Alzheimer’s Disease and Mechanism-Based Attempts to Enhance Cognition

Chapter 9

Alzheimer’s Disease and Mechanism-Based Attempts to Enhance Cognition Jonathan E. Draffin,1 Shira Knafo2,3 and Michael T. Heneka4,5 1Centro

de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/ Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain; 2Unidad de Biofísica, CSIC, UPV/EHU, Universidad del País Vasco, Leioa, Spain; 3Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science; 4Department of Neurology, Clinical Neuroscience Unit, Universitätsklinikum Bonn, Bonn, Germany; 5German Center for Neurodegenerative Disease (DZNE), Bonn, Germany

INTRODUCTION Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common dementing illness of our society and currently affects approximately 150 million patients worldwide. Clinically, AD is characterized by progressive short-term memory failure and dysfunction of higher cognitive domains, including but not restricted to speech processing, orientation, executive functions and attention. Recent evidence suggests that there is a disconnect between the clinical appearance of first symptoms and the actual beginning of the underlying neurodegenerative processes in the brain, which may be initiated several decades before (Jack et al., 2013). During this clinically silent period, various life-style factors have been found to influence the overall AD risk. Thus, mid-life obesity, hypertension, reduced physical or cognitive activity, and brain trauma can increase the risk to develop AD (Barnes and Yaffe, 2011). Since current treatment options are limited to symptomatic treatment with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors and memantine, both being effective only for a limited period of time, the control of these risk factors has recently emerged as an important preventive measure. Histopathologically, AD is characterized by the deposition of extracellular misfolded beta-amyloid peptides (Aβ), neurofibrillary tangles, and a widespread neuroinflammatory component (Figure 9.1). Aβ is generated through the sequential cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by two aspartyl proteases: β-secretase 1 and γ-secretase. A balanced Aβ concentration appears to be crucial for the maintenance of the peptide’s structure, because the tissue concentration of peptides of variable length as well as several posttranslational modifications increase Cognitive Enhancement. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-417042-1.00009-7 Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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FIGURE 9.1  Bielschowsky staining revealing the classical hallmarks of Alzheimer’s disease: neurofibrillary tangle formation, dendritic damage and extracellular deposition of misfolded beta-amyloid peptides (Aβ).  Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) positive astrocytes surround the sites of Aβ deposition. CD68 positive microglia residing at the Aβ plaque show a round-to-oval morphological phenotype, which indicates an activated, inflammatory state of these cells.

the propensity of Aβ to misfold and aggregate. Soluble oligomers of Aβ may be directly toxic to neurons and accumulate prior to Aβ deposition. Phosphorylation of the tau protein is a second pathological hallmark and occurs within the neuron itself. Involved mechanisms are the activation of the phosphokinases, CDK5 and GSK3β (Yoshiyama et al., 2013), alone or in concert with reduced phosphatase activity of PPA2 (Torrent and Ferrer, 2012). Disturbed neuronal function and degeneration as well as the accumulation of misfolded proteins elicit an inflammatory activation of micro- and astroglia, which results in the generation and release of inflammatory mediators. These mediators directly affect neuronal function and survival thereby contributing to disease progression (Heneka et al., 2014). Memory impairment associated with AD and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) involves the selective loss of the ability to consolidate new memories; the capacity to recall information from the distant past is preserved. This impairment of recent, but not distant, memory together with the rapid decay of newly acquired information is reminiscent of the deficits seen in patients with bilateral hippocampal damage (Scoville and Milner, 1957; Zola-Morgan et al., 1986). The prominent pathology observed in the perforant pathway in the early stages of AD (Hyman et al., 1986) and the well-characterized role of the hippocampus in encoding the memory of recent events (Geinisman, n.d.; Martin and Morris, 2002) affirm that degeneration of the hippocampal formation is likely to underlie the progressive memory decline characteristic of AD. The inherited form of this neurodegenerative disease, which accounts for approximately 1–3% of all AD cases, is due to Aβ overproduction caused by mutations of genes encoding proteins involved in the APP processing pathway including APP, presenilin 1 and presenilin 2. In contrast, the vast majority of AD cases, which are of sporadic nature, seem to arise from a compromised clearance of Aβ peptides from the brain (Mawuenyega et al., 2010). Based on this described pathology, animal models of cerebral amyloidosis or tau accumulation have been generated by introducing human gene mutations into the murine genome. Preclinical studies have largely used these models to develop therapeutic approaches and have been primarily focused on modifying

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the respective pathological substrate. The translation of these (to some extent very successful) treatment strategies into patient therapy, however, has largely failed. One underlying reason for this failure may be the fact that the respective animal models do not reflect the entire disease pathology and patient treatment was initiated at time points that did not correspond to the respective treatment times in the mouse models. Synapse loss and hippocampal atrophy in the early stages of AD mark an important step in the progression of the disease and represent drivers of cognitive decline. Preservation of synapse integrity and function, however, has only very recently been targeted, and by nutritional rather than pharmacological means. Cognitive preservation or enhancement will require protection of synaptic function, which is key to memory processing and cognition.

SYNAPTIC DYSFUNCTION IS A CENTRAL FEATURE OF ALZHEIMER’S PATHOLOGY The notion that altered neuronal connectivity may account for pathological cognitive decline was eloquently expressed over 80 years ago by Santiago Ramón y Cajal when he suggested that “dementia could result when synapses between neurons are weakened as a result of a more or less pathological condition, that is, when processes atrophy and no longer form contacts, when cortical mnemonic or association areas suffer partial disorganization” (Cajal, 1928). A variety of the neuropathological alterations observed in AD have been considered as candidates for the physical basis of the cognitive and memory impairments characteristic of the disease: several studies have demonstrated an association between tangle counts and severity of dementia (Arriagada et al., 1992; Bierer et al., 1995; Giannakopoulos et al., 2003; Gómez-Isla et al., 1997; Ingelsson et al., 2004), whereas amyloid plaque burden appears to be a poor predictor of cognitive decline (Arriagada et al., 1992; Bierer et al., 1995; Giannakopoulos et al., 2003; Gómez-Isla et al., 1997; Hyman et al., 1993; Ingelsson et al., 2004). Of all alterations, however, loss of synapses is most closely tied to the progression of AD symptoms (e.g., ­Coleman, 2003; DeKosky and Scheff, 1990; Terry et al., 1991). Electron microscopy and immunohistochemical staining for synaptic markers have revealed dramatic decreases in synaptic density in the AD brain, most notably in the association cortices and hippocampus (Bertoni-Freddari et al., 1989; Davies et al., 1987; DeKosky and Scheff, 1990; Ingelsson et al., 2004; Masliah et al., 1994, 2001, 1990; Scheff et al., 1990; Scheff and Price, 1993; Sze et al., 1997; Terry et al., 1991). Revealingly, this reduction in synapse number and density is not proportional to neuronal death (Bertoni-Freddari et al., 1989; Davies et al., 1987; DeKosky and Scheff, 1990), which suggests that alterations of synapses occur independently of the loss of the cells of which they are part. Indeed, synaptic degeneration appears to be an early event in pathogenesis: synapse loss is evident in patients with early AD and MCI (Masliah et al., 2001; Scheff et al.,

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2006, 2007) and the extent of loss is greater than could be accounted for by neuronal death alone.

Aβ MOUNTS THE SYNAPTIC ASSAULT The discovery that AD could be inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion (Goate et al., 1991) led to the articulation of the “amyloid hypothesis” of AD (Hardy and Allsop, 1991; Hardy and Higgins, 1992; Hardy and Selkoe, 2002; Selkoe, 1991). A wealth of evidence has now accumulated that suggests that Aβ plays a central role in the pathogenesis of neuronal dysfunction in AD, the main lines of which can be summarized briefly as follows. First, Aβ is the amyloid subunit that constitutes neuritic plaques found in the AD brain (Glenner and Wong, 1984; Masters et al., 1985). Second, the APP gene is located on chromosome 21 (Goldgaber et al., 1987; Kang et al., 1987; Robakis et al., 1987; Tanzi et al., 1987), whose duplication in Down syndrome invariably leads to AD (Mann, 1988; Mann et al., 1984). In support of this link, a Down syndrome patient with partial trisomy in which the gene sequence for APP was present in only two copies failed to develop any signs of the disease (Prasher et al., 1998). In the corollary situation, patients with duplication of a small portion of chromosome 21 containing the APP gene developed early-onset AD (Rovelet-Lecrux et al., 2006). Third, inherited mutations in the APP gene within or immediately adjacent to the Aβ region increase Aβ levels and/or its propensity to polymerize (Clements et al., 1993; De Jonghe et al., 1998; Fraser et al., 1992; Nilsberth et al., 2001; Van Nostrand et al., 2001; Watson et al., 1999) and are sufficient to cause early-onset AD (Goate et al., 1991; Levy et al., 1990). Similarly, mutations in presenilin 1 (PS1) and presenilin 2 (PS2) genes, which cause particularly aggressive forms of early-onset AD, selectively increase the production of Aβ terminating at amino acid 42 (Aβ42; Borchelt et al., 1996; Citron et al., 1997; Duff et al., 1996; Scheuner et al., 1996), a form more prone to oligomerization than the more abundant Aβ40 peptide (Bitan et al., 2003; Burdick et al., 1992; Jarrett et al., 1993). Importantly, presenilin is the catalytic site component of γ-secretase, which is one of the enzymes involved in the generation of Aβ from APP (Osenkowski et al., 2008; Selkoe and Wolfe, 2000; Wolfe et al., 1999). Fourth, the inheritance of one or two ε4 alleles of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) is a prominent genetic risk factor for AD (Corder et al., 1993; Saunders et al., 1993; Strittmatter et al., 1993) and increases Aβ deposition in the brain (Rebeck et al., 1993; Schmechel et al., 1993). Consistent with this effect, ApoE has recently been found to negatively regulate Aβ clearance (Verghese et al., 2013). Fifth, transgenic mice that express human APP and/or PSEN genes with familial AD mutations exhibit an age-dependent increase in extracellular Aβ (Games et al., 1995; Hsia et al., 1999; Johnson-Wood et al., 1997; Sturchler-Pierrat et al., 1997) and develop morphological (e.g., synaptic alterations; Games et al., 1995; Hsia et al., 1999; Lesné et al., 2006; Mucke et al., 2000) and behavioral changes (Ashe, 2001; Chapman et al., 1999; Hsiao et al., 1996) associated with

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AD. Sixth, immunization of AD transgenic mice with Aβ or anti-Aβ antibodies prevents or reduces Aβ accumulation (Bard et al., 2000; Oddo et al., 2004; Schenk et al., 1999; Sigurdsson et al., 2001) and ameliorates cognitive deficits in transgenic mice (Dodart et al., 2002; Janus et al., 2000; Morgan et al., 2000). Finally, Aβ is toxic to neurons, both in vitro and in vivo (e.g., Geula et al., 1998; Hartley et al., 1999; Klein et al., 2001; Lambert et al., 1998; Lashuel et al., 2002). Both synthetic and natural oligomers of Aβ induce behavioral deficits and hyperphosphorylation of tau when injected into rodent brains at concentrations comparable to those observed in the brains of AD patients (Meyer-Luehmann et al., 2006). In summary, all four confirmed genetic factors underlying inherited forms of AD increase the production and/or accelerate the aggregation of Aβ, and this can be detected in humans well before the onset of clinical symptoms. Although some controversy continues to surround the Aβ hypothesis, transgenic mice and in vitro and ex vivo studies with natural and synthetic Aβ have elucidated the means by which Aβ compromises synaptic function and lent credence to the idea that Aβ is the cause of Alzheimer’s pathology.

ANIMAL MODELS OF AD The barriers to interactive investigation of all aspects of AD in humans have led to a concerted effort to reproduce its characteristics in a mouse model of the disease. The identification of Aβ (Glenner and Wong, 1984), the cloning of APP and the elucidation of its role in generating of Aβ (Goldgaber et al., 1987; Kang et al., 1987; Robakis et al., 1987; Tanzi et al., 1987), and the discovery of FAD-linked mutations in APP (Goate et al., 1991) led to the creation of the first transgenic mouse with AD-like pathology (Games et al., 1995). A panoply of such mice have now been created, in which mutant genes for human APP, PS1, PS2, and tau are present, often in combination. Most of these models recapitulate some, but not all, of the neuropathological features of the human disease. For example, in APP mice, APP overexpression of four- to five-fold is typically sufficient to induce the formation of detectable amyloid plaques similar to those observed in AD, with Aβ42/40 peptide ratio apparently being the critical determinant (Mucke et al., 2000). Overexpression levels depend on the strain of the mouse (Hsiao, 1998), although an age-dependent increase in plaque density is consistently observed (Games et al., 1995; Hsia et al., 1999; Hsiao et al., 1996; Johnson-Wood et al., 1997; Sturchler-Pierrat et al., 1997). Notably, most APP transgenic mice appear to show no loss of neurons (Irizarry et al., 1997a,b) and do not develop paired helical filaments (PHF) or tangles (Games et al., 1995; Hsia et al., 1999; Hsiao et al., 1996; Moechars et al., 1999; Sturchler-Pierrat et al., 1997), in contrast to AD patients. However, coexpression in APP mice of human tau bearing the P301L mutation that causes frontotemporal dementia (bigenic mice), or in triple transgenic mice that also express mutant PS1, causes PHF and tangle deposition (Lewis et al., 2001; Oddo et al., 2003) at an accelerated rate to that seen in mice expressing P301L tau alone.

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In addition to overproducing Aβ, most transgenic AD mice also overexpress APP and APP fragments, which has given rise to concerns that the phenotypes of these animals are artificial. This has been recently addressed with the generation of APP knock-in mice in which the APP gene is replaced with the murine APP sequence containing a humanized Aβ region with familial Alzheimer’s Disease (FAD)-linked mutations (Saito et al., 2014). In these mice, the Aβ42/40 ratio is increased and the mice show amyloid plaques in the cortex and hippocampus, microgliosis, and astrocytosis, especially in the vicinity of plaques, and synapse loss, suggesting that Aβ, and not another APP cleavage product, is indeed the primary causative agent in AD pathology. AD transgenic mice are characterized by a number of specific cognitive deficits (for review, see Spires-Jones and Knafo, 2012) compatible with AD, which makes them imperative for the testing of new AD therapeutics. The plastic nature of synapses and their central involvement in both early and late stages of cognitive decline in these AD models underscore the importance of synaptic targets for therapeutic approaches.

EXPERIMENTAL PARADIGMS CAN INFORM US ABOUT ALZHEIMER’S-RELATED PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Hebb’s postulate states that “when an Axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B and repeatedly or persistently takes part in firing it, some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells such that A’s efficiency, as one of the cells firing B, is increased” (Hebb, 1949). Accordingly, two forms of such synaptic plasticity, long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), are widely used as cellular and synaptic models of learning and memory, and are believed to play a role in a variety of long-lasting forms of plasticity in the brain, with effects lasting for hours, days, or longer (Lynch, 2004; Malenka and Bear, 2004; Morris, 2003). Although demonstrating that the mechanisms of LTP and LTD underlie experience-dependent changes in synaptic activity and serve functional roles in vivo has been a formidable challenge, the near-universal ability of excitatory synapses in the mammalian brain to undergo such changes has been amply described and analogous modifications occur during learning in different regions of the brain (Pastalkova et al., 2006; Rioult-Pedotti et al., 2000; Ziemann et al., 2004). A balance in the ability of populations of synapses to undergo LTP or LTD ensures that the opposing threats of excitotoxicity and failure of networks to discriminate events and store information are quelled. Both LTP and LTD can occur at a given synapse, in response to different patterns of activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and/or metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), depending on the experimental conditions (reviewed in Citri and Malenka, 2008; Kemp and Bashir, 2001). Mechanistically, the balance between synapse potentiation and depression is thought to depend on alterations in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration and the differential activation of certain kinases and phosphatases, such as calcium/ calmodulin-dependent kinase II, calcineurin, and cyclic AMP response element

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binding protein (CREB). Ultimately, this balance in intraneuronal signaling appears to regulate the stability of the postsynaptic density and the trafficking of AMPA receptors to and from the postsynapse (Esteban et al., 2003; Kessels et al., 2009; Kessels and Malinow, 2009). Together, these changes dynamically modulate the magnitude of neurotransmission at the synaptic level. Synapselevel changes in receptor content during long-term plasticity are accompanied by changes at the level of the neuron, such as spine formation and increases in spine volume during LTP, and spine elimination and decreases in spine volume during LTD (Bastrikova et al., 2008; Engert and Bonhoeffer, 1999; Kopec et al., 2006; Maletic-Savatic et al., 1999; Matsuzaki et al., 2004; Zhou et al., 2004). It appears that changes in excitability are intimately linked to structural changes, such that glutamate-dependent insertion of AMPA receptors leads to an increase in spine stability (Lamprecht and LeDoux, 2004). Consistent with a role for these processes in learning and memory, learning induces spine formation (Fu et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2009) and the stability of dendritic spines is associated with the maintenance of lifelong memories (Xu et al., 2009; Yang, Pan, and Gan, 2009).

SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY AND MEMORY IS IMPAIRED IN TRANSGENIC MOUSE MODELS OF AD Molecular and structural changes underlying modulation of neuronal excitability are consequential for cognition, and the dysregulation of this balance leads to excitotoxicity or degradation of stored memory. For these reasons, studies of synaptic plasticity employing both electrophysiological and morphological measures are essential for developing an understanding of how memory mechanisms are disrupted in disease. APP and its derivatives, as well as components of the APP-processing enzymes β-secretase and γ-secretase, have been detected in axons and dendrites by biochemical, immunostaining, and electron-microscopy studies (Buxbaum et al., 1998; Ferreira et al., 1993; Kaether et al., 2000; Koo et al., 1990; Lazarov et al., 2002; Sisodia et al., 1993; Xia et al., 2009). Evidence has accumulated that the introduction in transgenic mice of genes for one more of these familial AD-linked mutant proteins is sufficient to produce defects in functional and structural synaptic plasticity, as well as in cognitive function. These defects are often observed early relative to plaque development, thereby implicating soluble Aβ in the disruption. Early studies furnished ­evidence that defects in synaptic plasticity preceded the onset of amyloid deposition. ­Transgenic mice for human APP bearing the V717F mutation develop plaques after 12 months, but were found to exhibit impaired LTP at 3 (Moechars et al., 1999) and 4–5 months of age (Larson et al., 1999). Further support for a role of soluble Aβ species in neuronal dysfunction comes from the occurrence of progressive learning deficits, along with declines in synaptic transmission and synaptic density in the hippocampal CA1 region of APP V717F transgenic mice at times well before any amyloid plaques are observed (Hsia et al., 1999; Mucke et al., 2000; Palop et al.,

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2003). These deficits increased with age but did not correlate with plaque number. A reduction of LTP has also been reported in mice that overexpress either the London (V642I; Moechars et al., 1999) or Swedish (APP695SWE; Chapman et al., 1999; Jacobsen et al., 2006) mutations in APP, and similar impairments have been observed in mice expressing mutations in both APP and PS1 (Gengler et al., 2010; Trinchese et al., 2004). It should be noted, however, that a number of studies have failed to find impairment of LTP in several transgenic models overexpressing FAD mutant proteins (Brown et al., 2005; Fitzjohn et al., 2001; Gureviciene et al., 2004; Volianskis et al., 2010). These variations among studies could result from discrepancies in experimental design. Of particular relevance are differences in the ages at which the mice were tested and strain differences, as it is known that susceptibility to neuronal injury can vary widely across mouse strains (Schauwecker and Steward, 1997). In addition to functional deficits in synaptic plasticity, animal models of AD often display structural dendritic and synaptic perturbations. The widely used Tg2576 mouse model expresses mutant human APP and shows decreased spine density in the CA1 and dentate gyrus well before the development of amyloid plaques (Jacobsen et al., 2006; Lanz et al., 2003; Perez-Cruz et al., 2011). Notably, cognitive impairments are detected in these mice at the time when spines become depleted, suggesting that synapse loss can drive cognitive decline. Transgenic mice bearing mutations in APP and PS1 show large decreases in the density of large spines in the dentate gyrus (Knafo et al., 2009). Importantly, large spines may be physical traces of long-term memory (Bourne and Harris, 2007; Kasai et al., 2003, 2010). These mice display further dendritic abnormalities: dendrites near amyloid deposits experience shaft atrophy, neurite breakage, and greater reductions in spine density (Tsai et al., 2004). Together, results from AD animal models support the idea that synaptic degeneration is a central component of the AD pathology that leads to memory impairment. Encouragingly for the prospect of treatment of AD, structural alterations may be amenable to pharmacological improvement (Smith et al., 2009).

SOLUBLE, BUT NOT INSOLUBLE, Aβ DISRUPTS PLASTICITY AND MEMORY Controversy surrounding the amyloid hypothesis has centered around the indirect relationship between the development of insoluble amyloid plaques and the clinical progression of AD (Braak and Braak, 1998; Knopman et al., 2003). However, evidence has since emerged that explains this apparent paradox. Early studies of the AD brain found robust correlations between cortical levels of soluble Aβ and the extent of synaptic loss and severity of cognitive impairment (Lue et al., 1999; McLean et al., 1999; Wang et al., 1999) and significant synapse loss also occurs in patients with MCI, a portent of future AD (Scheff et al., 2007). In order to investigate the effects of different Aβ species on memory and related synaptic mechanisms, acute treatment with Aβ provides a relatively

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simple but very attractive and manipulable model system, compared with transgenic APP animal models (Chambon et al., 2011). This acute approach gives the researcher the opportunity to control and characterize the biophysical state of Aβ preparations before use, which is likely to be relevant for AD therapy. Aβ is a product of normal neuronal metabolism (Haass et al., 1992; Seubert et al., 1992; Shoji et al., 1992) and is produced by sequential proteolysis of APP by β- and γ-secretases (De Strooper and Annaert, 2000). Aβ is a highly heterogeneous mixture of peptides, with different solubility, stability, and biological and toxic properties. C-terminal heterogeneity is generated by γ-secretase cleavage, which variably results in the production of 38- to 43-amino-acid Aβ peptides, of which Aβ40 is the dominant species (Benilova et al., 2012). The biophysical and biochemical properties of Aβ, such as its propensity to aggregate, vary strongly according to its length. In particular, Aβ42, which is overabundant in AD brain (Lemere et al., 1996), exhibits an increased tendency to aggregate compared to shorter forms of the peptide (Jarrett et al., 1993). Interestingly, Aβ42 more potently disrupts synaptic plasticity (Cullen et al., 1997; Nomura et al., 2012), and historically, the Aβ42/40 ratio has been used as an index of the neurotoxicity of a heterogeneous population of Aβ peptides (Hasegawa et al., 1999; Kuperstein et al., 2010). However, it is likely that aggregation and toxic properties of Aβ are influenced by the presence of other species. For example, Aβ43 is enriched in AD brain (Sandebring et al., 2013) and similarly supports an association between aggregation-proneness and disruption of learning and memory (Saito et al., 2011; Stéphan et al., 2001), and shorter peptides such as Aβ37 and Aβ38 are decreased (Portelius et al., 2010). In addition to variation in length, differences in primary sequence (Klyubin et al., 2004; Tomiyama et al., 2008) and post-translational modification (Jawhar et al., 2011; Kummer et al., 2011; Schlenzig et al., 2012; Youssef et al., 2008) of Aβ affect aggregation and potency of LTP inhibition. Despite the natural ability of Aβ, especially the human sequence, to form aggregates, the majority of natural or synthetically prepared Aβ usually contains a sizable fraction of Aβ monomers. However, preparations enriched in monomeric Aβ have little or no ability to disrupt synaptic functioning: such preparations fail to inhibit LTP (Hu et al., 2008; Klyubin et al., 2005, 2008; Ono et al., 2012; Shankar et al., 2008), facilitate LTD (Ono et al., 2012), or affect learned behavior (Cleary et al., 2005). Dimers and beyond. Given the findings that Aβ monomers per se do not appear to impair synaptic function, the question arises as to which soluble Aβ aggregates are disruptive. Several lines of evidence suggest that small (2- to 20-mer) highly diffusible Aβ aggregates may be responsible for memory impairment in AD. The group led by D. Selkoe, having shown the presence of various Aβ assemblies in AD brain, suggested that soluble Aβ dimers are the smallest synaptotoxic species (Shankar et al., 2008) and are capable of compromising behavioral performance, inhibiting LTP and facilitating LTD in rodents (Barry et al., 2011; Li et al., 2009, 2011; Shankar et al., 2008). In contrast, the larger Aβ*56 12-mers extracted from APP transgenic mouse brain (Lesné et al., 2006)

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appear to be much less potent than cell-derived low-n oligomers or human brain Aβ dimer-containing soluble extracts at causing deficits in cognitive tasks (Reed et al., 2011; Shankar et al., 2008). However, although synthetic Aβ1-40 dimers blocked LTP both in vivo and in vitro when acutely applied at a concentration approximately 50-fold lower than unmodified Aβ1-40 (Hu et al., 2008; Shankar et al., 2008), it appears that these dimers need to assemble into larger aggregates before being able to potently inhibit LTP (O’Nuallain et al., 2010). The aggregate zoo. Aβ forms oligomers whose conformations span several orders, although the mechanism by which this process occurs remains unknown. Soluble dimers, trimers, dodecamers, and higher order oligomers (Aβ-derived diffusible ligands and AβO spherical vesicles), protofibrils, annular protofibrils, and fibrils exist alongside monomeric Aβ (Harper et al., 1997; Hartley et al., 1999; Lambert et al., 1998; Lashuel et al., 2002; Walsh et al., 1999) and have all been found to impair LTP and induce cognitive impairment in mice, in combination with synaptotoxic effects (Cleary et al., 2005; Demuro et al., 2005; Deshpande et al., 2006; Hartley et al., 2008; Jin et al., 2011; Kayed et al., 2003; Kuperstein et al., 2010; Lambert et al., 1998; Lasagna-Reeves et al., 2011b; Lesné et al., 2006; Li et al., 2009; Noguchi et al., 2009; Podlisny et al., 1995; Reed et al., 2011; Roher et al., 1996; Sandberg et al., 2010; Shankar et al., 2008; Walsh et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2010; Xia et al., 1997; Zempel et al., 2010). In addition, “exotic” Aβ structures such as the amylospheroids, which are spherical assemblies of 10–15 nm, have been isolated from AD brain and found to show neurotoxicity and activate several pathways implicated in synaptic impairment (Hoshi et al., 2003; Matsumura et al., 2011; Noguchi et al., 2009). Regardless of the relationship between size of soluble Aβ aggregates and synaptic dysfunction, insoluble fibrils per se are unlikely candidates for memory impairment in AD. Rather, plaque-containing insoluble fibrils are likely to provide a major source and sink of memory disrupting soluble Aβ (Martins et al., 2008; Shankar et al., 2008). Synapse loss in AD is most evident in the immediate vicinity of senile plaques (Lanz et al., 2003; Moolman et al., 2004; Spires and Hannan, 2005; Tsai et al., 2004), and recent studies using multiphoton in vivo imaging revealed a halo of oligomeric Aβ around plaques in the brain of AD transgenic mice (Koffie et al., 2009), suggesting that oligomeric Aβ may exist in equilibrium with plaques in AD. Like Aβ, many other amyloidogenic proteins form aqueous soluble oligomers that are neurotoxic (Caughey and Lansbury, 2003; Haass and Selkoe, 2007). Intriguingly, many of these neurotoxic oligomers adopt similar conformations to Aβ, recognized by conformation-selective antibodies (Glabe, 2008; Kayed et al., 2003, 2004; Lambert et al., 2009; Yamin et al., 2008). Oligomers of proteins implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases, including tau (Lasagna-Reeves et al., 2011a; frontotemporal dementia), α-synuclein (Emmanouilidou et al., 2010; Hüls et al., 2011; Martin et al., 2012; Parkinson’s disease), PrP106-126 (Klyubin et al., 2012; transmissible spongiform encephalopathies), and ADan (Schlenzig et al., 2012; familial Danish dementia) exhibit neurotoxic properties and impair synaptic plasticity, often in

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contrast to less aggregated forms of the protein. Given the shared ability of these aggregates to inhibit LTP, it has been suggested that a common conformation is critical for the disruptive actions on synaptic plasticity (and hence, on memory) of these very different peptides (Kayed et al., 2003). The mechanisms by which this disruption occurs in AD have begun to be dissected.

MECHANISMS OF Aβ-MEDIATED DISRUPTION OF SYNAPTIC PLASTICITY Cleavage of APP by β- and γ-secretases liberates Aβ into the extracellular space, which accumulates in extracellular amyloid plaques. Classically, therefore, Aβ has been thought to exert its toxic effects by acting on neurons from the outside through one, or multiple, cell surface receptor(s), although intracellular Aβ is observed in cell and animal models and appears to be pathologically relevant (reviewed in LaFerla et al., 2007). A number of molecules have been proposed to act as Aβ receptors (Cissé et al., 2011; Diarra et al., 2009; Laurén et al., 2009; Lee and Landreth, 2010; Parri and Dineley, 2010; Yan et al., 1996), although the “stickiness” of Aβ suggests it is most pertinent to ask whether the interaction between Aβ and a molecule plays a role in the deleterious effects of Aβ. Aβ inhibits a well-characterized form of LTP that depends on the activation of NMDA receptors (Hsieh et al., 2006; Shankar et al., 2007), and this inhibition is blocked by 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (APV) an NMDA receptor antagonist. Using such antagonists to rescue LTP from the effects of Aβ is somewhat counterintuitive, since LTP itself requires the function of NMDA receptors, although the finding that Aβ acts through excessive activation of extrasynaptic NR2B-containing NMDA receptors provides a potential explanation for this result (Li et al., 2011). Accordingly, NR2B-selective antagonists are able to block Aβ inhibition of LTP (Hu et al., 2009; Rammes et al., 2011; Rönicke et al., 2011). In addition to the inhibition of LTP, Aβ produces depression of glutamatergic synaptic transmission when overexpressed in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons, either virally (after 16 h) (Kamenetz et al., 2003) or transgenically (after 3 weeks) (Hsia et al., 1999). The effect is seen both electrophysiologically (by a decrease in both AMPA receptor- and NMDA receptor-mediated transmission in CA1 region, with a selective reduction in NMDA receptormediated transmission in the dentate gyrus; Harris et al., 2010; Kamenetz et al., 2003), as well as structurally (by a reduction in dendritic spine density; Calabrese et al., 2007; Hsieh et al., 2006; Lacor et al., 2007; Lanz et al., 2003; Shankar et al., 2007; Shrestha et al., 2006). Intriguingly, this depression appears to exploit a recently described metabotropic function of NMDA receptors (Kessels et al., 2013), a function similarly implicated in mediating NMDA receptor-dependent LTD (Nabavi et al., 2013), although this latter claim has been contested (Babiec et al., 2014). The depressive effect of Aβ on excitatory transmission appears to use signaling pathways used by LTD (Hsieh et al., 2006; Jo et al., 2011; ­Shankar et al., 2007). For example, the

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activity of calcineurin, a calcium-activated phosphatase, is required for LTD and Aβ-induced synaptic depression (Dineley et al., 2010; Mulkey et al., 1994). Studies have also found that caspase-3, an element of the apoptotic pathway, and GSK3β, participate in both Aβ-induced synaptic depression and LTD (D’Amelio et al., 2011; Jo et al., 2011; Li et al., 2010; Peineau et al., 2007). Recent studies link these actions of Aβ, in finding that caspase-3 and GSK3β are also involved in the Aβ-inhibition of LTP (Jo et al., 2011) and that NMDA receptor-dependent LTD can be facilitated by Aβ (Li et al., 2009), suggesting that normal synaptic activity patterns in the brain may lead to an LTD-like synaptic weakening in the presence of Aβ. Tau knockout mice have shed light on the mechanism by which Aβ induces cognitive deficits in APP transgenic models. Tau protein becomes hyperphosphorylated during the progression of AD and aggregates to form the neurofibrillary tangles characteristic of the disease. Although the primacy of Aβ or tau in the pathogenesis of AD was once a point of controversy in the field (βAptists vs. tauists), it appears that tau expression is necessary for Aβ-mediated inhibition of LTP (Shipton et al., 2011) and that tau alteration occurs downstream of Aβ accumulation in AD. Notably, APP transgenic mice do not develop extensive tau pathologies on their own. Rather, although tau is hyperphosphorylated, it remains soluble and does not resemble the neurofibrillary tangles found in the human disease. Analogous to Aβ, therefore, soluble tau may be more important to the AD process than its aggregated form. Another intriguing parallel with endogenous plasticity mechanisms was provided in a recent study showing that tau is required for NMDA receptor-dependent LTD, and that LTD is associated with the GSK3β-dependent phosphorylation of tau on the PHF epitope (Kimura et al., 2014). Collectively, therefore, these results suggest that Aβ alters the balance of activation of pathways integral to the physiological expression of NMDA receptor-dependent synaptic plasticity to lower the threshold for LTD and inhibit LTP. The commonality of the pathways involved indicates that these actions are two sides of the same coin. Similarly, a central role for mGluRs in the dual action of Aβ has recently been uncovered. Aβ facilitates an mGluR-dependent form of LTD (Li et al., 2009; Shankar et al., 2008) and inhibits mGluR-dependent LTP (Hu et al., 2014)— two forms of synaptic plasticity independent of the activation of NMDA receptors. Remarkably, mGluRs are also required for the Aβ-mediated facilitation of NMDA receptor-dependent LTD and cellular prion protein (PrPC), a receptor for certain synaptotoxic Aβ assemblies that associates with mGluRs at the postsynaptic density (Laurén et al., 2009; Nicoll et al., 2013; Ordóñez-Gutiérrez et al., 2013; Um et al., 2013), is a necessary cofactor (Hu et al., 2014). PrPC may also be required for Aβ-mediated inhibition of LTP (Laurén et al., 2009), although there is some controversy surrounding this result (Balducci et al., 2010; Kessels et al., 2010). Regardless, the involvement of the protagonists of distinct neurodegenerative diseases, including tau and PrPC, in the actions of Aβ at the synapse is an exciting frontier in AD research, the understanding

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of which will be important for identifying appropriate targets for the enhancement of cognition in AD. Finally, the physiological role of Aβ may involve the regulation of neuronal activity at the circuit and network levels (reviewed in Palop and Mucke, 2010). Alteration of this function as a result of dysregulation of Aβ levels may be responsible for the increased incidence of epileptic seizures in individuals bearing FAD mutations (e.g., in ∼83% of pedigrees with very early-onset AD (<40 years); Snider et al., 2005). Therefore, the preservation of physiological functions of Aβ will be an important consideration in the design of treatment strategies for AD. In summary, Aβ appears to alter the balance of neuronal activity through the inhibition of LTP and facilitation of LTD. Mechanism-based therapy will require a greater understanding of these complex processes in order to effectively treat the symptoms of AD while minimizing side effects.

TREATMENT STRATEGIES In general, there is a need for at least three distinct treatment strategies for AD: preventive therapeutics, given years ahead of clinical onset, course-modifying therapies, for patients at the beginning of the disease, and acute treatments for AD patients, who have developed the full clinical disease. Currently approved and clinically used drugs are symptomatic in nature and are of only transient benefit to the patient. Therefore, there is a pressing need to develop more efficient therapeutic interventions. To date, most drug development strategies have focused on substances that interfere with pathogenic mechanisms leading to the major pathological hallmarks: Aβ deposition and tau hyperphosphorylation. Inhibition of APP processing, activation of nonamyloidogenic APP cleavage, and vaccination against Aβ epitopes are key strategies.

Current Treatments Both memantine (Chen et al., 2010; Martinez-Coria et al., 2010; Minkeviciene et al., 2004; Scholtzova et al., 2008), an NMDA receptor antagonist, and cholinesterase inhibitors (Dong et al., 2005; Van Dam et al., 2005, 2008; Van Dam and De Deyn, 2006) have been shown to be effective at improving cognition in AD mouse models. However, there is little evidence that either of these treatments significantly alter the progression of the disease in AD patients (­Schneider et al., 2011). For a more detailed overview on the current treatment for AD, the reader is referred to Chapter 11.

Preventing Cleavage: γ- and β-Secretase Inhibitors In addition to transgenic mouse models, which overproduce and recapitulate the Aβ and tau pathologies that are associated with AD, numerous genetically

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modified mice have been produced that lack genes associated with this disorder. For example, knockout mice have been created of the APP secretases (β-secretase (BACE), presenilin (1 and 2), and α-secretase (ADAM10 and 17) (Hartmann et al., 2002; Herreman et al., 1999; Lee et al., 2003; Luo et al., 2001; Shen et al., 1997)). These animals have furnished insights that have led to treatments for AD. When presenilin 1 was shown to be necessary for the production of Aβ, the presenilins and the γ-secretase complex became the primary small molecular drug target for AD. Early evidence suggested that the γ-secretase complex had vital roles beyond the production of Aβ: presenilin 1 knockout in mice was found to be lethal (Shen et al., 1997), and evidence for specific roles later emerged, including suppression of skin cancer (Zhang et al., 2007), calcium dyshomeostasis (Green and LaFerla, 2008) and autophagy (Lee et al., 2010; Neely et al., 2011). Despite the early warnings, subsequent efforts progressed towards the development of a smorgasbord of highly specific γ-secretase inhibitors. Several of these inhibitors were shown to improve cognition in transgenic mouse models of AD (Comery et al., 2005; Imbimbo et al., 2009; Martone et al., 2009), and, invariably, to decrease Aβ levels. A major setback in AD therapeutics came with the halting of a phase III clinical trial of semagacestat, which was found to cause increased cognitive decline, and increase the incidence of skin cancer (Schor, 2011). Consequently, these inhibitor programs have largely been abandoned in favor of more APP selective γ-secretase inhibitors, or γ-secretase modulators, which alter the site of APP cleavage to generate species of Aβ less prone to aggregation. BACE1 is the sole β-secretase enzyme, and its activity is also crucial for the production of Aβ (Hussain et al., 2007; Sinha et al., 1999; Vassar et al., 1999). In contrast to γ-secretase, elimination of β-secretase activity by gene deletion essentially abolished the production of Aβ, yet resulted only in minor phenotypic abnormality in mice (Cai et al., 2001; Luo et al., 2001; Ohno et al., 2004; Roberds et al., 2001). Thus, BACE1 appears a much more attractive drug target than the γ-secretase complex. Indeed, the crossing of BACE1 knockout mice with Tg2576 mice prevented cognitive decline in these animals and dramatically reduced Aβ levels (Ohno et al., 2004). Careful further analysis has revealed several alterations in BACE1 knockout mice, including reduced myelination, subtle deficits in prepulse inhibition, hypersensitivity to a glutamatergic psychostimulant, cognitive impairments, and reduced dendritic spine density (Hu et al., 2006; Laird et al., 2005; Savonenko et al., 2008; Willem et al., 2006). Collectively, therefore, BACE1 knockout mice have established BACE1 as a primary target for the treatment of AD, although some deleterious side effects may result from the inhibition of BACE1 in the mature brain. Regardless, BACE1 remains a far safer target than γ-secretase, and work on its therapeutic manipulation is in progress. BACE1 has a large active site, and developing a compound large enough to inhibit it and yet small enough to cross the blood– brain barrier has proved challenging (Huang et al., 2009). However, some promising compounds have been reported to lower Aβ levels (Chang et al.,

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2004; Eketjäll et al., 2013; Fukumoto et al., 2010a; Huang et al., 2009; Hussain et al., 2007; Lerchner et al., 2010; Mori et al., 2012) and improve cognition (Chang et al., 2007) in transgenic mice and human clinical trials are under way. A recent trial of LY2886721 failed in the phase II stage (see June 2013 Eli Lilly press release), although the liver toxicity associated with the drug is likely to be independent of BACE1 inhibition.

α-Secretase Activation The α-secretase, which is the metalloprotease ADAM10, cleaves APP within the Aβ domain, thereby preventing generation of Aβ. For this reason, activation of α-secretase has been proposed as a treatment strategy for AD. Proof-ofconcept for this strategy was furnished by work showing that overexpression of ADAM10 mice lowered brain Aβ levels and rescued LTP inhibition and spatial learning defects in APP transgenic mice (Postina et al., 2004). Interestingly, deprenyl, an anti-dementia drug, appears to promote the α-secretasemediated cleavage of APP (Yang et al., 2007). ADAM10 can be activated by various cell-surface receptors, which activate PKC, mitogen-activated protein kinases, phosphoinositide 3-kinase, and calcium signaling (reviewed in Postina, 2012)—well-characterized pathways amenable to pharmacological manipulation. However, consideration of the potential side effects of α-secretase is warranted, since it possesses several substrates. In keeping with this cautionary sentiment, α-secretase cleavage targeted for activation should occur in brain areas affected in AD.

Sequestering Aβ: Immunotherapy Aβ immunotherapy is elegant in its simplicity: the AD brain is exposed to antiAβ antibodies, either by “active” immunization (injection of an Aβ-containing immunogen to stimulate a host response) or “passive” immunization (administration of a recombinant monoclonal antibody) to stimulate the body’s defenses to neutralize and clear Aβ as it would other invasive entities. Initial experimentation with active Aβ immunotherapy in a transgenic model of AD showed a remarkable reduction in amyloid-associated pathologies (Schenk et al., 1999). Importantly, in addition to clearance of amyloid plaques, synapses were preserved, neuritic dystrophy was reduced and inflammation subsided. Further studies in animal models showed cognitive improvements and improvements in Aβ pathology (Asuni et al., 2006; Bard et al., 2000; DeMattos et al., 2001; Janus et al., 2000; Lemere et al., 2001; Morgan et al., 2000; Sigurdsson et al., 2001, 2004). In addition, plaque reduction was observed post-mortem in the brain of an actively immunized patient (Nicoll et al., 2003) and a phase II trial of passive immunotherapy with bapineuzumab was also shown to reduce amyloid burden, as visualized by positron emission tomography (PET)/Pittsburgh compound B (PiB) methodology (Rinne et al., 2010). However, large-scale

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phase III clinical trials of bapineuzumab in patients with mild to moderate AD were halted in August 2012 when the drug failed to arrest cognitive decline (Salloway et al., 2014), and a similar fate awaited solanezumab, another antiAβ antibody (Doody et al., 2014). Considered alongside the observation that bapineuzumab was effective in stabilizing amyloid plaque burden and lowering phosphorylated-tau levels in cerebrospinal fluid, two biomarkers of AD pathology, these results raised concerns about the propriety of Aβ as a target without consideration of aggregation state. The original amyloid cascade hypothesis (Hardy and Higgins, 1992), which emphasized the role of the amyloid plaques characteristic of AD, has now evolved to include the important role of soluble Aβ-oligomers in synaptic dysfunction and toxicity (Benilova et al., 2012; De Felice et al., 2008; Jin et al., 2011; Sakono and Zako, 2010; Walsh and Selkoe, 2007; Zempel et al., 2010). Recent studies have shown that the concentration of soluble Aβ oligomers in AD brain is several orders of magnitude lower than levels of monomeric or fibrillar Aβ (Delacourte et al., 2002; Fukumoto et al., 2010b; Georganopoulou et al., 2005; Mehta et al., 2000), which bodes well for the feasibility of elimination strategies. Soluble Aβ oligomers therefore represent a particularly attractive therapeutic target, and antibodies have been developed that effectively and selectively bind to soluble Aβ oligomers, neutralizing their synaptotoxic potential in cell cultures and reducing memory deficits in transgenic AD mice (Hillen et al., 2010; Zago et al., 2012). In addition to immunotherapeutic strategies targeting soluble Aβ, inhibitors of Aβ aggregation are currently being developed (Nie et al., 2011).

Tau Tau protein appears to mediate Aβ-induced toxicity, and phosphorylation of tau is considerably increased in the brains of patients with AD (Hasegawa et al., 1992; Matsuo et al., 1994). Accordingly, tau has been the recent focus of several AD treatment strategies, directly targeting phosphorylation state or aggregation of tau protein. Reducing hyperphosphorylation. Hyperphosphorylation of tau could lead to a loss- or gain-of-function, depending on the specific sites involved, and, therefore, identifying inhibitors of the appropriate kinases has considerable therapeutic appeal. Kinase inhibitors are in active development for the treatment of a variety of conditions, including cancer, and the endeavor has seen some success. However, the process has encountered difficulties germane to the strategy of inhibition of tau hyperphosphorylation. The shared mechanism of action of most kinase inhibitors, which compete for the ATP-binding site common to all tau kinases, makes selectivity difficult to achieve (Ghoreschi et al., 2009). Further, although several kinases have been shown to phosphorylate tau in vitro, including MAPK1, MARK1 GSK3β, and CDK5 (Gong and Iqbal, 2008; Hanger et al., 2009; Mazanetz and Fischer, 2007), the relative contribution of each kinase to tau phosphorylation in AD remains unclear. Nevertheless, there

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is substantial evidence that both GSK3 and CDK5 are relevant in tau pathologies: both kinases colocalize with NFTs (Augustinack et al., 2002; ­Imahori and Uchida, 1997; Pei et al., 1998; Yamaguchi et al., 1996), overexpression of GSK3β, or p25 (a cleavage product of an activator of CDK5) with mutant human tau, in transgenic mice increased tau hyperphosphorylation and caused neurodegeneration and cognitive deficits (Hernández et al., 2002; Lucas et al., 2001; Noble et al., 2003). However, the observation that inhibition of CDK5 in mice overexpressing p25 produced an increase of tau phosphorylation by GSK3β (Wen et al., 2008) has led to an increased focus on GSK3β inhibition as a treatment strategy for AD. Inhibition of GSK3β reduces tau phosphorylation and ameliorates memory impairments and neuropathology in transgenic mouse models of AD (Caccamo et al., 2007; Qing et al., 2008; Serenó et al., 2009; Toledo and Inestrosa, 2010), although given that a role for GSK3β in Aβ processing has been reported, it remains unclear to what extent these improvements can be attributed to a reduction in tau phosphorylation per se (Phiel et al., 2003; Rockenstein et al., 2007; Su et al., 2004). The notably promiscuous nature of GSK3β (Doble and Woodgett, 2003) raises concerns over target-related side effects; although inhibitors of other multifunctioning kinases have been used successfully in oncology. Small clinical trials of lithium, which also inhibits CDK5, proved inconclusive, although the aforementioned interaction between CDK5 and GSK3β raises the possibility of a lessened effect on GSK3β activity. A more selective inhibitor of GSK3β, TDZD, is currently being examined in a phase II trial. Inhibiting aggregation. The conversion of soluble tau into oligomeric and fibrillar species could result in loss- and gain-of-function tau toxicities. Inhibiting the assembly of tau into multimeric structures might therefore prevent the formation of toxic species and increase levels of monomeric tau, which could contribute to microtubule stabilization. The dye methylene blue was the first compound reported to inhibit tau–tau interactions, and the compound was also shown to alter the structure of existing PHFs isolated from AD brain (Wischik et al., 1996). Recent studies have found evidence for potentially beneficial effects of methylene blue on fibrilization in vitro, autophagy and neuroprotection (Congdon et al., 2012; Crowe et al., 2013; Wen et al., 2011). Methylene blue increased clearance of Aβ in a transgenic mouse model of AD (Medina et al., 2011) and improved spatial learning and brain metabolism in rats (­Deiana et al., 2009; Riha et al., 2011). Reports of a phase II trial of the compound described dramatic improvements in disease progression, and phase III trials for the treatment of AD and frontotemporal dementia are under way.

THE DRUGS DO NOT WORK: WHAT IS FAILING IN AD THERAPIES? The story of Dimebon, a repurposed antihistamine drug shown to protect neurons, but which later failed to demonstrate efficacy in phase III clinical trials, serves as a reminder of the expediency of mechanism-based drug

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development. However, despite an increasing understanding of the mechanisms underlying AD pathology, recent drug development efforts have been followed by a series of clinical failures. It has become common to explain the results from failed AD therapeutic trials with assumptive anti-Aβ therapies as evidence that the Aβ hypothesis is wrong. However, such trials have not been definitive tests of the cascade hypothesis, but rather opportune means to test potentially disease-modifying AD therapies. Rather, the failure of mechanism-based treatments that showed promise in animal models of AD may be more parsimoniously explained in the following ways: First, for many of the clinical trials that have been carried out on AD patients, it is unclear that the treatment was operative in the relevant brain regions and subcellular compartments (e.g., synapses), or that there was sufficient knowledge of the pathobiology of the target to predict whether an effect was to be expected with the degree of modulation that the intervention achieved. Second, to the extent to which they allow for reliable predictions of drug efficacy and safety in clinical trials, transgenic animal models of AD are likely to be imperfect. However, aforementioned differences in the presentation of aspects of AD pathology, including neuronal death and tangle development, are likely to be differences in outcomes well downstream of Aβ and therefore of limited consequence to treatment translation. Aside from these differences, a frequently mentioned discrepancy is that cognitive deficits can be detected in transgenic mice before plaque formation but in humans presumably only after plaque formation. However, this difference may be accounted for by several reasons, including differences in the sensitivity of cognitive tests used, in numerous variables that affect the deposition of Aβ into amyloid plaques or the formation of Aβ oligomers, and in the ability of mice and humans to compensate for hippocampal deficits (cognitive reserve). Indeed, given that there is significant variation in cognitive reserve even among AD patients, it may be that cognitive measures are inadequate as an index of AD progression and clinical outcome. Third, and perhaps most significantly, it is likely that current treatments are too little, too late. Treatment in transgenic mouse models of AD is typically begun either before the onset of amyloid pathology or in mice with very modest Aβ loads. Therefore, treatments successful in mouse models of AD may be failing in patients because such models simulate the asymptomatic phase of the disease, implying that the results of treatment interventions should be considered in the context of disease prevention, not of clinical treatment. Given the manifold nature of the pathology of AD, targeting the cause of disease once the pathogenic cascade has been triggered is unlikely to be successful. In support of this idea, treatments given to transgenic mice when amyloid deposition and associated pathology are established are generally less effective (Abramowski et al., 2008; Das et al., 2001).

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THE FUTURE OF COGNITIVE ENHANCEMENT IN AD The long presymptomatic phase of AD, which may precede the development of clinical symptoms by decades, and complex pathology in the clinical phase mean that two drug-based strategies have the potential to be successful in the treatment of the disease: First, a multipronged approach, such as that used in the treatment of coronary heart disease, in which specific downstream pathologies are targeted (e.g., tau and microglial activation), in the hope that proximal effects of these pathologies are more easily reversed in the clinical stage than those of the cause of the disease (Aβ). Second, preventative treatment in patients at risk of developing the disease. These patients may be identified using biomarkers such as brain shrinkage as viewed by magnetic resonance imaging and PET scans; PET-based detection in the brain of markers of Aβ, such as PiB; and measurements of Aβ and tau in the cerebrospinal fluid—markers whose relationship to the progression of AD is being mapped with increasing fidelity. Promising efforts are under way to identify more sensitive and specific biomarkers that might allow for the earlier identification of people at risk for developing the disease (Jack and Holtzman, 2013). The planning of preclinical trials of existing and novel compounds will be aided by at-risk patient networks such as the Dominantly Inherited Alzheimer’s Network (DIAN; Bateman et al., 2011) and the Alzheimer’s Prevention Initiative (API; Reiman et al., 2011).

CONCLUDING REMARKS Despite intense efforts at the basic science, preclinical and clinical levels, we have not yet succeeded in providing new therapies to AD patients. Setbacks, as experienced in the development of anti-Aβ vaccination, are to be expected and should not discourage us from driving this further. New insights about pathogenesis and mechanisms need to be translated into therapeutics, and improvement of preclinical models should be sought to ease the translation of results into the clinic.

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