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Air Quality Action Plans: early indicators of urban local authority practice in England
Environmental Science & Policy 5 (2002) 463–470
Air Quality Action Plans: early indicators of urban local authority practice in England C.I. Beattie, J.W.S. Longhurst∗ , N.K. Woodfield Air Quality Research Group, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK
Abstract The delivery of improved local ambient air quality in the UK has emerged through the implementation of the Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland [DETR, Welsh Office, Scottish Office, Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, CM 4548, London, The Stationery Office, 2000] by the air quality management (AQM) regime. Local authorities now have the responsibility to undertake a review and assessment of air quality in their area and to identify locations where health-based objectives are likely to be exceeded. If relevant public exposure exists, an air quality management area must be designated. Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) provide the mechanism by which local authorities, in collaboration with national agencies and others, will state their intentions for working towards the air quality objectives through the powers they have available and by collaboration with other bodies who are in the position of implementing solutions to their air quality hot spots. This management regime will require a new way of local authority working, involving not only local authority joint working but also regional collaboration and co-operation with outside agencies and authorities such as health authorities, regulators of industry and highways managers. Management aspects of the AQM process have been investigated through the data collection from a series of questionnaire surveys. It is argued that the extent to which a local authority is able to show integration of its air quality management responsibilities is an indicator of their capability for delivering AQAPs. Although local authorities appear to be making moves towards a more integrated approach to managing environmental issues, there are still significant gaps in joint working identified through questionnaire surveys and case studies undertaken by the authors. Some recommendations for the successful implementation of AQAPs are also included. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Local air quality management; Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs); Air quality objectives; Local authorities
1. Introduction The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (DETR et al., 2000) and its air quality management (AQM) regime is the mechanism for delivering improved local air quality throughout the UK. For the first time in the UK local air quality is being tackled from an effects-based perspective with the emphasis on public exposure to poor air quality. The air quality management regime is also the first time that local authorities have been under a statutory duty for assessing air quality within their areas and improving the situation where air quality does not reach certain objectives. Local government under the Environment Act 1995 (HM Government, 1995) is required to periodically review air quality using a phased approach, to determine likely ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-117-344-3692; fax: +44-117-344-2904. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.W.S. Longhurst).
future air quality. The review and assessment process is designed to assess future air quality against health-based air quality objectives for seven pollutants (HM Government, 2000), which local authorities are required to work towards. The government has recommended a three-stage process, whereby each stage increases in detail and complexity. The complexity and detail of the review should be consistent with the risk of failing to achieve the air quality objectives (Beattie et al., 2001). The declaration of air quality management areas (AQMAs), where objectives are not predicted to be met, is currently underway in the UK. In these areas, and locations where sources of the pollutants of concern are generated, Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) must be developed and implemented to outline the measures to be executed to improve air quality to acceptable levels. European strategy and policy largely underpin UK strategy for delivering environmental protection, including air quality improvements. Apart from having a statutory duty to comply with EU legislation, the legislative framework offers opportunities for achieving national objectives (Beattie
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et al., 2001). European standards for vehicle emissions and fuels, for example, are significant in assisting the UK to achieve the objectives for traffic-derived pollutants in the UK Air Quality Strategy. The Ambient Air Quality Assessment and Management Directive 96/62/EC is important in influencing the implementation of air quality management in the UK. The Directive established a framework within which the EU agrees limit values for specified pollutants in the form of Daughter directives. UK Government must identify locations where limit values plus a margin of tolerance (which gradually decreases) are being exceeded and subsequently submit an action plan to the European Commission. Local authority action plans discussed in this paper will provide a starting point for this process. Although UK actions predate the EU Air Quality Framework Directive, the approach in the UK has been mediated by the Framework Directive and associated Daughter Directives. Due to the inter-disciplinary nature of the AQM process, in particular in implementing measures to improve air quality, solutions are likely to be derived from a range of professions, agencies and other organisations. Consequently, many local authorities have established an Air Quality Forum or similar working group so as to involve all those professions that have a part to play in AQM (Elsom, 1999). This paper will examine the effectiveness of the inter-disciplinary relationships within local government and between neighbouring authorities. It will also consider the relationship between different tiers of government, outside agencies and other stakeholders in the implementation of AQAPs. This work is part of a 5-year project investigating the implementation of AQM in urban areas of England (Beattie et al., 2001). Evidence will be provided from questionnaire surveys undertaken within urban areas of England over the last 4 years, and this is supplemented by evidence from detailed case studies providing examples of good practice in the field. This paper will comment on some of the approaches to AQAPs in the UK as local authorities embark on the development of their plans, and will provide recommendations for improved future practice.
2. Methodology In each of the last 4 years, questionnaires were sent to 141 urban authorities, to survey the knowledge and practice of AQM in environmental health, transport planning, land use planning, economic development and Local Agenda 21 functions of the authorities. In order to understand the role and action of a wider set of stakeholders, questionnaires have also been sent to county tier transport and land use planning departments (where applicable), health authorities, the Environment Agency and Highways Agency. The local authorities were classified as urban using the National Council for Voluntary Organisations classification (Brown, 1997) of local authorities, which reflects not only settlement size, but also the social and economic characteristics of
Table 1 Response rates of the questionnaire survey undertaken in 2001 Profession
Number sent
Percentage response
Environmental health Planning officer Transport planner Economic development Local Agenda 21 officers County transport County planner Health authority Environment Agency area office Environment Agency regional office Highways Agency (area offices)
141 141 141 141 141 26 26 90 24 7 19
61 38 29 20 25 50 27 32 46 71 32
the population. In addition counties which included urban authorities were also surveyed (Table 1). Urban authorities were chosen because at the outset of the study it was hypothesised that they would be confronted with the greatest air quality management challenges. Urban authorities included all the London Boroughs, metropolitan areas and other large urban conurbations as well as other areas with urban characteristics. The questionnaires have been sent annually, and have been designed to assess current practice with regard to both the technical aspects of the AQM process (such as monitoring and modelling capabilities) and the management aspects (by investigating how each collaborates with other departments within their authority, neighbouring authorities and other outside bodies). Integration with other policy areas and management of air quality strategies were also investigated. As local authorities move on to implementing solutions to the problems identified by the scientific assessment, the management aspects of the process are hypothesised to become more critical to the achievement of air quality improvements. This paper focuses on a critical examination of local authority experience in co-ordinating and managing the internal and external collaborative aspects of their air quality management responsibilities in respect of AQAPs. Environmental health professionals, who have traditionally been responsible for pollution control and who are in most cases co-ordinating the review and assessment process, were sent a more in-depth version of the questionnaire (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000b). A detailed review of the project and methodology is available at http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/research/urban. Response rates are in the range of 20–70% for the different local authority sectors. In recognition that questionnaires alone cannot provide a full analysis of the variation in approaches and practices, case studies were undertaken in nine local authorities during the period of 2000 to mid 2001. Qualitative data are used as a complementary methodology to the mainly quantitative questionnaire surveys. The authorities, which were chosen from questionnaire surveys, had shown a more advanced approach to the air quality management process. Advanced
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as defined by the authors is where local authorities have shown an integration of air quality issues into other planning processes as well as competence in the technical aspects of monitoring and modelling. Semi-structured interviewing techniques were used to ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches to AQM of the case study authorities. This paper will mainly draw on the responses from the questionnaires dispatched in 2001 and also case studies undertaken during 2000 and early 2001.
3. Air Quality Action Plans The majority of AQMAs resulting from the first phase of review and assessment have and are likely to be designated throughout 2001 and 2002, although Westminster City Council (central London) officially declared an AQMA in 1999. The majority of AQMAs (designated and anticipated) will involve traffic sources, or a combination of traffic and industrial sources (Woodfield et al., 2001). AQMAs declared or proposed at the end of 2001 are required for exceedances of nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and sulphur dioxide objectives (or combinations of objectives) (Woodfield et al., in press). Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) provide the mechanism by which local authorities, in collaboration with national agencies and others, will state their intentions for working towards meeting the air quality objectives through the powers they have available (NSCA, 2000a). The AQAP must consider transport planning, land use planning and other measures necessary to improve air quality and work towards the relevant air quality objectives by the target date in the AQMA. Central government suggests that the preparation of the AQAP should be within a period of 12–18 months from the declaration of an AQMA (DETR and National Assembly for Wales, 2000a). At the end of 2001, local authorities in the UK are in the process of proposing and declaring AQMAs, and the Action Planning process is being implemented throughout 2001–2003 (except Westminster who declared a year in advance of the rest of the country and have already adopted their AQAP). At the end of July 2002, 103 further AQMAs have been designated with a further 26 anticipated.1 Many of these are urban authorities, although a greater number of rural authorities have identified the need for AQMAs and resultant AQAPs. From a questionnaire survey undertaken in mid 2001, of the respondents 1% had already produced an AQAP, with 49% anticipating an AQAP following AQMA designation, 33% did not require an AQAP and 16% were still unsure about their position. In addition to their statutory duties of preparing an AQAP in order to help achieve air quality objectives, 1 Data from the UK air quality review and assessment archive by kind permission of Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the Greater London Authority, the Scottish Executive, National Assembly for Wales and the Department of Environment, Northern Ireland.
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many local authorities are also intending to implement non-statutory air quality strategies. Thirty-seven percent of respondents intended producing such a local air quality strategy, with 12% intending to work regionally on their strategy. A further 12% were anticipating producing both regional and local air quality strategies with 22% unsure about their position. The reasons given included ensuring that air quality objectives are achieved (in borderline cases), as a corporate backing to an AQAP and as a framework for future review and assessments. This represents a significant effort on the part of local authorities in implementing solutions in order to achieve the air quality objectives. In parallel to writing and implementing AQAPs, authorities declaring AQMAs are also required to undertake a further review and assessment stage (Stage 4) to confirm or refute their findings at Stage 3 (DETR, 2001). It has been advised by central government that Stage 4 assessment should be used to calculate how much improvement in air quality would be needed to achieve the air quality objectives, refine knowledge relating to the sources of pollution, take account of local and national policy developments, carry out further monitoring and respond to any comments from consultees (DETR, 2001). It is anticipated that the AQAP and Stage 4 assessment will be undertaken in conjunction as scientific assessment at Stage 4 is likely to inform the measures proposed in the action plan, particularly in providing the technical justification for the measures an authority includes in its action plan.
4. Evidence of collaborative working An effective AQAP relies heavily on the integration of a variety of local government functions, as well as integration with regional plans and external agencies (NSCA, 2000a,b). Fryxell and Vryza (1999) provide evidence of the difficulty of introducing an overarching issue across major enterprises with analogous structures to local authorities. Painter and Clarence (2001) have examined UK Education and Health Action Zones in relation to partnership working. It was concluded that an established track record of partnership working proved crucial in enabling not only a rapid but also an effective response. Their studies underline the obstacles to partnership working (Painter and Clarence, 2001) such as ‘partnership fatigue’ and the fragmentation of local government. Evidence from questionnaire surveys undertaken by the authors over the last 4 years has indicated that collaborative working of this sort is increasing (Beattie et al., 1999, 2000a). However, in many authorities, inter-departmental and inter-professional working is still immature. A lack of integration between professions at the local level has also been identified by Cannibal and Lemon (2000). Environmental health professionals, who are co-ordinating the air quality review and assessment process, are working more effectively on a regional scale than with other functions within their own authority (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000b).
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Table 2 Departments or agencies working in collaboration with environmental professionals for the purpose of air quality review and assessment and those anticipated to be working as part of an AQAP
Land use planners Economic development officers Transport planners Local Agenda 21 officer Health authority Environment Agency Neighbouring authorities Community group Highways Agency
Percentage of respondent departments or agencies collaborating with environmental health professionals for air quality review and assessment
Percentage of respondent departments or agencies to be involved in the writing and implementing of an AQAP
51 10 54 33 25 51 68 15 20
98 54 98 78 60 71 75 48 56
This has implications for the implementation of AQAPs as the intra-authority relationships required for effective policy integration may not be sufficiently well developed. Table 2 shows that although collaboration is currently underway, a large disparity exists between current collaboration and those functions and agencies envisaged being involved in the writing and implementing of the AQAP. Particularly of note is the lack of involvement of outside agencies such as the Highways Agency, the operator of England’s network of trunk roads, including motorways. Fifty-six percent of authorities are envisaging that Highways Agency input will be required in the AQAP process, but at present only 20% of authorities have collaborated with the Highways Agency. Although local authorities as part of their review and assessment had consulted 75% of the Highways Agency respondents, only one of the Highways Agency officers considered themselves an integral part of the review and assessment process. Of the Highways Agency respondents, 50% had supplied information to local authorities, 25% had attended meetings relating to review and assessment and 25% thought that they would be involved in the future. Similarly, there is a large gap between the current involvement of health authorities and their perceived likely involvement in action planning. Within local government, Table 2 also shows gaps in involvement of key departments in the air quality management process. For example, there is a disparity between the present involvement and intended involvement of land use planners, strategic transport planners and Local Agenda 21 officers. At present, half of the environmental health respondents are liaising with land use and transport planners with nearly all anticipating them being involved in their authority action plan. Indeed in some cases, transport planners are leading on the implementation of the air quality action plan where transport is the dominant cause of emissions leading to exceedances. Currently, working relationships between neighbouring authorities seem to be adequate. Seventy-five percent of authorities declaring AQMAs envisage having to work with neighbouring authorities as part of the AQAP, with
68% currently working with neighbouring authorities. The efficiency of area-based groups (mainly counties, or groups of metropolitan boroughs) in the UK in dealing with air quality issues at a wider than local authority scale has also been demonstrated by other surveys over the last 3 years and case studies carried out by the authors. In England alone there are over 30 area-based groups operating specifically to address air quality issues. Sharing experiences between local authorities provides for a more consistent approach to air quality management, and in the event of cross-boundary air quality management areas being declared and subsequent plans being drawn up, the groupings will provide an important mechanism for assisting with the process (Beattie et al., 2001).
5. Integration of policy processes The successful and effective implementation of action plans will require the integration of various policy packages. Without this, divergent policy goals will lead to conflict not convergence. Of particular note are Local Transport Plans (LTPs), the mechanism by which local authorities receive funding for integrated transport strategies, the Local Plan process, which underpins land use planning at the local scale, Local Agenda 21 strategies and economic development plans. At a wider spatial scale, Local Environment Agency Plans (LEAPs), Health Implementation Plans (HIPs), Zones of Industrial Pollution Sources (ZIPS) and Regional Development Plans (RDPs) all require careful consideration and assessment if the plans and policies are to be integrated and support each other in implementation. Questionnaire surveys to various professionals within local government and regional agencies responsible for the other plans and strategies indicate that policy integration to the level that is required is not, at present, occurring in urban areas of England. The level of policy integration is illustrated by questions asked to various professions relating to their involvement with related policy areas (Table 3).
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Table 3 Respondent local authorities and external professions involved in air quality related policy Percentage of profession involved in various plans, strategies and policies
Local Transport Plans Local Plan process Economic development plans Local Agenda 21 strategy Air quality R&A LEAPS HIPs ZIPS RDPs
Environmental health
Transport planning
Land use planning
Economic development
Local Agenda 21
91 74 19 79 – 33 33 5 21
– 95 51 85 85 7 32 0 49
94 – 77 94 65 44 26 4 74
77 85 – 69 45 4 31 0 69
76 74 53 – 71 35 44 3 44
As has been illustrated by other data from sequential questionnaire surveys, transport planners have a much greater input to the review and assessment process than any other profession. Transport planners are beginning to play an increasingly important role in the air quality review and assessment process, and conversely, assistance from the air quality profession is required for aspects of the LTP process (Beattie et al., 2000b). Air quality is likely to become a major driver of the local transport planning process, particularly in urban areas following an AQMA designation. However, other planning functions do not appear as well integrated. From the limited data shown above, other planning processes, in particular the Local Plan process do appear to achieve integration with a wide number of local authority functions. Regional planning processes appear to have increasing integration with district-level local government functions such as transport planning and environmental health. Of the County land-use planning officers surveyed, 100% had had input into Local Transport Plans with 57% of respondents having had input into the review and assessment process. Of the County transport planners, 83% had had input into the Local Plan process, with 62% having had input into the review and assessment process.
6. Discussion The AQM process has identified the importance of effective communication, collaboration and consultation to underpin the decision making process (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000a). An action plan is inevitably determined by local circumstances (DETR and National Assembly for Wales, 2000b). However, the AQAP may need to focus on measures external to the designated AQMA. For example, where an AQMA is predominantly traffic related, any measures implemented within the AQMA are likely to have wider transport impacts for example, on commuter journeys, which highlights the need for local authorities to work regionally. Evidence is presented which shows that this regional collaboration is at a more advanced stage than integration with other policy areas within local authorities.
In developing an AQAP, one important consideration for local authorities is that of the cost effectiveness of solutions to delivering the objectives specified in their AQAP. This requires a clear understanding of the relative contributions to the air quality objective exceedances within the AQMA, so as to proportionate the responsibility for developing solutions between industrial, transport and other sectors in a fair and effective manner (Beattie et al., 2000c). Apportionment is of paramount importance before dialogue between the various stakeholders is undertaken, and the cost effectiveness of potential solutions must take into account local circumstances. A great deal of work investigating the effectiveness of various measures is required. Measures currently being considered include road pricing initiatives, Low Emission Zones (Carslaw and Beevers, 2002), and other transport management techniques such as High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes and vehicle prioritisation initiatives. Most measures within the AQAP will require close collaboration with a variety of planning functions within the authority, which on the evidence presented here may be considered to be rudimentary in many urban authorities. Bristol City Council (BCC) considered AQAP measures as their Local Transport Plan (LTP) (Bristol City Council, 2000) was evolving. BCC instigated a collaborative group linking transport, land-use and pollution control functions. This group addresses issues relating to air quality and noise from the perspectives of all involved. Early integration with LTP processes will prove invaluable for implementing AQAP measures. For example, the implications of measures such as road user charging and Low Emissions Zones (from air quality, transport and political points of view) have been investigated over a much longer time-scale than that available for review and assessment purposes. This group is in addition to an area-based group in the former county of Avon and a wider sub-regional group (covering Bristol, Gloucestershire and Somerset) addressing strategic issues in relation to pollution on a wider spatial scale. The study outlined in this paper has focused exclusively on data from urban authorities. However, as the review and assessment process has unfolded, it is now clear that many rural authorities in the UK will need to declare AQMAs and
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implement AQAPs. This is particularly apparent in areas of congested market towns where slow moving traffic, combined with public exposure on main streets has necessitated the declarations of AQMAs. Previous research has shown that collaborative processes are less well developed in rural areas (Ing et al., 2001), with problems of departmental insularity more prevalent in rural authorities. In addition, they are likely to have smaller budgets and less staff, resulting in less specialisation of staff and hence technical expertise may not be present (Ing et al., 2001). This lack of joint working within rural authorities is of further concern for the AQAP process in the UK. In all types of authorities, new working practices are being undertaken with the onset of AQM. The questionnaires have highlighted the need for training and other tools to be provided. For example, although 94% of environmental health professionals had undertaken some sort of training in relation to the air quality management process, only 13% of land use planners, 24% of transport planners, 15% of Local Agenda 21, 4% of economic development officers and no Highways Agency officials had received any training. Effective training is especially required for professions other than those relating directly to the environment, particularly as they become more involved in the process as authorities move on to implement transport and land use measures to improve air quality. Questionnaires did not collect any information relating to the effectiveness of the training undertaken. A lack of staff resources and expertise has meant that many authorities (68% of the urban authority sample) have used consultants for at least some elements of their review and assessment work (although in some cases this was only for the modelling work). This may in itself be detrimental for collaborative processes because in the majority of cases, consultants will only be undertaking the scientific aspects of the assessment work, but local authorities will feel that their air quality responsibilities are being undertaken, without the important aspects of fostering relationships between local government departments and regionally. Also, without the detailed knowledge of their own review and assessment, it will be more difficult for environmental professionals to engage with other departments with respect to the outcomes of the review and assessment process, and ultimately in delivering solutions to improve air quality. Political commitment is pivotal to the AQM process and corporate adoption and ownership of the AQAP will be required for effective measures to be implemented across the local authority and other agencies. When asked what respondents perceived to be the most important obstacles to the improvement of air quality in their local authority area, lack of funding emerged as the greatest perceived obstacle followed by lack of political commitment (nationally, commitment was judged to be slightly more important than locally). This is an issue that clearly needs to be addressed, with a greater awareness required from local politicians. Funding of the measures proposed in the AQAP will also be critical to the successful attainment of the air quality
objectives. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, formerly DETR) is providing no extra funding for measures per se, although Supplementary Credit Approval (SCA) funding is being provided for capital expenditure for Stage 4 assessments (modelling and monitoring requirements in particular). As the majority of measures required are likely to be transport related, funding will be acquired mainly through Local Transport Plans. These work on a 5-year cycle with the initial LTP submitted to the DETR (as was) in July 2000 for funding up to 2005/2006. The timing of this funding bid was non-synchronous with the air quality review and assessment process as in the majority of cases the scientific assessment of the locations of air quality hot spots was not complete. Annual LTP progress reports are submitted in July each year, and survey evidence suggests that these will be widely used to try and obtain additional funding for schemes to improve air quality in hot spot locations. Particularly for action planning (as distinct from the review and assessment phase of the air quality management process), an effective air quality information dissemination strategy will be essential for the implementation of effective measures, many of which will involve a change in behaviour of the general public in relation to transport choice. Questionnaire data from 1997 to 2001 have shown a move towards more public information, with most popular methods of disseminating information being an air quality report, public information leaflets and a council Internet site. Greater availability and use of information dissemination strategies does not necessarily mean that the communication strategy is an effective one. Bickerstaff and Walker (2001) have shown little evidence of air quality information measures having a significant impact. Their work suggests that a more local focus on air quality information may be of value. Interview discussions showed that locally specific air quality information and collective actions that could be seen as having a demonstrable impact on local air quality were identified as potentially prompting behavioural changes (Bickerstaff and Walker, 2001). Data presented in this paper has highlighted that policy change in the area of air quality management moves more rapidly than the institutional change required to implement it. Central government priorities such as the modernising local government and planning system agendas (Hambleton, 2000) should go some way to re-addressing this balance, although not in the initial time frame required for action planning to be implemented most effectively. Reforming the political management of local government has been central to the UK Labour Government’s approach to local democracy since the general election of May 1997 (Hambleton, 2000). The review and assessment process up until now has been undertaken largely by environmental health professionals, for which the learning curve has been steep. At the action planning stage it is critical that other professionals are integrated into a common decision-making framework. Data from both questionnaire surveys and case studies have shown that in many authorities this is not the case. The response
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rates from different functions within local government are a good illustration of levels of involvement in the process.
7. Conclusions Whilst it may appear that local authorities in urban areas of England are making progress towards a more integrated approach to air quality management there remain significant gaps in joint working, which are likely to be detrimental to AQAP implementation. These are particularly related to within authority joint working and collaboration with some of the non-local government agencies required in the AQM process. Other obstacles to the successful implementation of AQAPs are likely to be a lack of local political will to implement mitigating measures and a lack of funding for AQAP measures. To overcome these problems it is suggested that air quality managers encourage corporate backing of any air quality measures and policies through an area-based air quality strategy. The annual LTP reviews should also be investigated as a means to obtain funding for air quality monitoring and for measures that will form the basis of an AQAP in areas where traffic emissions are the dominant source of the problem. The new air quality management regime has brought with it a new way of local authority working. No previous environmental protection process has necessitated the extent of inter-departmental and inter-authority working. This will no doubt have indirect benefits and have improved environmental protection as a whole. AQAPs are by their nature evolutionary. As the effectiveness of particular measures is evaluated, the combination of measures proposed may need to change to reflect not only increased scientific and economic knowledge, but also public and political acceptability.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the helpful comments of two anonymous referees.
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UK: implications for securing UK air quality objectives. Water, Air Soil Pollut. Clare Beattie is a research associate within the Air Quality Management Resource Centre at the University of the West of England (UWE), Bristol. Clare’s present role includes responsibility for much of the day to day operation of the Review & Assessment support provided to the DEFRA and the Devolved Administrations, including the review and assessment help-desk and web sites. She has experience of carrying out a Review and Assessment at Stages 1–4, and has played a role in the development of official guidance for local authorities. Clare is also in the final stages of a part time PhD. James Longhurst is professor of environmental science and directs the Air Quality Research Group at the University of the West of England, Bristol. The group specialises in research into the process and practice
of local air quality management. Professor Longhurst advises the government and devolved administrations in the UK on the development and implementation of the local air quality management process. He has an extensive academic publications record covering the field of air quality management and edits the book series Advances in Air Pollution (WIT Press). Nicky Woodfield is the co-ordinator of the Air Quality Management Resource Centre at the University of the West of England. Much of the work of the Resource Centre is directed to assisting local authorities. She also has direct local authority experience as well as working in industry, with responsibility for managing IPC processes. She has considerable experience of presenting air quality management matters to local authority officers and has been responsible for much of the day to day operation of the Review & Assessment support provided to the DEFRA and the Devolved Administrations. Nicky is also working towards a part time PhD.
Air Quality Action Plans: early indicators of urban local authority practice in England C.I. Beattie, J.W.S. Longhurst∗ , N.K. Woodfield Air Quality Research Group, Faculty of Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY, UK
Abstract The delivery of improved local ambient air quality in the UK has emerged through the implementation of the Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland [DETR, Welsh Office, Scottish Office, Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland, The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, CM 4548, London, The Stationery Office, 2000] by the air quality management (AQM) regime. Local authorities now have the responsibility to undertake a review and assessment of air quality in their area and to identify locations where health-based objectives are likely to be exceeded. If relevant public exposure exists, an air quality management area must be designated. Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) provide the mechanism by which local authorities, in collaboration with national agencies and others, will state their intentions for working towards the air quality objectives through the powers they have available and by collaboration with other bodies who are in the position of implementing solutions to their air quality hot spots. This management regime will require a new way of local authority working, involving not only local authority joint working but also regional collaboration and co-operation with outside agencies and authorities such as health authorities, regulators of industry and highways managers. Management aspects of the AQM process have been investigated through the data collection from a series of questionnaire surveys. It is argued that the extent to which a local authority is able to show integration of its air quality management responsibilities is an indicator of their capability for delivering AQAPs. Although local authorities appear to be making moves towards a more integrated approach to managing environmental issues, there are still significant gaps in joint working identified through questionnaire surveys and case studies undertaken by the authors. Some recommendations for the successful implementation of AQAPs are also included. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Local air quality management; Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs); Air quality objectives; Local authorities
1. Introduction The Air Quality Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (DETR et al., 2000) and its air quality management (AQM) regime is the mechanism for delivering improved local air quality throughout the UK. For the first time in the UK local air quality is being tackled from an effects-based perspective with the emphasis on public exposure to poor air quality. The air quality management regime is also the first time that local authorities have been under a statutory duty for assessing air quality within their areas and improving the situation where air quality does not reach certain objectives. Local government under the Environment Act 1995 (HM Government, 1995) is required to periodically review air quality using a phased approach, to determine likely ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-117-344-3692; fax: +44-117-344-2904. E-mail address: [email protected] (J.W.S. Longhurst).
future air quality. The review and assessment process is designed to assess future air quality against health-based air quality objectives for seven pollutants (HM Government, 2000), which local authorities are required to work towards. The government has recommended a three-stage process, whereby each stage increases in detail and complexity. The complexity and detail of the review should be consistent with the risk of failing to achieve the air quality objectives (Beattie et al., 2001). The declaration of air quality management areas (AQMAs), where objectives are not predicted to be met, is currently underway in the UK. In these areas, and locations where sources of the pollutants of concern are generated, Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) must be developed and implemented to outline the measures to be executed to improve air quality to acceptable levels. European strategy and policy largely underpin UK strategy for delivering environmental protection, including air quality improvements. Apart from having a statutory duty to comply with EU legislation, the legislative framework offers opportunities for achieving national objectives (Beattie
1462-9011/02/$ – see front matter © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 1 4 6 2 - 9 0 1 1 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 9 4 - 1
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et al., 2001). European standards for vehicle emissions and fuels, for example, are significant in assisting the UK to achieve the objectives for traffic-derived pollutants in the UK Air Quality Strategy. The Ambient Air Quality Assessment and Management Directive 96/62/EC is important in influencing the implementation of air quality management in the UK. The Directive established a framework within which the EU agrees limit values for specified pollutants in the form of Daughter directives. UK Government must identify locations where limit values plus a margin of tolerance (which gradually decreases) are being exceeded and subsequently submit an action plan to the European Commission. Local authority action plans discussed in this paper will provide a starting point for this process. Although UK actions predate the EU Air Quality Framework Directive, the approach in the UK has been mediated by the Framework Directive and associated Daughter Directives. Due to the inter-disciplinary nature of the AQM process, in particular in implementing measures to improve air quality, solutions are likely to be derived from a range of professions, agencies and other organisations. Consequently, many local authorities have established an Air Quality Forum or similar working group so as to involve all those professions that have a part to play in AQM (Elsom, 1999). This paper will examine the effectiveness of the inter-disciplinary relationships within local government and between neighbouring authorities. It will also consider the relationship between different tiers of government, outside agencies and other stakeholders in the implementation of AQAPs. This work is part of a 5-year project investigating the implementation of AQM in urban areas of England (Beattie et al., 2001). Evidence will be provided from questionnaire surveys undertaken within urban areas of England over the last 4 years, and this is supplemented by evidence from detailed case studies providing examples of good practice in the field. This paper will comment on some of the approaches to AQAPs in the UK as local authorities embark on the development of their plans, and will provide recommendations for improved future practice.
2. Methodology In each of the last 4 years, questionnaires were sent to 141 urban authorities, to survey the knowledge and practice of AQM in environmental health, transport planning, land use planning, economic development and Local Agenda 21 functions of the authorities. In order to understand the role and action of a wider set of stakeholders, questionnaires have also been sent to county tier transport and land use planning departments (where applicable), health authorities, the Environment Agency and Highways Agency. The local authorities were classified as urban using the National Council for Voluntary Organisations classification (Brown, 1997) of local authorities, which reflects not only settlement size, but also the social and economic characteristics of
Table 1 Response rates of the questionnaire survey undertaken in 2001 Profession
Number sent
Percentage response
Environmental health Planning officer Transport planner Economic development Local Agenda 21 officers County transport County planner Health authority Environment Agency area office Environment Agency regional office Highways Agency (area offices)
141 141 141 141 141 26 26 90 24 7 19
61 38 29 20 25 50 27 32 46 71 32
the population. In addition counties which included urban authorities were also surveyed (Table 1). Urban authorities were chosen because at the outset of the study it was hypothesised that they would be confronted with the greatest air quality management challenges. Urban authorities included all the London Boroughs, metropolitan areas and other large urban conurbations as well as other areas with urban characteristics. The questionnaires have been sent annually, and have been designed to assess current practice with regard to both the technical aspects of the AQM process (such as monitoring and modelling capabilities) and the management aspects (by investigating how each collaborates with other departments within their authority, neighbouring authorities and other outside bodies). Integration with other policy areas and management of air quality strategies were also investigated. As local authorities move on to implementing solutions to the problems identified by the scientific assessment, the management aspects of the process are hypothesised to become more critical to the achievement of air quality improvements. This paper focuses on a critical examination of local authority experience in co-ordinating and managing the internal and external collaborative aspects of their air quality management responsibilities in respect of AQAPs. Environmental health professionals, who have traditionally been responsible for pollution control and who are in most cases co-ordinating the review and assessment process, were sent a more in-depth version of the questionnaire (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000b). A detailed review of the project and methodology is available at http://www.uwe.ac.uk/aqm/research/urban. Response rates are in the range of 20–70% for the different local authority sectors. In recognition that questionnaires alone cannot provide a full analysis of the variation in approaches and practices, case studies were undertaken in nine local authorities during the period of 2000 to mid 2001. Qualitative data are used as a complementary methodology to the mainly quantitative questionnaire surveys. The authorities, which were chosen from questionnaire surveys, had shown a more advanced approach to the air quality management process. Advanced
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as defined by the authors is where local authorities have shown an integration of air quality issues into other planning processes as well as competence in the technical aspects of monitoring and modelling. Semi-structured interviewing techniques were used to ascertain the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches to AQM of the case study authorities. This paper will mainly draw on the responses from the questionnaires dispatched in 2001 and also case studies undertaken during 2000 and early 2001.
3. Air Quality Action Plans The majority of AQMAs resulting from the first phase of review and assessment have and are likely to be designated throughout 2001 and 2002, although Westminster City Council (central London) officially declared an AQMA in 1999. The majority of AQMAs (designated and anticipated) will involve traffic sources, or a combination of traffic and industrial sources (Woodfield et al., 2001). AQMAs declared or proposed at the end of 2001 are required for exceedances of nitrogen dioxide, PM10 and sulphur dioxide objectives (or combinations of objectives) (Woodfield et al., in press). Air Quality Action Plans (AQAPs) provide the mechanism by which local authorities, in collaboration with national agencies and others, will state their intentions for working towards meeting the air quality objectives through the powers they have available (NSCA, 2000a). The AQAP must consider transport planning, land use planning and other measures necessary to improve air quality and work towards the relevant air quality objectives by the target date in the AQMA. Central government suggests that the preparation of the AQAP should be within a period of 12–18 months from the declaration of an AQMA (DETR and National Assembly for Wales, 2000a). At the end of 2001, local authorities in the UK are in the process of proposing and declaring AQMAs, and the Action Planning process is being implemented throughout 2001–2003 (except Westminster who declared a year in advance of the rest of the country and have already adopted their AQAP). At the end of July 2002, 103 further AQMAs have been designated with a further 26 anticipated.1 Many of these are urban authorities, although a greater number of rural authorities have identified the need for AQMAs and resultant AQAPs. From a questionnaire survey undertaken in mid 2001, of the respondents 1% had already produced an AQAP, with 49% anticipating an AQAP following AQMA designation, 33% did not require an AQAP and 16% were still unsure about their position. In addition to their statutory duties of preparing an AQAP in order to help achieve air quality objectives, 1 Data from the UK air quality review and assessment archive by kind permission of Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the Greater London Authority, the Scottish Executive, National Assembly for Wales and the Department of Environment, Northern Ireland.
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many local authorities are also intending to implement non-statutory air quality strategies. Thirty-seven percent of respondents intended producing such a local air quality strategy, with 12% intending to work regionally on their strategy. A further 12% were anticipating producing both regional and local air quality strategies with 22% unsure about their position. The reasons given included ensuring that air quality objectives are achieved (in borderline cases), as a corporate backing to an AQAP and as a framework for future review and assessments. This represents a significant effort on the part of local authorities in implementing solutions in order to achieve the air quality objectives. In parallel to writing and implementing AQAPs, authorities declaring AQMAs are also required to undertake a further review and assessment stage (Stage 4) to confirm or refute their findings at Stage 3 (DETR, 2001). It has been advised by central government that Stage 4 assessment should be used to calculate how much improvement in air quality would be needed to achieve the air quality objectives, refine knowledge relating to the sources of pollution, take account of local and national policy developments, carry out further monitoring and respond to any comments from consultees (DETR, 2001). It is anticipated that the AQAP and Stage 4 assessment will be undertaken in conjunction as scientific assessment at Stage 4 is likely to inform the measures proposed in the action plan, particularly in providing the technical justification for the measures an authority includes in its action plan.
4. Evidence of collaborative working An effective AQAP relies heavily on the integration of a variety of local government functions, as well as integration with regional plans and external agencies (NSCA, 2000a,b). Fryxell and Vryza (1999) provide evidence of the difficulty of introducing an overarching issue across major enterprises with analogous structures to local authorities. Painter and Clarence (2001) have examined UK Education and Health Action Zones in relation to partnership working. It was concluded that an established track record of partnership working proved crucial in enabling not only a rapid but also an effective response. Their studies underline the obstacles to partnership working (Painter and Clarence, 2001) such as ‘partnership fatigue’ and the fragmentation of local government. Evidence from questionnaire surveys undertaken by the authors over the last 4 years has indicated that collaborative working of this sort is increasing (Beattie et al., 1999, 2000a). However, in many authorities, inter-departmental and inter-professional working is still immature. A lack of integration between professions at the local level has also been identified by Cannibal and Lemon (2000). Environmental health professionals, who are co-ordinating the air quality review and assessment process, are working more effectively on a regional scale than with other functions within their own authority (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000b).
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Table 2 Departments or agencies working in collaboration with environmental professionals for the purpose of air quality review and assessment and those anticipated to be working as part of an AQAP
Land use planners Economic development officers Transport planners Local Agenda 21 officer Health authority Environment Agency Neighbouring authorities Community group Highways Agency
Percentage of respondent departments or agencies collaborating with environmental health professionals for air quality review and assessment
Percentage of respondent departments or agencies to be involved in the writing and implementing of an AQAP
51 10 54 33 25 51 68 15 20
98 54 98 78 60 71 75 48 56
This has implications for the implementation of AQAPs as the intra-authority relationships required for effective policy integration may not be sufficiently well developed. Table 2 shows that although collaboration is currently underway, a large disparity exists between current collaboration and those functions and agencies envisaged being involved in the writing and implementing of the AQAP. Particularly of note is the lack of involvement of outside agencies such as the Highways Agency, the operator of England’s network of trunk roads, including motorways. Fifty-six percent of authorities are envisaging that Highways Agency input will be required in the AQAP process, but at present only 20% of authorities have collaborated with the Highways Agency. Although local authorities as part of their review and assessment had consulted 75% of the Highways Agency respondents, only one of the Highways Agency officers considered themselves an integral part of the review and assessment process. Of the Highways Agency respondents, 50% had supplied information to local authorities, 25% had attended meetings relating to review and assessment and 25% thought that they would be involved in the future. Similarly, there is a large gap between the current involvement of health authorities and their perceived likely involvement in action planning. Within local government, Table 2 also shows gaps in involvement of key departments in the air quality management process. For example, there is a disparity between the present involvement and intended involvement of land use planners, strategic transport planners and Local Agenda 21 officers. At present, half of the environmental health respondents are liaising with land use and transport planners with nearly all anticipating them being involved in their authority action plan. Indeed in some cases, transport planners are leading on the implementation of the air quality action plan where transport is the dominant cause of emissions leading to exceedances. Currently, working relationships between neighbouring authorities seem to be adequate. Seventy-five percent of authorities declaring AQMAs envisage having to work with neighbouring authorities as part of the AQAP, with
68% currently working with neighbouring authorities. The efficiency of area-based groups (mainly counties, or groups of metropolitan boroughs) in the UK in dealing with air quality issues at a wider than local authority scale has also been demonstrated by other surveys over the last 3 years and case studies carried out by the authors. In England alone there are over 30 area-based groups operating specifically to address air quality issues. Sharing experiences between local authorities provides for a more consistent approach to air quality management, and in the event of cross-boundary air quality management areas being declared and subsequent plans being drawn up, the groupings will provide an important mechanism for assisting with the process (Beattie et al., 2001).
5. Integration of policy processes The successful and effective implementation of action plans will require the integration of various policy packages. Without this, divergent policy goals will lead to conflict not convergence. Of particular note are Local Transport Plans (LTPs), the mechanism by which local authorities receive funding for integrated transport strategies, the Local Plan process, which underpins land use planning at the local scale, Local Agenda 21 strategies and economic development plans. At a wider spatial scale, Local Environment Agency Plans (LEAPs), Health Implementation Plans (HIPs), Zones of Industrial Pollution Sources (ZIPS) and Regional Development Plans (RDPs) all require careful consideration and assessment if the plans and policies are to be integrated and support each other in implementation. Questionnaire surveys to various professionals within local government and regional agencies responsible for the other plans and strategies indicate that policy integration to the level that is required is not, at present, occurring in urban areas of England. The level of policy integration is illustrated by questions asked to various professions relating to their involvement with related policy areas (Table 3).
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Table 3 Respondent local authorities and external professions involved in air quality related policy Percentage of profession involved in various plans, strategies and policies
Local Transport Plans Local Plan process Economic development plans Local Agenda 21 strategy Air quality R&A LEAPS HIPs ZIPS RDPs
Environmental health
Transport planning
Land use planning
Economic development
Local Agenda 21
91 74 19 79 – 33 33 5 21
– 95 51 85 85 7 32 0 49
94 – 77 94 65 44 26 4 74
77 85 – 69 45 4 31 0 69
76 74 53 – 71 35 44 3 44
As has been illustrated by other data from sequential questionnaire surveys, transport planners have a much greater input to the review and assessment process than any other profession. Transport planners are beginning to play an increasingly important role in the air quality review and assessment process, and conversely, assistance from the air quality profession is required for aspects of the LTP process (Beattie et al., 2000b). Air quality is likely to become a major driver of the local transport planning process, particularly in urban areas following an AQMA designation. However, other planning functions do not appear as well integrated. From the limited data shown above, other planning processes, in particular the Local Plan process do appear to achieve integration with a wide number of local authority functions. Regional planning processes appear to have increasing integration with district-level local government functions such as transport planning and environmental health. Of the County land-use planning officers surveyed, 100% had had input into Local Transport Plans with 57% of respondents having had input into the review and assessment process. Of the County transport planners, 83% had had input into the Local Plan process, with 62% having had input into the review and assessment process.
6. Discussion The AQM process has identified the importance of effective communication, collaboration and consultation to underpin the decision making process (Beattie and Longhurst, 2000a). An action plan is inevitably determined by local circumstances (DETR and National Assembly for Wales, 2000b). However, the AQAP may need to focus on measures external to the designated AQMA. For example, where an AQMA is predominantly traffic related, any measures implemented within the AQMA are likely to have wider transport impacts for example, on commuter journeys, which highlights the need for local authorities to work regionally. Evidence is presented which shows that this regional collaboration is at a more advanced stage than integration with other policy areas within local authorities.
In developing an AQAP, one important consideration for local authorities is that of the cost effectiveness of solutions to delivering the objectives specified in their AQAP. This requires a clear understanding of the relative contributions to the air quality objective exceedances within the AQMA, so as to proportionate the responsibility for developing solutions between industrial, transport and other sectors in a fair and effective manner (Beattie et al., 2000c). Apportionment is of paramount importance before dialogue between the various stakeholders is undertaken, and the cost effectiveness of potential solutions must take into account local circumstances. A great deal of work investigating the effectiveness of various measures is required. Measures currently being considered include road pricing initiatives, Low Emission Zones (Carslaw and Beevers, 2002), and other transport management techniques such as High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes and vehicle prioritisation initiatives. Most measures within the AQAP will require close collaboration with a variety of planning functions within the authority, which on the evidence presented here may be considered to be rudimentary in many urban authorities. Bristol City Council (BCC) considered AQAP measures as their Local Transport Plan (LTP) (Bristol City Council, 2000) was evolving. BCC instigated a collaborative group linking transport, land-use and pollution control functions. This group addresses issues relating to air quality and noise from the perspectives of all involved. Early integration with LTP processes will prove invaluable for implementing AQAP measures. For example, the implications of measures such as road user charging and Low Emissions Zones (from air quality, transport and political points of view) have been investigated over a much longer time-scale than that available for review and assessment purposes. This group is in addition to an area-based group in the former county of Avon and a wider sub-regional group (covering Bristol, Gloucestershire and Somerset) addressing strategic issues in relation to pollution on a wider spatial scale. The study outlined in this paper has focused exclusively on data from urban authorities. However, as the review and assessment process has unfolded, it is now clear that many rural authorities in the UK will need to declare AQMAs and
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implement AQAPs. This is particularly apparent in areas of congested market towns where slow moving traffic, combined with public exposure on main streets has necessitated the declarations of AQMAs. Previous research has shown that collaborative processes are less well developed in rural areas (Ing et al., 2001), with problems of departmental insularity more prevalent in rural authorities. In addition, they are likely to have smaller budgets and less staff, resulting in less specialisation of staff and hence technical expertise may not be present (Ing et al., 2001). This lack of joint working within rural authorities is of further concern for the AQAP process in the UK. In all types of authorities, new working practices are being undertaken with the onset of AQM. The questionnaires have highlighted the need for training and other tools to be provided. For example, although 94% of environmental health professionals had undertaken some sort of training in relation to the air quality management process, only 13% of land use planners, 24% of transport planners, 15% of Local Agenda 21, 4% of economic development officers and no Highways Agency officials had received any training. Effective training is especially required for professions other than those relating directly to the environment, particularly as they become more involved in the process as authorities move on to implement transport and land use measures to improve air quality. Questionnaires did not collect any information relating to the effectiveness of the training undertaken. A lack of staff resources and expertise has meant that many authorities (68% of the urban authority sample) have used consultants for at least some elements of their review and assessment work (although in some cases this was only for the modelling work). This may in itself be detrimental for collaborative processes because in the majority of cases, consultants will only be undertaking the scientific aspects of the assessment work, but local authorities will feel that their air quality responsibilities are being undertaken, without the important aspects of fostering relationships between local government departments and regionally. Also, without the detailed knowledge of their own review and assessment, it will be more difficult for environmental professionals to engage with other departments with respect to the outcomes of the review and assessment process, and ultimately in delivering solutions to improve air quality. Political commitment is pivotal to the AQM process and corporate adoption and ownership of the AQAP will be required for effective measures to be implemented across the local authority and other agencies. When asked what respondents perceived to be the most important obstacles to the improvement of air quality in their local authority area, lack of funding emerged as the greatest perceived obstacle followed by lack of political commitment (nationally, commitment was judged to be slightly more important than locally). This is an issue that clearly needs to be addressed, with a greater awareness required from local politicians. Funding of the measures proposed in the AQAP will also be critical to the successful attainment of the air quality
objectives. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA, formerly DETR) is providing no extra funding for measures per se, although Supplementary Credit Approval (SCA) funding is being provided for capital expenditure for Stage 4 assessments (modelling and monitoring requirements in particular). As the majority of measures required are likely to be transport related, funding will be acquired mainly through Local Transport Plans. These work on a 5-year cycle with the initial LTP submitted to the DETR (as was) in July 2000 for funding up to 2005/2006. The timing of this funding bid was non-synchronous with the air quality review and assessment process as in the majority of cases the scientific assessment of the locations of air quality hot spots was not complete. Annual LTP progress reports are submitted in July each year, and survey evidence suggests that these will be widely used to try and obtain additional funding for schemes to improve air quality in hot spot locations. Particularly for action planning (as distinct from the review and assessment phase of the air quality management process), an effective air quality information dissemination strategy will be essential for the implementation of effective measures, many of which will involve a change in behaviour of the general public in relation to transport choice. Questionnaire data from 1997 to 2001 have shown a move towards more public information, with most popular methods of disseminating information being an air quality report, public information leaflets and a council Internet site. Greater availability and use of information dissemination strategies does not necessarily mean that the communication strategy is an effective one. Bickerstaff and Walker (2001) have shown little evidence of air quality information measures having a significant impact. Their work suggests that a more local focus on air quality information may be of value. Interview discussions showed that locally specific air quality information and collective actions that could be seen as having a demonstrable impact on local air quality were identified as potentially prompting behavioural changes (Bickerstaff and Walker, 2001). Data presented in this paper has highlighted that policy change in the area of air quality management moves more rapidly than the institutional change required to implement it. Central government priorities such as the modernising local government and planning system agendas (Hambleton, 2000) should go some way to re-addressing this balance, although not in the initial time frame required for action planning to be implemented most effectively. Reforming the political management of local government has been central to the UK Labour Government’s approach to local democracy since the general election of May 1997 (Hambleton, 2000). The review and assessment process up until now has been undertaken largely by environmental health professionals, for which the learning curve has been steep. At the action planning stage it is critical that other professionals are integrated into a common decision-making framework. Data from both questionnaire surveys and case studies have shown that in many authorities this is not the case. The response
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rates from different functions within local government are a good illustration of levels of involvement in the process.
7. Conclusions Whilst it may appear that local authorities in urban areas of England are making progress towards a more integrated approach to air quality management there remain significant gaps in joint working, which are likely to be detrimental to AQAP implementation. These are particularly related to within authority joint working and collaboration with some of the non-local government agencies required in the AQM process. Other obstacles to the successful implementation of AQAPs are likely to be a lack of local political will to implement mitigating measures and a lack of funding for AQAP measures. To overcome these problems it is suggested that air quality managers encourage corporate backing of any air quality measures and policies through an area-based air quality strategy. The annual LTP reviews should also be investigated as a means to obtain funding for air quality monitoring and for measures that will form the basis of an AQAP in areas where traffic emissions are the dominant source of the problem. The new air quality management regime has brought with it a new way of local authority working. No previous environmental protection process has necessitated the extent of inter-departmental and inter-authority working. This will no doubt have indirect benefits and have improved environmental protection as a whole. AQAPs are by their nature evolutionary. As the effectiveness of particular measures is evaluated, the combination of measures proposed may need to change to reflect not only increased scientific and economic knowledge, but also public and political acceptability.
Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the helpful comments of two anonymous referees.
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UK: implications for securing UK air quality objectives. Water, Air Soil Pollut. Clare Beattie is a research associate within the Air Quality Management Resource Centre at the University of the West of England (UWE), Bristol. Clare’s present role includes responsibility for much of the day to day operation of the Review & Assessment support provided to the DEFRA and the Devolved Administrations, including the review and assessment help-desk and web sites. She has experience of carrying out a Review and Assessment at Stages 1–4, and has played a role in the development of official guidance for local authorities. Clare is also in the final stages of a part time PhD. James Longhurst is professor of environmental science and directs the Air Quality Research Group at the University of the West of England, Bristol. The group specialises in research into the process and practice
of local air quality management. Professor Longhurst advises the government and devolved administrations in the UK on the development and implementation of the local air quality management process. He has an extensive academic publications record covering the field of air quality management and edits the book series Advances in Air Pollution (WIT Press). Nicky Woodfield is the co-ordinator of the Air Quality Management Resource Centre at the University of the West of England. Much of the work of the Resource Centre is directed to assisting local authorities. She also has direct local authority experience as well as working in industry, with responsibility for managing IPC processes. She has considerable experience of presenting air quality management matters to local authority officers and has been responsible for much of the day to day operation of the Review & Assessment support provided to the DEFRA and the Devolved Administrations. Nicky is also working towards a part time PhD.