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Air pollution control in industrial and urban areas and air quality evaluation in 1980 (Fos-Etang de Berre, France)
Energy and Buildings, 4 ( 1 9 8 2 ) 15 - 21
15
Air Pollution Control in Industrial and Urban Areas and Air Quality Evaluation in 1980 (Fos-Etang de Berre, France) ALIX AUDURIER-CROS
Groupe ABC (Amb&nces bioclimatiques en architecture), (France)
INTRODUCTION
Industrial activity in the district of F o s Etang de Berre has increased extensively over the last 10 years. Oil offloading at the seaport of Fos has become more and more important. Currently, forty percent of the oil products imported into France are routed through the industrial developments of the P.A.M. (Port A u t o n o m e de Marseille). Petrochemical industries which normally operate on sites near to port facilities quickly developed around this district. The land area devoted to tank farms doubled; the "Sud-Europ~en" pipe-line terminal, situated in the Fos industrial area near the harbour, underlines the importance of this district for the storage of fuel in this part of Europe. Recently, the creation of a large steel mill helped to diversify the industrial character of the district. The main industrial developments are detailed in Table 1. All this industrial growth has taken place between 1968 and 1970 as part of a large planning and development operation undertaken by the
Unitd Pddagogique d'Architecture, 13288 Marseille
French Government. The "Sch6ma G6n6ral d'Am~nagement", approved by the Government, outlined the main development options and produced middle and long term development plans in a district which, until recently, had remained a rural and backward area. The location of new urban areas was agreed upon according to particular requirements: (a) the relative spread of the industrial zones -- the Government chose functional division of space as a basis; (b) the promotion of intermittent urbanization from existing urban cells based on the maintenance of natural and important agricultural areas; (c) the maintenance and development of open spaces for recreational purposes for town-dwellers desirous of clean air (previously, pollution had been considered as being concomittant with industrial areas}. This development choice naturally favored the division of geographic space into reasonably individual units. The area of Basse-Provence is organised such that few people live in hilly areas with
TABLE 1 Main industrial s e t t l e m e n t s in the area o f F o s - E t a n g de Berre
Name
Product or type of industry
Date of commissioning
Yearly capacity
Esso F o s sur Mer Shell BP Martigues-Lavera C.F.R. C h a t e a u n e u f les I.C.I. Air L i q u i d e Naphtachimie Ugine K u h l m a n Solmer Ugine Aciers Gas de F r a n c e E.D.F.
Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Polyethylene Nitrogen, oxygen Ethylene, propylene Chlorine I r o n and steel i n d u s t r y Special steels G a s i f i c a t i o n o f liquid n a t u r a l gas Electricity
Extension Extension Extension Extension 1972 1972 Extension 1975
8 000 000 tonnes 12 500 0 0 0 t o n n e s 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s 60 0 0 0 t o n n e s 1 000 tonnes 500 0 0 0 t o n n e s 80 0 0 0 t o n n e s 5 - 6 000 000 tonnes 500 000 tonnes 3 500 000 000 m 3 1 0 0 0 MW
0378-7788/82/0000-0000/$02.75
1973 1974 1974
since since since since
1973 1974 1972 1974
© Elsevier S e q u o i a / P r i n t e d in T h e N e t h e r l a n d s
16 I •
i\lit;}{,\l'l,D
• \<}N
1980
~'Y~tk~l
( <,,
I~,ll;(;RAIbl) %Y~ils1
) ( ~l)!)
• aries
i
salon
CAMARGUE AIX-ENPROVENCE
• i.~ rognac
Etang de
BERRE port
~"~'~J~l~J~nane
st Ioui lavera E f carry .~--~.l.._r~.
N
GOLFE
DE
~-~
M~RSEILLE
FOS
Fig. 1. Air pollution station measurement control.
natural vegetation, e.g. residual pine woods and brushwood on hill tops and plateaux, whereas basins and small plains have the heaviest population densities. This historical orientation was not greatly changed by the "Schema G~n~ral". Today, its options play a decisive role in the comfort of the inhabitants because they attracted, except in a few instances (Martigues new districts and a part of the city of Vitrolles), individuals and their activities to the lower parts of the basin. This has exposed them to the effects of poor diffusion conditions created by local climatology, and to high concentrations of ground pollution which is worrying in a number of places {Port de Bouc, Lavera, Berre, Rognac Fig. 1). The development has created e m p l o y m e n t and income for the new inhabitants, b u t it has also led to modifications of the environment and landscape. Previously, demands for improved working conditions did not include claims for better living conditions, often to the detriment of health; today, these demands
have been modified. The population, sensitive to pollution and degradation of the environment, now insists on living in acceptable surroundings. Environmental defense associations have multiplied. In the face of this growing opposition, public bodies and economical forces devised a plan to limit the deleterious effects of development. In the zone which we are studying, the first environmental measures were adopted in 1971; it is now possible to evaluate the early results of the policy which has been applied for nearly ten years.
THE FIGHT AGAINST AIR POLLUTION The Permanent Office for Industrial Pollution Problems (SPPPI) was created in 1972 by an Interministerial Protocol, and is mandated to develop an official policy for the reduction of pollution, mainly air pollution. Intended to force industry to take account of air pollution in any new development or extension
17
programme, the SPPPI was successful in a number of areas. At the same time, a new organisation, (The AIRFOBEP), which included affected industries, was created to develop cooperation between the major polluters and the SPPPI. Domestic pollution, regarded by officials of the SPPPI as being trivial compared with industrial pollution, was not included in any specific measures. In the Fos area we believe that of each 500 tons/day of industrial pollution, domestic pollution (heating, etc.,) accounts for only 5 tons. However, the energy crisis encourages and even requires that heating beneficiaries (public or private) regulate boilers efficiently in order to save energy. This helps in the fight against sulphur dioxide pollution. We must point out, however, that thus far no study on this particular aspect has been carried out.
MEASURES EMISSIONS
TAKEN
AGAINST
INDUSTRIAL
The SPPPI prepares a daily balance-sheet of emissions for the whole zone. Industrial emissions exceeded 500 tons/day of SO2 in 1972. On a year basis, SO2 emissions have varied from 50 to 100 tons/day, but in 1979 (Tables 2 and 3) they did not reach the level achieved in 1974". Annual average emissions remain above 800 tons/day, a limit fixed in 1972 by the SPPPI which was not to be exceeded. Industry which started up in the area or which increased its o u t p u t capacity was asked to comply with rules intended to control and limit the emission of effluents. (a) To build high chimneys where this was possible, taking into account the numerous aerial restraints of the zone. (b) To site continuous monitoring instruments (flow-meters, sulphur-meters) to determine the used combustible o u t p u t so that the volume of sulphur emission could be calculated for inclusion in the daily balance-sheet. (c) To site instruments capable of measuring high air acidity. (d) To locate filters and entrapment equipment at effluent sources (dust, gas, etc.).
*From 1 September 1980, only domestic fuel containing less than 0.3% of sulphur can be used.
Control of industrial pollution at source, which began in the early seventies, allowed the fixed emission limit to be exceeded, for in some months, the average daily industrial emission reached or exceeded 700 tons/day. If the problem had not been taken seriously by industry in the F o s - E t a n g de Berre area, the emission volume would be much greater. Taking June 1980 as an example, the global volume of emissions amounted to 460 tons/ day. To this, assuming no anti-pollution measures, it would be necessary to add an additional 330 tons/day of sulphur compounds. The o u t p u t of some of the factories located in the zone (refining-petrochemistry) has doubled, but emissions have remained under the plafond fixe. This difference can be appreciated when the two key figures for the year 1979 (Table 2) are considered: - - 596 tons/day: annual average, --690 tons]day: maximum monthly average. Whether factories work at 50% or at 80% of their capacity, the limits on emissions imposed by the Administration must still be respected. A daily emission check is forwarded to the AIRFOBEP offices by every industrial group located in the zone. For this purpose, continuous monitoring instruments under the control of public authorities were purchased. A certain tolerance in daily emissions is allowed. This, however, is not due to the refining industry, rather to the E.D.F. thermal power-station which experiences fluctuations in demand from the electricity network. Depending on the time of year and demand, E.D.F. emissions vary from about 100 tons/day to 300 tons/day. In the event of a pollution alert, industry is able to react more or less speedily, according to the districts concerned, to requests from the "Service des Mines". The response time which is short for the E.D.F. (about fifteen minutes to reduce its emissions from 60%), is greater for refiners (1 h to reduce from 60%) for economic reasons. The emission volume is still too high and insufficiently understood for pollutants other than sulphur. The energy crisis has reduced activity in industries other than refining and petrochemistry. Economic expansion of the zone
18 TABLE 2 A n n u a l averages of acidity. S u l p h u r dioxide emissions grim 3
so 2
'(O9
3~e
. ?,Oo
N
. ~,oo
•
"!ii
3o
~oo 4oo
i!
,f.o
Zoo
Ao
,
!lliil
o
.
Jill
lili!!l!illi!l lIi!llJi!ll
o
TABLE 3 F o s - E t a n g de Berre s u l p h u r d i o x i d e emissions
Sulphur dioxide emissions (tons~day)
January February March April May June July August September October November December A n n u a l average of acidity 1979 1978
E.D.F.
Refineries
Chemical and oil industry
Steel industry
Various
Cumulative
280.5 279.5 203 201 122.7 136.2 209.5 209.8 213.5 215.7 209.6 187.6
178.9 183.9 186.9 167.7 166.3 163.7 159.3 172 153.5 193.1 191.8 186.2
140.6 139.4 144.1 147.8 114.9 111.4 112 112.4 135.2 129.3 136.8 135.2
45 46.6 42.2 27.2 16.1 31.8 47.9 50.5 53.7 66 63.1 64.3
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
684.9 689.4 616.2 583.7 460 483.1 568.7 584.7 596 644.1 641.2 613.2
205.3 173.6
175.3 172.4
130 121.5
46.2 42.6
40 40
596.6 550
has not taken place to the degree foreseen in the average-term development programme (1980 - 1985) of 1970. It is evident that only large companies can afford the additional very high costs of anti-pollution measures (measurement and processing of effluents at source). A number of small enterprises in the
area escape the controls and pollute several industrial districts substantially (Vitrolles and Martigues-Lavera). An important E.D.F. development will soon take place 30 km from Fos: the thermal (coal) power station at Gardanne is to be enlarged and in the near future, there will be
19 daily emissions of around 400 T/day. This figure, which will be in addition to the 600 T/day registered in the Etang de Berre basin and the low Marne of Crau, is quite important. We are aware that although anti-pollution measures tend to reduce the global emission volume and insure that a fixed limit is not exceeded, the effect of this limit and its maintenance on the problems of local climatology and the health of the population are unknown. In addition to urban and industrial development, increasing commercial traffic (and also cars and planes} multiplies the sources of pollution in the Etang de Berre basin and the Fos area. Numerous and little understood, the emissions mix can play an important part in air pollution, providing the seasoning for a soup of rather complex pollutants: sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, smokes and particles, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, asbestos particles, etc. Diffusion is sometimes made very difficult because of atmospheric conditions.
Stage 3 The system is now more "integrated" (many ineffective stations were removed) and instrument design n o w allows pollution variation to be checked at any time and the pollution warning system, effective since 1979, to be activated (Fig. 1). Today, the system is technically sound, according to expert opinion, and, vk~ the acid concentration, c o m m o n l y regarded as a valuable indicator, provides a satisfactory estimate of air purity. However, scientific exploitation of this information has not been in keeping with its importance. We must await resumption of the studies which began in 1971 - 1972 concerning movement of the lower atmosphere, studies which provided greater knowledge of diffusion conditions on the site and of local climatology, so that the frequency of pollution peaks and their relationship to unfavourable atmospheric situations may be assessed.
POLLUTION LEVELS C O N T R O L OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION In 1980, the pollution control and alarm system of the Fos-Etang de Berre region includes 30 high acidity air metering stations and one for the measurement of multipollution products. Twenty-two stations are centralized, i.e., their observations are teletransmitted to a data reduction centre at the Tower of Martigues (North Martigues) control station. The development of the systems during the last I0 years has been carried out according to a scheme well-known to those responsible for the control of air quality in Europe.
Stage 1 The original system included a few stations carrying out manual measurements (weekly reports on the sulphur pollution at the station). Stage 2 During the years 1972 - 1973, the system was enlarged and equipped with additional improved automatic metering stations. They record strong acid concentrations every fifteen minutes. Some were located on the original sites, others were located in new districts of F o s - E t a n g de Berre and in the North Martigues area.
Annual averages The pollution level, taken from figures provided by the Administration, does not seem excessive. Annual acidity averages have decreased regularly between 1970 and 1977, increased from about 40 ug/m 3 for 1977 1978 then decreased again in 1979 (Table 2). Frequency Consideration of the daily frequency averages for each station indicate that they are, in most cases, clearly greater than 100 /lg/m 3 . In 80% of cases the daily values are below 75 pg/m s (87% < 100). In Martigues, part of the most polluted area (Lavera-Ponteau -- see map), the proportion of cases in excess of, or equal to, 100 pg/m ~ increases until 1977 then decreases slightly in 1978.
1975 67.2
1976 75.7
1977 82.2
1978 73.4
1979
This residential and industrial zone is fairly polluted: 32 cases of average daily pollution > 4 0 0 pg/m 3, including 3 cases > 1 2 0 0 pg/m 3 in 1979. Here we are dealing with daily averages.
20 09.32
13.37
16.26
18.42
HTU
i
\
1400 m
\
1200 "~
1000
800
\
600
400
\ J
J\.
200
sol 20 22
24
26
27
30
22
24
26 28
22
24
26 2B
20 22
24
T°
Fig. 2. Inversion conditions o n 1 July, 1973.
However, analysis problems, easily discernible among the information concerning peak periods of concentration, exist. The study of frequencies conceals the hourly concentration variation and its relation with the local diffusion conditions. It also conceals the cumulative effects and the actual frequencies inflicted on the population living in this polluted atmosphere*. We are unable to say which kind of pollution we are confronted with, because, so far, the data have not been completely evaluated.
The very character of the major emissions over a region (an industrial emission depends to some extent on seasonal variations, as opposed to domestic emissions) plays an important part in the concentration distribution over an extended period. We have noticed that periods of peak concentration occur throughout the year, but there are two occasions when their frequency is greater and their character more pronounced: in autumn -winter and in summer.
AUTUMN-WINTER D A T A CONCERNING D I F F U S I O N AND LOCAL CLIMATOLOGY
It is known that the variation of pollutants in the atmosphere depends on climatic conditions -- wind and thermal gradients (stability). Others are a direct consequence of the changing nature of the effluents discharged into the atmosphere (humidity, solar radiation). We will consider the first type only.
*More and more people are visiting doctors' surgeries, mostly those who specialise in eye, nose and throat infections.
Listed below are the conditions which are more likely to be present on occasions of poor diffusion: an anticyclonic situation with a low gradient (1020 - 1030 mb) over a period of 2 to 3 days; light winds (3 - 5 m/s}, no mistral winds and slow mixing of the lower atmosphere, leading to the precipitation of aerosol pollutants and concentration increases (peaks); -- poor visibility, intense atmospheric turbulence; -- a " l a k e " of cold and polluted air: a warmer layer (thermal inversion} rises above it -
-
-
-
21 TABLE 4 Different types of strong acidity peak concentrations on the site of Fo s- Et an g de Berre
Wind
Thermal gradient
Sunlight
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Morning
calm*
--
Peak
sea breeze calm*
-Peak
Peak --
Peak Peak
Night
land breeze
Sunrise (slant radiations) Sun lapse maximum Sunset (slant radiations) --
Peak
Midday Evening
Inversion of surface (destruction phase) Wind inversion (inside) Inversion of surface (construction phase) Inversion of surface + wind inversion
Peak
Inversion of surface: inversion near the ground. *Change of direction.
¢t/~3 ;9 AOUT
1971
I
15~
I
\
300 20O 100
I'I, 3 - 670
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
?6
I~
-
-
-
-
-
500 40C
-- an anticyclonic situation with a low gradient; alternative coastal breezes; light breezes and moderate winds (3 - 8 m/s); early morning inversions are dissipated by day to day instability and are replaced by the less worrying conditions of peak concentrations at dawn. Strong inversions were established at many levels (Fig. 2) and were maintained throughout the day (wind inversions). In this latter ease, we have on the one hand high concentrations at dawn and in the early morning, and on the other hand an increase in the level of ground pollution in the middle of the day. This increase in ground pollution in most eases is a result of the variability of the wind, i.e., a change in the wind direction (the develo p m e n t of a sea breeze and a return to the site of large masses of pollutants (Fig. 3 and Table 4). It is obvious that microclimatic factors determine air pollution diffusion and that they largely condition the purity of the air breathed by the population. The developments agreed upon ten years ago in the FosEtang de Berre area have to some extent limited pollution, with air pollution being considered as an important factor. However, it would be worthwhile to make use of the scientific data which has been accumulated on a systematic basis.
2C
22
0
Fig. 3. Automatic station M7. Legal time. Daily averages.
so that the pollution does not diffuse; conditions remain stable, often for m a n y days. Since October 1976, gross pollution has been registered on 19 occasions, most of them during cold periods. SUMMER PERIOD
Conditions leading to poor diffusion include:
15
Air Pollution Control in Industrial and Urban Areas and Air Quality Evaluation in 1980 (Fos-Etang de Berre, France) ALIX AUDURIER-CROS
Groupe ABC (Amb&nces bioclimatiques en architecture), (France)
INTRODUCTION
Industrial activity in the district of F o s Etang de Berre has increased extensively over the last 10 years. Oil offloading at the seaport of Fos has become more and more important. Currently, forty percent of the oil products imported into France are routed through the industrial developments of the P.A.M. (Port A u t o n o m e de Marseille). Petrochemical industries which normally operate on sites near to port facilities quickly developed around this district. The land area devoted to tank farms doubled; the "Sud-Europ~en" pipe-line terminal, situated in the Fos industrial area near the harbour, underlines the importance of this district for the storage of fuel in this part of Europe. Recently, the creation of a large steel mill helped to diversify the industrial character of the district. The main industrial developments are detailed in Table 1. All this industrial growth has taken place between 1968 and 1970 as part of a large planning and development operation undertaken by the
Unitd Pddagogique d'Architecture, 13288 Marseille
French Government. The "Sch6ma G6n6ral d'Am~nagement", approved by the Government, outlined the main development options and produced middle and long term development plans in a district which, until recently, had remained a rural and backward area. The location of new urban areas was agreed upon according to particular requirements: (a) the relative spread of the industrial zones -- the Government chose functional division of space as a basis; (b) the promotion of intermittent urbanization from existing urban cells based on the maintenance of natural and important agricultural areas; (c) the maintenance and development of open spaces for recreational purposes for town-dwellers desirous of clean air (previously, pollution had been considered as being concomittant with industrial areas}. This development choice naturally favored the division of geographic space into reasonably individual units. The area of Basse-Provence is organised such that few people live in hilly areas with
TABLE 1 Main industrial s e t t l e m e n t s in the area o f F o s - E t a n g de Berre
Name
Product or type of industry
Date of commissioning
Yearly capacity
Esso F o s sur Mer Shell BP Martigues-Lavera C.F.R. C h a t e a u n e u f les I.C.I. Air L i q u i d e Naphtachimie Ugine K u h l m a n Solmer Ugine Aciers Gas de F r a n c e E.D.F.
Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Oil r e f i n i n g Polyethylene Nitrogen, oxygen Ethylene, propylene Chlorine I r o n and steel i n d u s t r y Special steels G a s i f i c a t i o n o f liquid n a t u r a l gas Electricity
Extension Extension Extension Extension 1972 1972 Extension 1975
8 000 000 tonnes 12 500 0 0 0 t o n n e s 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 t o n n e s 60 0 0 0 t o n n e s 1 000 tonnes 500 0 0 0 t o n n e s 80 0 0 0 t o n n e s 5 - 6 000 000 tonnes 500 000 tonnes 3 500 000 000 m 3 1 0 0 0 MW
0378-7788/82/0000-0000/$02.75
1973 1974 1974
since since since since
1973 1974 1972 1974
© Elsevier S e q u o i a / P r i n t e d in T h e N e t h e r l a n d s
16 I •
i\lit;}{,\l'l,D
• \<}N
1980
~'Y~tk~l
( <,,
I~,ll;(;RAIbl) %Y~ils1
) ( ~l)!)
• aries
i
salon
CAMARGUE AIX-ENPROVENCE
• i.~ rognac
Etang de
BERRE port
~"~'~J~l~J~nane
st Ioui lavera E f carry .~--~.l.._r~.
N
GOLFE
DE
~-~
M~RSEILLE
FOS
Fig. 1. Air pollution station measurement control.
natural vegetation, e.g. residual pine woods and brushwood on hill tops and plateaux, whereas basins and small plains have the heaviest population densities. This historical orientation was not greatly changed by the "Schema G~n~ral". Today, its options play a decisive role in the comfort of the inhabitants because they attracted, except in a few instances (Martigues new districts and a part of the city of Vitrolles), individuals and their activities to the lower parts of the basin. This has exposed them to the effects of poor diffusion conditions created by local climatology, and to high concentrations of ground pollution which is worrying in a number of places {Port de Bouc, Lavera, Berre, Rognac Fig. 1). The development has created e m p l o y m e n t and income for the new inhabitants, b u t it has also led to modifications of the environment and landscape. Previously, demands for improved working conditions did not include claims for better living conditions, often to the detriment of health; today, these demands
have been modified. The population, sensitive to pollution and degradation of the environment, now insists on living in acceptable surroundings. Environmental defense associations have multiplied. In the face of this growing opposition, public bodies and economical forces devised a plan to limit the deleterious effects of development. In the zone which we are studying, the first environmental measures were adopted in 1971; it is now possible to evaluate the early results of the policy which has been applied for nearly ten years.
THE FIGHT AGAINST AIR POLLUTION The Permanent Office for Industrial Pollution Problems (SPPPI) was created in 1972 by an Interministerial Protocol, and is mandated to develop an official policy for the reduction of pollution, mainly air pollution. Intended to force industry to take account of air pollution in any new development or extension
17
programme, the SPPPI was successful in a number of areas. At the same time, a new organisation, (The AIRFOBEP), which included affected industries, was created to develop cooperation between the major polluters and the SPPPI. Domestic pollution, regarded by officials of the SPPPI as being trivial compared with industrial pollution, was not included in any specific measures. In the Fos area we believe that of each 500 tons/day of industrial pollution, domestic pollution (heating, etc.,) accounts for only 5 tons. However, the energy crisis encourages and even requires that heating beneficiaries (public or private) regulate boilers efficiently in order to save energy. This helps in the fight against sulphur dioxide pollution. We must point out, however, that thus far no study on this particular aspect has been carried out.
MEASURES EMISSIONS
TAKEN
AGAINST
INDUSTRIAL
The SPPPI prepares a daily balance-sheet of emissions for the whole zone. Industrial emissions exceeded 500 tons/day of SO2 in 1972. On a year basis, SO2 emissions have varied from 50 to 100 tons/day, but in 1979 (Tables 2 and 3) they did not reach the level achieved in 1974". Annual average emissions remain above 800 tons/day, a limit fixed in 1972 by the SPPPI which was not to be exceeded. Industry which started up in the area or which increased its o u t p u t capacity was asked to comply with rules intended to control and limit the emission of effluents. (a) To build high chimneys where this was possible, taking into account the numerous aerial restraints of the zone. (b) To site continuous monitoring instruments (flow-meters, sulphur-meters) to determine the used combustible o u t p u t so that the volume of sulphur emission could be calculated for inclusion in the daily balance-sheet. (c) To site instruments capable of measuring high air acidity. (d) To locate filters and entrapment equipment at effluent sources (dust, gas, etc.).
*From 1 September 1980, only domestic fuel containing less than 0.3% of sulphur can be used.
Control of industrial pollution at source, which began in the early seventies, allowed the fixed emission limit to be exceeded, for in some months, the average daily industrial emission reached or exceeded 700 tons/day. If the problem had not been taken seriously by industry in the F o s - E t a n g de Berre area, the emission volume would be much greater. Taking June 1980 as an example, the global volume of emissions amounted to 460 tons/ day. To this, assuming no anti-pollution measures, it would be necessary to add an additional 330 tons/day of sulphur compounds. The o u t p u t of some of the factories located in the zone (refining-petrochemistry) has doubled, but emissions have remained under the plafond fixe. This difference can be appreciated when the two key figures for the year 1979 (Table 2) are considered: - - 596 tons/day: annual average, --690 tons]day: maximum monthly average. Whether factories work at 50% or at 80% of their capacity, the limits on emissions imposed by the Administration must still be respected. A daily emission check is forwarded to the AIRFOBEP offices by every industrial group located in the zone. For this purpose, continuous monitoring instruments under the control of public authorities were purchased. A certain tolerance in daily emissions is allowed. This, however, is not due to the refining industry, rather to the E.D.F. thermal power-station which experiences fluctuations in demand from the electricity network. Depending on the time of year and demand, E.D.F. emissions vary from about 100 tons/day to 300 tons/day. In the event of a pollution alert, industry is able to react more or less speedily, according to the districts concerned, to requests from the "Service des Mines". The response time which is short for the E.D.F. (about fifteen minutes to reduce its emissions from 60%), is greater for refiners (1 h to reduce from 60%) for economic reasons. The emission volume is still too high and insufficiently understood for pollutants other than sulphur. The energy crisis has reduced activity in industries other than refining and petrochemistry. Economic expansion of the zone
18 TABLE 2 A n n u a l averages of acidity. S u l p h u r dioxide emissions grim 3
so 2
'(O9
3~e
. ?,Oo
N
. ~,oo
•
"!ii
3o
~oo 4oo
i!
,f.o
Zoo
Ao
,
!lliil
o
.
Jill
lili!!l!illi!l lIi!llJi!ll
o
TABLE 3 F o s - E t a n g de Berre s u l p h u r d i o x i d e emissions
Sulphur dioxide emissions (tons~day)
January February March April May June July August September October November December A n n u a l average of acidity 1979 1978
E.D.F.
Refineries
Chemical and oil industry
Steel industry
Various
Cumulative
280.5 279.5 203 201 122.7 136.2 209.5 209.8 213.5 215.7 209.6 187.6
178.9 183.9 186.9 167.7 166.3 163.7 159.3 172 153.5 193.1 191.8 186.2
140.6 139.4 144.1 147.8 114.9 111.4 112 112.4 135.2 129.3 136.8 135.2
45 46.6 42.2 27.2 16.1 31.8 47.9 50.5 53.7 66 63.1 64.3
40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 40
684.9 689.4 616.2 583.7 460 483.1 568.7 584.7 596 644.1 641.2 613.2
205.3 173.6
175.3 172.4
130 121.5
46.2 42.6
40 40
596.6 550
has not taken place to the degree foreseen in the average-term development programme (1980 - 1985) of 1970. It is evident that only large companies can afford the additional very high costs of anti-pollution measures (measurement and processing of effluents at source). A number of small enterprises in the
area escape the controls and pollute several industrial districts substantially (Vitrolles and Martigues-Lavera). An important E.D.F. development will soon take place 30 km from Fos: the thermal (coal) power station at Gardanne is to be enlarged and in the near future, there will be
19 daily emissions of around 400 T/day. This figure, which will be in addition to the 600 T/day registered in the Etang de Berre basin and the low Marne of Crau, is quite important. We are aware that although anti-pollution measures tend to reduce the global emission volume and insure that a fixed limit is not exceeded, the effect of this limit and its maintenance on the problems of local climatology and the health of the population are unknown. In addition to urban and industrial development, increasing commercial traffic (and also cars and planes} multiplies the sources of pollution in the Etang de Berre basin and the Fos area. Numerous and little understood, the emissions mix can play an important part in air pollution, providing the seasoning for a soup of rather complex pollutants: sulphur dioxide, hydrocarbons, smokes and particles, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, asbestos particles, etc. Diffusion is sometimes made very difficult because of atmospheric conditions.
Stage 3 The system is now more "integrated" (many ineffective stations were removed) and instrument design n o w allows pollution variation to be checked at any time and the pollution warning system, effective since 1979, to be activated (Fig. 1). Today, the system is technically sound, according to expert opinion, and, vk~ the acid concentration, c o m m o n l y regarded as a valuable indicator, provides a satisfactory estimate of air purity. However, scientific exploitation of this information has not been in keeping with its importance. We must await resumption of the studies which began in 1971 - 1972 concerning movement of the lower atmosphere, studies which provided greater knowledge of diffusion conditions on the site and of local climatology, so that the frequency of pollution peaks and their relationship to unfavourable atmospheric situations may be assessed.
POLLUTION LEVELS C O N T R O L OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION In 1980, the pollution control and alarm system of the Fos-Etang de Berre region includes 30 high acidity air metering stations and one for the measurement of multipollution products. Twenty-two stations are centralized, i.e., their observations are teletransmitted to a data reduction centre at the Tower of Martigues (North Martigues) control station. The development of the systems during the last I0 years has been carried out according to a scheme well-known to those responsible for the control of air quality in Europe.
Stage 1 The original system included a few stations carrying out manual measurements (weekly reports on the sulphur pollution at the station). Stage 2 During the years 1972 - 1973, the system was enlarged and equipped with additional improved automatic metering stations. They record strong acid concentrations every fifteen minutes. Some were located on the original sites, others were located in new districts of F o s - E t a n g de Berre and in the North Martigues area.
Annual averages The pollution level, taken from figures provided by the Administration, does not seem excessive. Annual acidity averages have decreased regularly between 1970 and 1977, increased from about 40 ug/m 3 for 1977 1978 then decreased again in 1979 (Table 2). Frequency Consideration of the daily frequency averages for each station indicate that they are, in most cases, clearly greater than 100 /lg/m 3 . In 80% of cases the daily values are below 75 pg/m s (87% < 100). In Martigues, part of the most polluted area (Lavera-Ponteau -- see map), the proportion of cases in excess of, or equal to, 100 pg/m ~ increases until 1977 then decreases slightly in 1978.
1975 67.2
1976 75.7
1977 82.2
1978 73.4
1979
This residential and industrial zone is fairly polluted: 32 cases of average daily pollution > 4 0 0 pg/m 3, including 3 cases > 1 2 0 0 pg/m 3 in 1979. Here we are dealing with daily averages.
20 09.32
13.37
16.26
18.42
HTU
i
\
1400 m
\
1200 "~
1000
800
\
600
400
\ J
J\.
200
sol 20 22
24
26
27
30
22
24
26 28
22
24
26 2B
20 22
24
T°
Fig. 2. Inversion conditions o n 1 July, 1973.
However, analysis problems, easily discernible among the information concerning peak periods of concentration, exist. The study of frequencies conceals the hourly concentration variation and its relation with the local diffusion conditions. It also conceals the cumulative effects and the actual frequencies inflicted on the population living in this polluted atmosphere*. We are unable to say which kind of pollution we are confronted with, because, so far, the data have not been completely evaluated.
The very character of the major emissions over a region (an industrial emission depends to some extent on seasonal variations, as opposed to domestic emissions) plays an important part in the concentration distribution over an extended period. We have noticed that periods of peak concentration occur throughout the year, but there are two occasions when their frequency is greater and their character more pronounced: in autumn -winter and in summer.
AUTUMN-WINTER D A T A CONCERNING D I F F U S I O N AND LOCAL CLIMATOLOGY
It is known that the variation of pollutants in the atmosphere depends on climatic conditions -- wind and thermal gradients (stability). Others are a direct consequence of the changing nature of the effluents discharged into the atmosphere (humidity, solar radiation). We will consider the first type only.
*More and more people are visiting doctors' surgeries, mostly those who specialise in eye, nose and throat infections.
Listed below are the conditions which are more likely to be present on occasions of poor diffusion: an anticyclonic situation with a low gradient (1020 - 1030 mb) over a period of 2 to 3 days; light winds (3 - 5 m/s}, no mistral winds and slow mixing of the lower atmosphere, leading to the precipitation of aerosol pollutants and concentration increases (peaks); -- poor visibility, intense atmospheric turbulence; -- a " l a k e " of cold and polluted air: a warmer layer (thermal inversion} rises above it -
-
-
-
21 TABLE 4 Different types of strong acidity peak concentrations on the site of Fo s- Et an g de Berre
Wind
Thermal gradient
Sunlight
Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Morning
calm*
--
Peak
sea breeze calm*
-Peak
Peak --
Peak Peak
Night
land breeze
Sunrise (slant radiations) Sun lapse maximum Sunset (slant radiations) --
Peak
Midday Evening
Inversion of surface (destruction phase) Wind inversion (inside) Inversion of surface (construction phase) Inversion of surface + wind inversion
Peak
Inversion of surface: inversion near the ground. *Change of direction.
¢t/~3 ;9 AOUT
1971
I
15~
I
\
300 20O 100
I'I, 3 - 670
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
?6
I~
-
-
-
-
-
500 40C
-- an anticyclonic situation with a low gradient; alternative coastal breezes; light breezes and moderate winds (3 - 8 m/s); early morning inversions are dissipated by day to day instability and are replaced by the less worrying conditions of peak concentrations at dawn. Strong inversions were established at many levels (Fig. 2) and were maintained throughout the day (wind inversions). In this latter ease, we have on the one hand high concentrations at dawn and in the early morning, and on the other hand an increase in the level of ground pollution in the middle of the day. This increase in ground pollution in most eases is a result of the variability of the wind, i.e., a change in the wind direction (the develo p m e n t of a sea breeze and a return to the site of large masses of pollutants (Fig. 3 and Table 4). It is obvious that microclimatic factors determine air pollution diffusion and that they largely condition the purity of the air breathed by the population. The developments agreed upon ten years ago in the FosEtang de Berre area have to some extent limited pollution, with air pollution being considered as an important factor. However, it would be worthwhile to make use of the scientific data which has been accumulated on a systematic basis.
2C
22
0
Fig. 3. Automatic station M7. Legal time. Daily averages.
so that the pollution does not diffuse; conditions remain stable, often for m a n y days. Since October 1976, gross pollution has been registered on 19 occasions, most of them during cold periods. SUMMER PERIOD
Conditions leading to poor diffusion include: