Female household’s members average educational level Husband’s educational level Wife’s age Wife’s exposure to messages about the improved stove Male household’s members average educational level Availability of improved cookstove alternative cooking devices Husband’s age
0.68* 0.087** y0.048** 0.03** 0.03** y0.03** 0.029** 0.024 0.023 y0.01
R 2s0.48. * Significant at 0.01 level of significance. ** Significant at 0.05 level of significance.
households’ innovativeness were the biomass improved cookstove’s relative advantage, husband’s educational level, wife’s educational level, wife’s exposure to messages about the improved biomass cookstoves from different sources, wife’s age, family income and the average educational level of the female household’s members. The most important factor that influenced household’s innovativeness is the improved cookstove’s relative advantage. It is the only factor that has a significant effect at 0.01 level of significance. The frequently cited relative advantages of the improved cookstove are reduction of the needed quantity of firewood and charcoal, reduction of cooking time, less smoke and the easiness of its use. All these advantages are related to and mainly appreciated by the female household’s members particularly the wife who is responsible for firewood and charcoal collection andyor purchase, food cooking and preparation. Furthermore, it has been found that some of the personal and communicative characteristics of the housewife and the other female household’s members have more significant effect than those of the male household’s head and other male members on the household’s innovativeness (Table 1). While the wife’s educational level, exposure to messages about the improved cookstoves, and the average educational level of the female household’s members have significant positive effect on the house-
hold’s innovativeness at 0.05 level of significance, only the husband’s educational level has significant but negative effect at that level of significance. This is consistent with the de facto situation of the division of labor and decision-making process in the Sudanese household where all the household’s domestic activities, including purchase of utensils, are considered women’s responsibilities and the decisions related to them are made by women. Consistent with the adoption theory and literature both of the wife’s age and husband’s age are negatively related to the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstove. However, while the effect of the wife’s age is statistically significant, the effect of the husband’s age is not. Unexpectedly, the household’s monthly income has significant negative effect on its innovativeness regarding adoption of the improved cookstove. The negative effect of the husband’s educational level and the family monthly income on the household’s innovativeness deserves further investigation. It may have to do with the household’s socioeconomic status and ability to use other sources of energy (e.g. gas, electricity) even at high prices and during times of scarcity. As the use of all kinds of cookstoves (traditional and improved ones) is not considered a prestigious practice, households from relatively high socioeconomic classes tend to use modern cooking devices. This also reflects the role and importance
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of the social system in determining the perceived status (superior vs. inferior) of the innovation in the society. In a patriarchal society where most of the decisions are made by the male head of household, it is expected that the personal characteristics of the male household’s members particularly those of the husband will be the most important determinants of the household’s innovativeness. However, in this particular situation the personal characteristics of the female household’s members are more important. This is because the wife and other female household’s members are the decision-makers regarding cooking and food preparation issues and are the ones who appreciate the superiority and relative advantages of the improved cookstove. Thus, the personal characteristics and communicative behavior of the female household’s members are the important factors that determine the household’s innovativeness in this situation. This reflects the importance of taking into consideration the social system’s features and characteristics such as the division of labor within the family, gender relations and the decision-making process regarding different issues when planning for innovation dissemination and adoption. Also contrary to expectations, ownership of other alternative cooking devices such as butagas and electric devices is found to be positively related to the household’s innovativeness regarding the adoption of improved cookstove. Although this relationship is statistically not significant, yet its unexpected direction reflects the complexity of the adoption process in the developing countries. The household’s ownership of prestigious cooking devices may be perceived as proxy for its innovative nature rather than substitutes for the improved cookstove. The regression model used is capable of explaining 48% of the variation in the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of biomass improved cookstoves. 5. Conclusion The study supports the argument that failure to take into consideration the nature of the division of labor and the decision-making process in the
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African household did not help in developing appropriate improved biomass cookstove at quick pace nor enhanced its adoption at satisfactory rate (Kammen, 1995). Although the Sudanese society is a typical patriarchal society, yet this study suggests that the male head of the household is not the sole decision-maker in all of the household’s affairs and issues. Thus, the tendency to generalize that in patriarchal societies the male household’s members are the primary decisionmakers in all issues is not correct and may impede development efforts. This emphasizes the importance of analyzing each social system in terms of the decision-making process, division of labor and gender relations and not relying on generalizations in the literature when planning for dissemination and adoption of innovations particularly in the developing countries. This will not only ensure that the right and appropriate social groups and individuals regarding different innovations will be targeted and provided with information needed to persuade them to adopt, but will also improve the predictability of the adoption theory. References Agyei Y. Deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Afr Technol Forum 1998;8(1):. Ali GE, Huff CH. Improved charcoal stove for Sudan. Khartoum (Sudan): The Energy Research Center, 1984. Angelsen A, Kaimowitz D. Rethinking the causes of deforestation: lessons from economic models. The World Bank Res Observer 1999;14(1):73 –98. Barnes, Douglas F, Keith Openshaw, Kirk R Smith, Robert van der Plas. What makes people cook with improved biomass stoves? World Bank. Technical Paper No. 242, Energy Series, 1994. Brown LA. Innovations diffusion: a new perspective. New York: Methuen and Co, 1981. Bruce BC. Innovation and social change. In: Bruce BC, Peyton JK, Baston TW, editors. Network-based classrooms: promises and realities. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. p. 9 –32. de Jang Boom C. Environmental problem in Sudan I. The Haige, The Netherlands: Institute of Social Studies, 1990. Elnagheeb AH, Bromley DW. Extensification of agriculture and deforestation: empirical evidence from Sudan. Agric Econ 1994;10:193 –200. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), State of the World Forests. Rome: FAO, 1997. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Forest Resource Assessment 2000. Rome: FAO, 2001.
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Foley G, Van Buren A. Substitute for wood: turning to coal and other approaches to easing the pressure on fuelwood resources. A paper presented to the Technical Panel on Fuelwood and Charcoal for the United Nations Conference on new and renewable sources. Nairobi August 1981. French D. Design and testing of fuel-efficient mudstoves for use in rural areas of Malawi. Lilongwe (Malawi): Energy Studies Unit, 1984. Gill J. Stoves and deforestation in developing countries. A paper presented to the UK-ISES conference, ‘Energy for development: what are the solutions?’ Reading University, 1985. Howes M, Joseph S, Shanahan Y, Stewart W. The Sarvodaya Stoves Project: a critical review of developments since August 1979 and some proposals for the future. Reading: ITDG Stoves Project, 1983. Johnson AC, Johnson MB, Buse RC. Econometrics: basic and applied. New York: McMillan Publishing Company, 1987. Kammen DM. Cookstoves for the developing world. Sci Am 1995;273:72 –75. Mann WS. Cooperative movement in the Democratic Republic of Sudan. Kahartoum: University of Khartoum Press, 1978.
Matthews E. Forest Briefing No. 1. Washington, DC: World Resource Institute, 2001. International Labor Office, 1987. Linking energy with survival: a guide to energy, environment and rural women work. Geneva: ILO: Rural Employment Policies Branch. Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations. 4th ed. The Free Press, 1995. Suvry DW, Farquhar JD. Incorporating social factors into instructional design theory. In: Bailey M, Jones M, editors. Work, education and technology. Dekalb, IL: LEPS Press, 1996. p. 61 –68. Stockdill SH, Morehouse DL. Critical factors in the successful adoption of technology. A checklist based on TDC findings. Educ Technol 1992;1:57 –58. World Bank, 1997. World Development Indicators. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Verolme, Moussa, 1999. Addressing underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation: case studies, analysis and policy recommendations. Washington, D.C.: Biodiversity Action Network.
Short communication
Adoption of biomass improved cookstoves in a patriarchal society: an example from Sudan Siddig El Tayeb Muneera,*, El Waseilah Mukhtar Mohamedb a
Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Sociology, Faculty of Agriculture, King Saud University Saudi Arabia, P.O. Box 2460, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia b Department of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Khartoum, Sudan Received 23 May 2002; received in revised form 28 August 2002; accepted 18 October 2002
Abstract The economic, social, ecological and environmental roles and benefits of forests are obvious and need no emphasis. Inefficient use of fuel wood is considered one of the important causes of deforestation. Use of more efficient improved cookstoves is proposed as one of the measures that can reduce demand for fuel wood and charcoal and help in lowering the annoying deforestation rate in many developing countries. During the 1980s and 1990s several programs aiming at testing and disseminating energy saving technologies were implemented in Sudan. One of these technologies was improved cookstoves, which was intended to increase the efficiency of using energy from biomass sources. This study is carried out to examine the adoption rate and the factors affecting adoption of improved cookstoves in Khartoum State. The study is based on primary data collected through personal interviews with husbands and wives in 300 randomly selected households. Regression analysis was used to analyze the data. The results showed that the device’s adoption rate was very low. The improved cookstove’s relative advantage, housewife’s exposure to messages about improved cookstoves, educational level of the housewife and the average educational level of the female household’s members had significant positive effect on the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstove. Wife’s age and the educational level of the husband had negative significant effects. In the Sudanese patriarchal society all the household domestic tasks, particularly food preparation and related activities, are considered women’s responsibilities and all the decisions related to them are taken by women. Therefore, these results could be understood as a reflection of the division of labor, gender relations and decision-making process in the Sudanese household. 䊚 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Deforestation; Tropical forests; Natural resources conservation; Innovation; Social system; Gender relations; Decisionmaking; Division of labor
1. Introduction *Corresponding author. Tel.: q966-1-4676979. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. El Tayeb Muneer).
Forests are considered one of the important natural resources that play a critical role in the
0048-9697/03/$ - see front matter 䊚 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 0 4 8 - 9 6 9 7 Ž 0 2 . 0 0 5 4 1 - 7
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economy and livelihood of the rural people in many countries. They provide fuel wood, wood for lumber and paper, building materials and in some countries they are an important source of foreign exchange. Furthermore, millions of people depend directly on forests for food, medicines and other basic needs. From an environmental perspective, forests help in maintaining soil quality, limit erosion, stabilize hillsides, modulate seasonal flooding and protect waterways and marine sources from accelerated siltation. However, forests are destroyed faster than most other natural resources. A study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) indicated that during the period 1980– 1990, the world tropical forests were reduced by an average rate of 15.4 million hectares per year (i.e. annual deforestation rate of 0.8%) (Agyei, 1998). According to the Forests Assessment Program of the FAO the annual global deforestation rate during the 1990s had declined to 0.2% (FAO, 2000). However, the methodology used to calculate the 1990s’ deforestation rate has been questioned and criticized for being different and not comparable to that used in the 1980s’ assessment (Matthews, 2001). It is argued that the 1990s’ annual deforestation rate of 0.2% may be lower than that of the 1980s just because of the methodological differences. Therefore, the comparison between the two rates may be misleading and actually the deforestation rate during the 1990s may be as high as that of the 1980s if not higher (Matthews, 2001). Nevertheless, there is a consensus that the annual deforestation rate of the tropical forest in Africa had increased from 0.7% during the 1980s to 0.8% during the 1990s (FAO, 1997, 2000; Matthews, 2001). The annual deforestation rate in Sudan is higher than that of Africa and is estimated at 1.1% (World Bank, 1997). A wide range of causes of deforestation and forest degradation have been identified in different social, economic, cultural and environmental contexts (Elnagheeb and Bromley, 1994; Verolme and Moussa, 1999; Angelsen and Kaimowitz, 1999). This includes commercial logging, large scale andy or unsustainable agricultural practices, ranching, lack of empowerment and participation of local communities in decisions over forest management,
promotion of large scale development projects (e.g. mining, industrial development and hydroelectric schemes) fire, poverty and other forms of social exclusion and fuel wood harvesting. However, in several third world countries, particularly in rural areas, one of the main causes of deforestation is the heavy dependence on biomass energy. It is estimated that more than three fourths of the population in the developing countries depended on wood and other biomass fuels for their domestic energy requirements (International Labor Organization, 1987). In Sudan approximately 79% of the country energy needs are met from biomass resources; mainly wood and charcoal, and 98% of the felled wood is used as fuel for domestic purposes (de Jang-Boom, 1990). The problem of heavy dependence on biomass as a source of energy is aggravated by the low efficiency with which it is utilized. The low efficiency with which energy from biomass sources is utilized, is considered one of the important factors that have resulted in high demand for firewood and charcoal (Agyei, 1998). Thus, some believe that one of the promising means to lower the deforestation rate in the developing countries is the development and adoption of more efficient fuel wood and charcoal utilization technology, such as the improved cookstoves. Consequently, many African countries have started to develop, disseminate and use more efficient cookstoves to replace the traditional ones so as to improve the efficiency of firewood and charcoal utilization. Moreover, improved cookstoves are also expected to minimize the health hazard (respiratory diseases) that is caused by the choking smoke from indoor fires. However, the stoves programs, on the whole, have failed to achieve widespread dissemination of improved designs and address the household fuel shortage (Gill, 1985). This is because of the mismatch between the felt needs of the rural poor and the assumptions of the institutions and individuals designing and promoting improved stoves (Gill, 1985). Another reason is that not all improved stoves have been more efficient andyor smokeless than the traditional designs (Howes et al., 1983; French, 1984; Gill, 1985). In addition, the traditional modes of cooking serve a number
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of socio-cultural and practical functions, which have been neglected in the stoves’ programs. Moreover, in Africa the fact that collection, purchase and use of firewood and charcoal are almost entirely women’s responsibility, does not help in the adoption of improved stoves (Foley and Van Buren, 1981; Barnes et al., 1994). In many African countries, particularly in rural areas, firewood is gathered by women as free good and rarely enters commercial markets. Thus, it remains even when scarce, outside the realm of economic decisions, which are usually made by men. This is true even in the urban areas where charcoal and firewood are generally purchased by women from the disproportionately meager share of the family income they control. This gender based division of labor and responsibilities in the African societies was not fully acknowledged at the beginning of the improved cookstoves development and dissemination programs and the conducted training courses and extension campaigns were mostly attended by and directed to men. Failure to fully understand the social setting in Africa had impeded both quick development of appropriate designs of the improved stoves and its adoption, and only when women and women’s organizations were consulted and targeted this was accomplished (Kammen, 1995). In Sudan, the energy research council, CARE InternationalySudan and other public and private research and aid organizations started experiments on the efficiency of different types of improved cookstoves designed to suit local usage. Some of the improved stoves proved to be efficient and convenient. The results of laboratory tests, carried out in 1984, showed that while the traditional stove was 17.8% efficient, the average efficiency of the improved cookstoves was approximately 24.8% (Ali and Huff, 1984). It is expected that adoption of such stoves will lead to a significant reduction in the country total demand for firewood and charcoal and helps reduce pressure on forests. However, despite its relatively high efficiency the diffusion of improved cookstoves and its adoption by the household sector was rather low and was not at the level expected to reduce the high demand for firewood and charcoal. Therefore, this study is intended to determine the adoption rate of the
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improved cookstove in Khartoum State, which has the highest consumption of charcoal and firewood in the country. The study will also attempt to explore the factors that influence the households’ innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstoves. 2. Methodology During late 1980s and early 1990s several international and national NGOs were working in coordination with the Energy Research Center to disseminate improved cookstoves in Khartoum State particularly in Omdurman area which is considered one of the most populous areas in the State. As great efforts to disseminate the improved cookstoves (e.g. extension campaigns, seminars and training workshops) were carried out in Omdurman, it was selected as the study area. Multistage stratified random sampling technique was used to select the study sample. First, the ten localities in the study area were divided into urban and rural localities. Then, three localities were selected randomly from each group. A sampling frame was established by obtaining the list of households in each selected locality from its headquarter. Finally, 50 households were selected randomly from each of the six selected localities to have a total sample of 300 households; 150 rural households and 150 urban ones. The data were collected through personal interviews with the wife and husband in the household. Different regression models (linear models, curvilinear models, models with interaction effect etc.) were tried to explore the relationship between the hypothesized independent variables and the households’ innovativeness regarding adoption of the improved cookstove; the dependent variable. The linear regression model gave the best goodness of fit for the study data. The correlation matrix was examined to detect the presence of multicollinearity between the independent variables (Johnson et al., 1987). The highest correlation was between the husband’s educational level and the husband’s age and it was (y0.42). This indicates the absence of multicollinearity problem, which is an important assumption for using the linear regression model. The stepwise regression procedure of the SPSS
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software was used. Variables that had regression coefficients less than 0.01 (e.g. husband’s exposure to information about improved cookstoves) were not included in the final model. 3. Measurement of some variables 3.1. The education level The educational level of each household member was measured by the total number of years of formal education sheyhe completed. The wife’s educational level has a mean of 5 years and standard deviation of 5.02 and the husband’s educational level has a mean of 8 years and a standard deviation of 5.6. Furthermore, the average educational level of the male household’s members was obtained by dividing the total number of years of formal education completed by the male household’s members of age 7 years and more by the number of the male household’s members of age 7 years and more. It has a mean of 8.2 years and a standard deviation of 4.86. The average educational level of the female household’s members was measured in the same way. It has a mean of 7.3 years and a standard deviation of 5.27. Both of the average educational level of the male and female household’s members were included in the model because of the important role that educated children play in enabling their families to get information. Because of the high illiteracy rate in the Sudanese society, parents usually resort to their educated children to read them any written material. Educated children also play an important role in explaining issues and topics that are discussed in the mass media (TV, radio) to their uneducated family members. Therefore, families with educated children are expected to be in a better position to get and comprehend information about the improved stoves.
members per month. It has a mean of 21104.22 Sudanese pounds and a standard deviation of 2700.24. 3.4. Housewife exposure to information about improved cookstoves It was measured in terms of the degree of the housewife exposure to messages about the improved cookstoves from the different communication channels (e.g. TV, radio, conferences, exhibitions, lectures, posters). It was quantified by giving a 0 score for not hearing about the improved cookstove through any communication channel, a score of 1 for hearing about the improved stoves through any one of the communication channels, a score of 2 for hearing through any two communication channels and so on. The husband’s exposure to information about the improved cookstoves was measured in the same way. 3.5. Availability alternatives
of
improved
cookstoves
This concept was used to indicate the family ownership of cooking devices other than the improved cookstoves such as gas and electric cooking devices. A family that had no alternative device was given a 0 score, the household that had one device was given a score of 1 and that had two devices was given a score of 2 and so on. 3.6. Perceived relative advantage of the improved cookstoves
The age of each of the household’s member was measured in years.
It was measured by a scale ranging from 0 to 5 reflecting the number of the improved stove’s relative advantages expected to be indicated by the respondents. The improved stove’s relative advantages forming the scale are: (1) time saving, (2) fuel wood saving, (3) easy to use, (4) less smoke and (5) other. A respondent who mentioned five relative advantages was given a score of 5 and that who failed to mention any one was given a 0 score.
3.3. Family monthly income
3.7. Innovativeness
It was measured by the total sum of money in Sudanese pounds gained by all of the family
It was measured by the time (in years) that the household took to adopt the innovation (started
3.2. Age
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using the improved cookstove) and each household was given a score according to the time it had taken to adopt since 1984; the time the technology was disseminated. The period 1985–1998 was considered as the adoption period. Therefore, a scale of 13 was used. The households that adopted in 1985 were given a score of 13 (the most innovative) while those adopted in 1998 were given a score of 1 and those who did not adopt were given a 0 score. It ranges between 0 and 12 and has a mean of 1.1 and a standard deviation of 2.6. 4. Results and discussion The study results indicated that during the period 1984–1998, only 17.6% of the households in the study area had possessed improved cookstoves. This is a very low adoption rate, particularly if we take into consideration the relatively high efficiency of the improved cookstoves (24.8%) compared to that of the traditional ones (17.8%) (Ali and Huff, 1984). This could be attributed to the heuristic assumption that in such patriarchal society the husband is the primary decision-maker regarding all the household’s issues. Consequently, he should be the target of all the efforts intended to enhance adoption of innovations. In the Sudanese society the household decision-making process is complicated. Primary decision-makers are issue specific and are determined by the gender relations and division of labor in the household; there are different decision-makers regarding different issues. According to the gender relations and division of labor in the Sudanese society, all the household’s domestic tasks (e.g. food preparation and related activities, purchase of utensils) are considered women’s responsibilities. Thus, all decisions related to them are made by women. Furthermore, even within their recognized decision-making domain, women are constrained by the limited financial resources that they control which are not proportionate to their responsibilities and needs (e.g. purchase of household utensils). To cope with the problem of financial resources limitation women have adopted several strategies. Describing indigenous forms of cooperation in Sudan, Mann (1978) identified a type of indige-
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nous cooperation (Idda), means utensils, which is unique to women. In this type of indigenous cooperation women in the village pay small amount of money and use the total amount collected to buy household’s utensils (Idda) for each member of the group at a time in an well-organized rotation. The (Idda) cooperation is used to cope with the situation where the financial resources available to women are too small to buy utensils and other household’s needs which are not considered a priority for men who control most of the family’s financial resources. Failure to recognize women as the decision-makers regarding adoption of improved cookstove, resulted in a situation where they were not targeted by the dissemination and adoption efforts and activities. Also, the fact that improved stove is purchased from the very meager proportion of the household’s financial resources that the wife controls, was not taken into consideration when setting its marketing and pricing policy. The price of the improved cookstove was 750 Sudanese pounds, which is relatively very high price compared to the women’s purchasing power. Special marketing and pricing policies are needed for dissemination and adoption of environment and natural resources conservation innovations that are not intended for direct financial profit maximization particularly when the potential adopters have limited purchasing power (Brown, 1981). The low adoption rate of improved cookstoves in Sudan adds to the many examples of potentially useful technologies that had not been widely adopted. This is because of failure to fully understand the social settings in which they were introduced and identify the actual decision-makers regarding their adoption (Bruce, 1993; Stockdill and Morehouse, 1992; Suvry and Farquhar, 1996; Rogers, 1995). Thus, it should always be recognized that the complex of social relations in which an innovation is introduced is as important as its functional specifications (efficiency and relative advantage) in determining its adoption rate. The effect of the social system’s characteristics on the improved cookstove’s adoption becomes clear when the factors affecting the household’s innovativeness regarding its adoption were examined. Variables that have significant effect on the
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Table 1 Effect of some independent variables on the household innnovativeness Dependent variable
Independent variables
Standardized regression coefficient
The household’s innovativeness
Perceived improved stove’s relative advantage Wife’s educational level Family income Female household’s members average educational level Husband’s educational level Wife’s age Wife’s exposure to messages about the improved stove Male household’s members average educational level Availability of improved cookstove alternative cooking devices Husband’s age
0.68* 0.087** y0.048** 0.03** 0.03** y0.03** 0.029** 0.024 0.023 y0.01
R 2s0.48. * Significant at 0.01 level of significance. ** Significant at 0.05 level of significance.
households’ innovativeness were the biomass improved cookstove’s relative advantage, husband’s educational level, wife’s educational level, wife’s exposure to messages about the improved biomass cookstoves from different sources, wife’s age, family income and the average educational level of the female household’s members. The most important factor that influenced household’s innovativeness is the improved cookstove’s relative advantage. It is the only factor that has a significant effect at 0.01 level of significance. The frequently cited relative advantages of the improved cookstove are reduction of the needed quantity of firewood and charcoal, reduction of cooking time, less smoke and the easiness of its use. All these advantages are related to and mainly appreciated by the female household’s members particularly the wife who is responsible for firewood and charcoal collection andyor purchase, food cooking and preparation. Furthermore, it has been found that some of the personal and communicative characteristics of the housewife and the other female household’s members have more significant effect than those of the male household’s head and other male members on the household’s innovativeness (Table 1). While the wife’s educational level, exposure to messages about the improved cookstoves, and the average educational level of the female household’s members have significant positive effect on the house-
hold’s innovativeness at 0.05 level of significance, only the husband’s educational level has significant but negative effect at that level of significance. This is consistent with the de facto situation of the division of labor and decision-making process in the Sudanese household where all the household’s domestic activities, including purchase of utensils, are considered women’s responsibilities and the decisions related to them are made by women. Consistent with the adoption theory and literature both of the wife’s age and husband’s age are negatively related to the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of improved cookstove. However, while the effect of the wife’s age is statistically significant, the effect of the husband’s age is not. Unexpectedly, the household’s monthly income has significant negative effect on its innovativeness regarding adoption of the improved cookstove. The negative effect of the husband’s educational level and the family monthly income on the household’s innovativeness deserves further investigation. It may have to do with the household’s socioeconomic status and ability to use other sources of energy (e.g. gas, electricity) even at high prices and during times of scarcity. As the use of all kinds of cookstoves (traditional and improved ones) is not considered a prestigious practice, households from relatively high socioeconomic classes tend to use modern cooking devices. This also reflects the role and importance
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of the social system in determining the perceived status (superior vs. inferior) of the innovation in the society. In a patriarchal society where most of the decisions are made by the male head of household, it is expected that the personal characteristics of the male household’s members particularly those of the husband will be the most important determinants of the household’s innovativeness. However, in this particular situation the personal characteristics of the female household’s members are more important. This is because the wife and other female household’s members are the decision-makers regarding cooking and food preparation issues and are the ones who appreciate the superiority and relative advantages of the improved cookstove. Thus, the personal characteristics and communicative behavior of the female household’s members are the important factors that determine the household’s innovativeness in this situation. This reflects the importance of taking into consideration the social system’s features and characteristics such as the division of labor within the family, gender relations and the decision-making process regarding different issues when planning for innovation dissemination and adoption. Also contrary to expectations, ownership of other alternative cooking devices such as butagas and electric devices is found to be positively related to the household’s innovativeness regarding the adoption of improved cookstove. Although this relationship is statistically not significant, yet its unexpected direction reflects the complexity of the adoption process in the developing countries. The household’s ownership of prestigious cooking devices may be perceived as proxy for its innovative nature rather than substitutes for the improved cookstove. The regression model used is capable of explaining 48% of the variation in the household’s innovativeness regarding adoption of biomass improved cookstoves. 5. Conclusion The study supports the argument that failure to take into consideration the nature of the division of labor and the decision-making process in the
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African household did not help in developing appropriate improved biomass cookstove at quick pace nor enhanced its adoption at satisfactory rate (Kammen, 1995). Although the Sudanese society is a typical patriarchal society, yet this study suggests that the male head of the household is not the sole decision-maker in all of the household’s affairs and issues. Thus, the tendency to generalize that in patriarchal societies the male household’s members are the primary decisionmakers in all issues is not correct and may impede development efforts. This emphasizes the importance of analyzing each social system in terms of the decision-making process, division of labor and gender relations and not relying on generalizations in the literature when planning for dissemination and adoption of innovations particularly in the developing countries. This will not only ensure that the right and appropriate social groups and individuals regarding different innovations will be targeted and provided with information needed to persuade them to adopt, but will also improve the predictability of the adoption theory. References Agyei Y. Deforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Afr Technol Forum 1998;8(1):. Ali GE, Huff CH. Improved charcoal stove for Sudan. Khartoum (Sudan): The Energy Research Center, 1984. Angelsen A, Kaimowitz D. Rethinking the causes of deforestation: lessons from economic models. The World Bank Res Observer 1999;14(1):73 –98. Barnes, Douglas F, Keith Openshaw, Kirk R Smith, Robert van der Plas. What makes people cook with improved biomass stoves? World Bank. Technical Paper No. 242, Energy Series, 1994. Brown LA. Innovations diffusion: a new perspective. New York: Methuen and Co, 1981. Bruce BC. Innovation and social change. In: Bruce BC, Peyton JK, Baston TW, editors. Network-based classrooms: promises and realities. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. p. 9 –32. de Jang Boom C. Environmental problem in Sudan I. The Haige, The Netherlands: Institute of Social Studies, 1990. Elnagheeb AH, Bromley DW. Extensification of agriculture and deforestation: empirical evidence from Sudan. Agric Econ 1994;10:193 –200. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), State of the World Forests. Rome: FAO, 1997. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Forest Resource Assessment 2000. Rome: FAO, 2001.
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Foley G, Van Buren A. Substitute for wood: turning to coal and other approaches to easing the pressure on fuelwood resources. A paper presented to the Technical Panel on Fuelwood and Charcoal for the United Nations Conference on new and renewable sources. Nairobi August 1981. French D. Design and testing of fuel-efficient mudstoves for use in rural areas of Malawi. Lilongwe (Malawi): Energy Studies Unit, 1984. Gill J. Stoves and deforestation in developing countries. A paper presented to the UK-ISES conference, ‘Energy for development: what are the solutions?’ Reading University, 1985. Howes M, Joseph S, Shanahan Y, Stewart W. The Sarvodaya Stoves Project: a critical review of developments since August 1979 and some proposals for the future. Reading: ITDG Stoves Project, 1983. Johnson AC, Johnson MB, Buse RC. Econometrics: basic and applied. New York: McMillan Publishing Company, 1987. Kammen DM. Cookstoves for the developing world. Sci Am 1995;273:72 –75. Mann WS. Cooperative movement in the Democratic Republic of Sudan. Kahartoum: University of Khartoum Press, 1978.
Matthews E. Forest Briefing No. 1. Washington, DC: World Resource Institute, 2001. International Labor Office, 1987. Linking energy with survival: a guide to energy, environment and rural women work. Geneva: ILO: Rural Employment Policies Branch. Rogers EM. Diffusion of innovations. 4th ed. The Free Press, 1995. Suvry DW, Farquhar JD. Incorporating social factors into instructional design theory. In: Bailey M, Jones M, editors. Work, education and technology. Dekalb, IL: LEPS Press, 1996. p. 61 –68. Stockdill SH, Morehouse DL. Critical factors in the successful adoption of technology. A checklist based on TDC findings. Educ Technol 1992;1:57 –58. World Bank, 1997. World Development Indicators. Washington D.C.: The World Bank. Verolme, Moussa, 1999. Addressing underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation: case studies, analysis and policy recommendations. Washington, D.C.: Biodiversity Action Network.