water is also being investigated. Different species of fish, crustaceans and bivalves are used as test organisms and efforts are made to study the variation in tolerance during complete life cyc'.es. The most important part of the programme consists of long-term tests to investigate chronic effects of sublethal concentrations of surfactants and reactions in organs such as liver, spleen, kidney and gills. Part of the work is directed towards an understanding of the physiological effects of the surfactants. In collaboration with Dr R. Lange of the Institute of Marine Biology, University of Oslo, work is in progress to determine the effects of the surfactants on ionic and osmotic regulation in various marine organisms. The biotest programme is directed by Mrs M. Swedmark. Investigators include B. Braaten (crustaceans), A. Granmo a n d E. Emanuelsson (bivalves), M. Swedmark (fish). Financial support is received from the National Nature Conservancy Office. Kristineberg Zoological Station, Fiskeb~ckskill, Sweden.
Bagge, P. (1969), Effects of pollution on estuarine ecosystems in 'Havsforsknings-instituetets Skr.' No._°.08: 3-118. Lepp~koski, E. (1968), Some effects of pollution on the benthic environment of the Gullmarfjord 'He!gol'ander wiss. Meeresunters.' 17 : .091-301. Leppakoski, E. (1969). Transitory return of the benthic fauna of the Bornholm Basin, after extermination by oxygen insufficiency 'Cab. Biol. Mar.' 10 : 1-10. Swedmark, B. and Leppakoski, E. (1968), Vattenv.~rdsproblem i Gullmarsfiorden ' V a t t e n ' 2 : 187-195. Swedmark, M. (1968), Resistens hos risk mot glykol, tensider och en vanlig tensidr~vara in ' V a t t e n ' 24 : 430-443. Tulkki, P. (1965) Disappearance of the benthic fauna from the Basin of Bornholm (Southern Baltic) due to oxygen deficiency in 'Cab. Biol. Mar.' 6 : 455-463.
B. Swedmark
Aerial Photography and Coastal Ecology In spite of the importance of coastal areas, the dangers of irreversible damage to coastal biological systems are continually increasing and the coastal region remains one of the most difficult places for ecological study. This seems to be partly because the spatial perspective of the coastal worker is limited by the water itself - he c a n n o t easily understand the distribution of major biota in the way a terrestrial worker can. Diving, dredging, and sampling at stations or along transects give no more than a closely spaced series of local estimates of the composition of a c o m m u n i t y , and such surveys are notoriously tedious and expensive, Consequently a few faunal assemblages have been described in great systematic detail (Thorson, 1957) but their distribution is very poorly understood. Attempts at undersea biocoenology have left much to be desired - the patterns of distributions described are usually generalised and do not reflect the important regularities and fine local variations that usually occur (Voss and Voss, 1955; Molinier and Picard, 1959). Aerial photography of coastal areas reveals varied but regular patterns in the distribution of b o t t o m cover that are apparently closely related to environmental conditions. Most of these patterns have not been recognised before, and so aerial photography may be important for extending our knowledge of coastal ecological conditions. Although as deep as 40 m. can be seen in such photography little use has been made of its potential. The possible use of aerial photography for studying the shallow ocean b o t t o m has been recognised for some time (Lee, 192.°; Lundahl, 1948), and although geologists have used it (Ball, 1967; Cloud, 1962; Newell et al., 1959; Wanless, 1969) only two previous biological studies have been published (Kumpf and Randall, 1961; Macinryre, 1968), both of which dealt with simple mapping of local areas. Studies near the Florida Straits Extensive areas on both sides of the Florida Straits have been examined. Mapping photography was carried out from National Aeronautics and Space Admininstration aircraft, mosaics were prepared and the b o t t o m cover was examined,
sampled, and identified by divers. The general applicability of the photoidentifications thus made was determined by predicting types of b o t t o m cover in areas n o t examined and then verifying the predictions by diving and sampling. Approximately I 0 0 square nautical miles south of Bimini on the Bahama Banks, 80 square nautical miles in Biscayne Bay, Florida, and 180 square nautical miles in the central Florida Keys were examined in this way. Much larger areas were also photographed and the principal types of b o t t o m cover were tentatively identified from the photography, although field studies were not carried out. Such studies have made possible the construction of maps of b o t t o m cover similar to those used by terrestrial plant ecologists, the production of photointerpretive keys, the identification of unusual or anomalous features tha= have ecological significance b u t were not otherwise recognised, the detection of relationships between b o t t o m cover and the environment as seen in the distribution of the cover and the detection of man-trade effects as well as natural changes. The results of these studies have been described in part elsewhere (Conrod, Kelly, and Boersma, 1968; Kelly and Conrod, 1969 ,,,b; Kelly, 1969 a,b,c), and examples of some of the observations are given here. Extensive beds of the 'grass' Thalassia testudinum Konig occur throughout the area in several typical patterns. For example, erosion limits the development of the beds in places exposed to waves and 'blowout-cusps' are formed during storms that in some places converge to leave only patchy remnants of the beds. The cusps are shaped like half moons and orientated in the direction of the prevailing swel!. Various successional stages could be seen in old eroded cusps, usually progressing from a dominance of calcareous green algae through two species of 'grasses' mixed with algae to fully developed Thalassia beds. The relative age of the erosion features could in some cases be estimated from the successional stages present. It became obvious that in most exposed locations the development of grass beds was limited by the washing action of the waves. In protected areas patterned beds and patches of Thalassia were related to the depth of sediment and the morpholog3." 11
of the hard-rock b o t t o m . Effects of dredging, silting, and the subsequent succession to developed grass beds were also seen.
As well as the major distributions many previously unrecognised or u n c o m m o n biological features were seen. For example, various zonations of algal cover and 'grasses' were f o u n d near agricultural drainage canals, on the edges of sand bars and spiilover lobes, and near shoal banks and islands. Unexplained lineated and striated patterns of plant cover were seen in many locations, especially where there was development of blue-green algal mats. Effects of tidal current 'scouring' could be seen in the location of gorgonJan-algal associations. The effects of dredge and fill operations on the locations of these types of cover as well as on the grass beds could be detected. Areas of damage from the heated effluent of a power plant were seen and zonation and seasonal variation of algal communities in the effluent zone were detected. Studies in temperate polluted waters Aerial p h o t o g r a p h y can be applied to the study of planktonic and suspended material as well as b o t t o m flora along more turbid coastlines. Differences in water colour and the backscattering of light b y suspeflded particles can be seen; very slight differences can be brought out and quantitised by contrast enhancement techniques, used to study pollution effluents in rivers (Neumaier and Sylvestro, 19691. We are now trying to evaluate the use of aerial photography for studying water colour and light backscattering in the turbid coastal waters of New York and Long Island. This should have several applications, for example in detecting the distribution of coastal p l a n k t o n blooms (related of course to eutrophication process), locating sources of pollution and the distribution of pollutants and studying tidal mixing of near-shore and estuarine waters. In addition, the distribution of b o t t o m cover in b o t h normal and polluted regions of the coast near New York and Long Island are being examined and compared with conditions in the d e a r e r tropical waters of the Florida Straits..~Athough visibility is very limited, it seems that much -,aiuable information may be gained and that many of the distribution patterns are similar even though the environment and biota are entirely different.
Other remote sensing technology There are several new techniques of visible spectrum remote sensing that will have application in coastal ecology.. One of the most promising is narrow-band multispectral p h o t o g r a p h y , in which three narrow regions of the spectrum are imaged on film and viewed as colour images so as to bring out certain colour characters and increase water penetration (Yost, 1969). A n o t h e r very promisL~g technique is multispectral scanner imagery, in which radiometers scan lines perpendicular to the flight path in twenty or more narrow spectral segments to p r o d u c e images that can be processed electronically so as to enhance certain spectral signatures and allow computerised image identification. A third very promising technique involves satellite photography, television and scanner imagery, that makes possible r e p e a t e d study o f large areas. Most of these techniques were developed for use over land, where there is a good understanding of basic relationships and photointerpretation. Their fult application to coastal waters witl p r o b a b l y depend on more work with conventional p h o t o g r a p h y and the development of a store of information on p h o t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of coastal b i o t a and their distribution. Satellite p h o t o g r a p h y can provide useful information 12
about coastal areas. Gemini XII hand-held p h o t o g r a p h y has been used to prepare a map of the Bahamas study area, using the aerial p h o t o g r a p h y for comparison (Conrod, Kelly and Boersma, 1968). Material with better resolution should be even more useful. We are preparing to c o n d u c t an experiment in March, 1970 in which the use of hyperaltitude (60,000 feet) photography, multispectral p h o t o g r a p h y , and multispectrai scanner imagery with electronic data processing and enhancement will be compared for the Biscayne Bay and Florida Keys areas. Conventionai, hyperaltitude, and multispectral p h o t o g r a p h y have been carried out for the New York area and their use in the study of temperate, p o l l u t e d waters will be investigated. Although mapping quality p h o t o g r a p h y is expensive and often unavailable, simple hand-held p h o t o g r a p h y from light aircraft may be most useful in limited surveys (Kelly and Conrod, 1969a). This enables the worker with a limited budget to select the views, altitudes, exposures and areas most useful for his purposes, and may be particularly convenient where a limited region, such as a particular pollution effluent, is to be studied. Hand-held photography of the power plant effluent in Biscayne Bay which I have mentioned made possible continued examination of changes in the b o t t o m vegetation. This sort of p h o t o g r a p h y is also useful for accurate positioning and location of sampling stations if the stations are marked with large buoys. Department of Biology, New York University, Bronx New York 10453.
M. G. Kelly
Bail, M. M. (1967), Carbonate sand bodies of Florida and Bahamas 'J. Sed. Petrol' 37 (2) : 556-591. Cloud, P. E. (1962), Environment of calcium carbonate deposition west of Andros Island, Bahamas. 'US Dept. of the Interior, Geological Professional Paper 350.' Conrod, A. C., Kelly, M. and Boersma, A. (1968), Aerial photography for shallow water studies on the west edge of the Bahama Banks. 'Mass. Inst. of Technology, Experimental A s t r o n o m y Lab., Rep. no. R E 4 2 . ' Kelly, M. (1969a), Aerial p h o t o g r a p h y for the study of nearshore ocean biology.. 'New Horizons in Color Aerial Photography, Seminar Proceedings'. ASP-SPSE meetings, June, 1969. American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, Va. Kelly, M. (1969b), Applications of r e m o t e p h o t o g r a p h y to the study of coastal ecology in Biscayne Bay, Florida. 'US Naval Oceanographic Office, Report for contract N-62306-69-C-0032'. NASA accession No. NR-09-EN -163-00376. Kelly, M. (1969c), Coastal ecology using remote photography. 'Second annual program review, NASA Earth Re sources Program Aircraft Project', Sept. (in the press). Kelly, M. and Conrod, A . C . (1969a), Aerial photography. 'Bioscience' 19 : 352-353. Kelly, M. and Conrod. A . C . (1969b), Aerial photography of the shallow ocean-bottom ' R e m o t e Sensing in Ecology', (edit. by Johnson, P.) University of Ga. Press, Athens: 173-184 Kumpf, H. E. and Randall, H . A . (1961), Charting the marine environments of St J o h n , US Virgin Islands. 'Bull. .Mar. Sci.', 11 : 543-551. Lee, W. T. (1922), 'The Face of the Earth as seen from the Air', American Geographical Society, New York. Lundald, A. C. (1948), Underwater depth determination by aerial photography. 'Phot. Eng.' 14 : 454-462. Macintyre, I . G . {1968), Preliminary mapping of the the
insular shelf off the west coast of Barbados, W. I. 'Caribbean Sci.' (1 & 2): 95-99. Molinier, R. and Picard, J. (1959), D t i i m i t a t i o n et cartographie des peuplements marins benthiques de la m e t Mtditerrin6e. 'Service de la carte p h y t o g t o g r a p h i q u e . Bulletin, Strie B', 4 : 73-84. Neumaier, G. and Silvestro, F. (1969), Measurement of pollution using m u l t i b a n d and color p h o t o g r a p h y . 'New Horizons in Color Aerial Photography, Seminar Proceedings,' ASP-SPSE meetings, June, 1969. American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church. Va. Newell, N. G., Imbrie, ,]., Purdy, E. G., and Thurber, D. (1959), Organism communities and b o t t o m facies, Great Bahama Banks. 'Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 117 : 181-228. Thorson, G. (1957), B o t t o m communities. 'Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology,' Vol. I, (edit. by Hedpeth, J. W.) Mere. 67, Geol. Soc. of America. Voss, G. L. and Voss, Nancy (1955), An ecological study of Soldier Key, Biscayne Bay, Florida. 'Bull. Mar. Sci.' 5 : 203-229. Wanless, H . R . (1969), 'Sediments of Biscayne Bay Distribution and Depositional History'. Inst. o f Mar. Sci., Univ of Miami, Technical Rept. 69-2 : 1-260. Yost. E. (1969), The principles and applications of muhispectral color aerial photography. 'New Horizons in Color Aerial Photography, Seminar Proceedings,' ASP-SPSE meetings, June, 1969. American Society of Photogrammetry, Fails Church, Va.
Disposal of Industrial Effluents into Tees Bay A new, long-term investigation into the problems of discharging industrial effluents into Tees Bay on the north-east coast o f England has been initiated by ICI and the Depaz'tment of Zoology, University of Newcastle u p o n Tyne. There has been a considerable industrial development, particularly of the chemical industry on Tcesside (the conurbation at the m o u t h of the river Tees) and a substantial future development is foreseen during the next decade. At present industrial and municipal effluents are discharged into the Tees estuary, but there are plans for constructing an effluent pipeline into Tees Bay at some later date. Two independent but linked studies of the biological conditions in the bay have now begun with the aim of m o n i t o r i n g the present and future impact of waste disposal on this marine environment, particularly in relation to the p r o p o s e d pipeline. The University. of Newcastle survey will be c o n d u c t e d on a continuing basis in the intertidal zone, at present at sites between Seaton Carew and Redcar. The ICI programme will be concerned chiefly with the benthos. Both programmes are still in the exp l o r a t o r y phase. The fauna of the area, though not particularly rich, is n o t well known in detail and initially it will be necessary to identify the most suitable sites for intensive study. D e p a r t m e n t of Zoology, Universit7 of Newcastle u p o n Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, England.
CONFERENCES
Royal Society Marine Pollution Study Group The following are abstracts of papers presented at the meeting of the study group on 12 December. They are printe d with the permission of the speaker and Mr P. C. Wood, secretary of the study group. Bioaccumulation of pesticides by marine organisms When pesticides of the organochtorine t y p e were introduced a b o u t thirty years ago, they were hailed as one of man's great inventions. At the time it was not realised that their ve~- stable chemical nature w o u l d lead to damage to wild life as well as those species which they were designed to k i l l It has been subsequently established that at each link in the food web there is a concentration of the organochlorine pesticide, with the result that animals at the higher trophic levels build up concentrations of residues which in some cases have u n d o u b t e d l y caused death. In recent years other materials have been found to behave in a similar manner and with a similar result. The possible routes by which organochlorine and organo p h o s p h o r u s p e s t i c i d e s , p o l y c h l o r i n a t e d biphenyls and mercury find their way into the environment will be reviewed and figures will be given for the typical levels of these materials in seawater. Some of the routes by which these materials find their way into marine animals will be considered. Once the pesticide has entered the animal's body, it is then necessary to consider the fate of the residue -- is it
R . B . Clark
excreted and if not what effect does it have on the animal? An a t t e m p t will be made to answer those questions b y use of data from experimental and residue monitoring studies. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and F o o d , Fisheries Laboratory., Burnham-on-Crouch, Essex.
J . E . Portmann
Accumulation of metals by marine organisms Marine organisms accumulate metals from seawater by factors which vary from < 1 for sodium to > 10 o for zinc in some cases. This capacity for accumulating metals is one of the main reasons for our concern about the contamination of the sea with any metallic wastes. These wastes fall into two main categories. (a) Radioactive wastes from fuel separation plants, nuclear power plants and so on. Contamination by these wastes does not change the total concentrations of metals in the environment to any large extent and so does not change the ecology, of an area. If a radionuclide is in a suitable form it becomes distributed in the same way as the stable element. Frequently this does not occur because the radioactive contaminant is not in the same chemical form as the stable element. The main p r o b l e m lies in limiting the return of contaminants to man through food chains and so on. (b) Metallic wastes from mining and industry, mercurial fungicides and so on. With the exception of metals 13