- Email: [email protected]
Ammonia concentrations downstream of broiler operations1
©2009 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Ammonia concentrations downstream of broiler operations1 B. D. Fairchild,*1 M. Czarick,† L. A. Harper,* J. W. Worley,† C. W. Ritz,* B. D. Hale,‡ and L. P. Naeher‡ *Department of Poultry Science, †Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and ‡Department of Environmental Health Science, The University of Georgia, Athens 30602
SUMMARY Within broiler production facilities, NH3 concentrations have always been of concern from a bird performance and worker health standpoint. However, NH3 emitted from poultry houses is receiving increased attention from the environmental and community nuisance perspectives. Studies on NH3 emissions from poultry operations found within the literature do not address how NH3 disperses or the actual concentrations observed at varying distances downwind from poultry houses. The objective of this study was to measure downwind NH3 concentrations emitted from broiler houses when ventilation rates would be at a maximum. Open-path laser spectrometers were utilized for this study and for period 1 were placed 100, 200, and 300 ft from the houses from 28 to 49 d and in period 2 were placed at 100, 200, and 500 ft from 50 to 56 d. Data were collected during the last 4 wk of a 56-d grow-out cycle in 2 periods during a summer flock on a 4-house broiler farm located in northeastern Georgia. Ammonia concentrations were lower as distance from the houses increased, with NH3 levels at 100, 200, 300, and 500 ft being less than 1 ppm in approximately 60, 75, 85, and 90% of the observations, respectively. Ammonia concentrations extending to 100 ft from the houses were influenced by the tunnel fans themselves. Wind direction and wind speed were the factors that significantly influenced downstream NH3 concentrations beyond 100 ft. At no time did measured NH3 levels meet or exceed established Occupational Safety and Health Administration-US Environmental Protection Agency NH3 odor-detection threshold values during this study. Key words: wind speed, climate, wind direction, emissions 2009 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 18:630–639 doi:10.3382/japr.2008-00126
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Air emissions are important issues for the poultry industry from both environmental and nuisance viewpoints. The 2004 report from the 1
National Academy of Sciences Ad Hoc Committee on Air Emissions from Animal Feeding Operations concluded that the existing data in the literature regarding NH3 emission rates from animal feeding operations was inconsistent and
Mention of trade names or commercial products in this article is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by The University of Georgia. 2 Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Primary Audience: Poultry Producers, Government Environmental Agencies, Researchers
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poultry operations, poultry companies, and local governments when addressing nuisance complaints and lawsuits concerning these issues. One objective of this study was to measure NH3 concentrations at distances from the source of emissions (tunnel fans) on a commercial broiler farm during periods of high air exchange rates typically encountered during hot weather with near-market-age birds. A second objective was to determine how wind speed and direction influenced NH3 concentrations on a tunnel-ventilated broiler farm. Figure 1. Study farm layout (not to scale).
This study was conducted on a 4-house broiler farm in northeastern Georgia, from July 18 through August 12, 2007. The 40 × 500 ft tunnel-ventilated, dropped-ceiling houses were orientated approximately east-to-west, with approximately 750 ft of open pasture located on the east end of the 4 houses (Figure 1). The houses sit on a fill with a gradual 10-ft drop-off occur-
Figure 2. Percentage of usable NH3 data for each day used in the analysis. Useable data were defined as having an observation at each laser location and having at least 67% of the daily data present.
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
that more work needed to be performed in this area of study [1]. Studies in trace gas emissions from commercial poultry operations do not address gas concentrations once they are exhausted from the poultry house [2–6]. Litigation against growers has implicated NH3 and particulate matter as a nuisance or health-related issue [7]. Knowledge of NH3 dissipation is needed for
MATERIALS AND METHODS
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ring for the first 90 ft. The field was relatively flat, with a 1% slope from 100 to 500 ft. The houses were equipped with five 36-in. side-wall exhaust fans (approximately 10,000 ft3/min at 0.05 in. of static pressure) and eight 50-in. tunnel fans (approximately 23,000 ft3/min at 0.05 in. of static pressure) [8], 6 of which were located in the eastern end wall and 1 of which was located on either side of the tunnel fan end wall. Evaporative cooling was provided by approximately 60 ft of 6-in. evaporative cooling pads located on each side wall of the western end of each of the 4 houses. Approximately 23,500 birds were placed in each of the 4 houses. The monitoring study was initiated when the birds were 4 wk old. The study was concluded when the birds were marketed at approximately 8 wk of age. The litter in the houses had been in place for 2 previous flocks. The farm manager operated the houses according to standard industry practices. Equipment was placed in the open pasture located to the east of the poultry houses. This position was chosen because of the open pasture location and the direction at which the air mass would be exiting the tunnel fans. To avoid confusion between downwind from the fans vs. ambient downwind, in this study, the direction of airflow from the fans was defined as down-
stream, whereas downwind was defined as the direction the ambient wind was blowing. Two weather stations [9] were placed on the farm to monitor temperature, RH, wind speed, and wind direction. Wind speed and direction sensors were placed 10.5 ft from the ground. Downstream NH3 concentrations were measured using open-path, line-averaged laser spectrometry [10]. These open-path lasers (OPL) use the principle of a single-line, fixed-wavelength radiation absorption within the near-infrared spectrum of 1,300 to 1,700 nm [11]. The OPL were tuned to 1,512 nm for the measurement of NH3. Such a narrow absorption line avoids mutual absorption interference of other gases such as CO2, CH4, and water vapor. These instruments have been calibrated routinely at the factory and have an automatic internal reference procedure with a known NH3 standard, and calibration was checked on site with standard gases before and after the study to account for any instrument drift. Ammonia concentrations were measured downstream from the houses at 100-, 200-, and 300-ft distances from the houses for the first 3 wk of the study (28 to 49 d). During the last week of the study (50 to 56 d), NH3 concentrations were measured at 100, 300, and 500 ft from the houses to obtain measurements farther away
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 3. Average daily outside temperature and tunnel fan operation.
Fairchild et al.: AMMONIA OUTSIDE OF BROILER HOUSES
Data Analysis Measurements were taken and recorded per minute from weather stations and OPL. Oneminute data were then averaged on a 15-min basis for analysis. There were periods throughout the study when NH3 measurements could not be collected at 1 or more of the OPL locations, pri-
Table 1. Average ammonia concentrations for the 2 study periods Location (ft) Ammonia (ppm) SEM Observations1 (no.) 28 to 49 d 100 200 300 50 to 56 d 100 300 500
0.528 0.479 0.328
0.017 0.016 0.011
914 914 914
0.492 0.391 0.251
0.052 0.031 0.021
221 221 221
1
An observation is a 15-min average.
marily because of rain, condensation on the reflectors, or foggy conditions. Because one of the primary objectives of the study was to determine how NH3 concentration varied with distance from the poultry houses, any 15-min period that did not have an NH3 data point at each of the 3 OPL locations was not included for analysis. To represent average daily NH3 concentrations more accurately, study days that did not have
Figure 4. Cumulative percentage of observations with corresponding NH3 concentration (28 to 49 d).
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
from the houses when the greatest amount of air was being exchanged. The line-average concentration was measured over a path length of approximately 180 ft at 56 in. from the ground and was centered on houses 1 and 2 to avoid the effects that the trees located on the south side of house 4 might have on airflow during periods with wind (Figure 1). All data were synchronized with house temperature, ventilation level (number of exhaust fans), and ventilation mode (tunnel vs. side-wall inlets), which were collected using a personal computer connected to the electronic environmental controllers in the houses.
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at least 67% of the data present were not used (Figure 2).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data indicated that the houses were in tunnel ventilation mode approximately 96% of the time. In tunnel ventilation mode, all fresh air enters the house through openings on the west end and is exhausted through the tunnel fans on the east end of the house. When not in tunnel mode, the houses were ventilated through a combination of side-wall air inlets evenly spaced down the length of the houses and a combination of side-wall exhaust fans and 1 or 2 tunnel fans. The average number of tunnel fans operating each day increased over the course of the flock, corresponding to flock age and average outside temperature (Figure 3). During the first week of the study, fewer than half the tunnel ventilation fans were required to maintain proper house conditions. During the last 2 wk of the study, essentially all the tunnel fans operated 24 h/d.
Average NH3 concentrations during the 28to 49-d period when the OPL were located at 100, 200, and 300 ft from the poultry houses are shown in Table 1. Average NH3 concentration during the last week of the study (50 to 56 d) when the OPL were 100, 300, and 500 ft are also shown in Table 1. The highest NH3 concentrations during both study periods were at the 100-ft OPL location and decreased with distance from the houses, ranging from approximately 0.50 ppm at 100 ft to approximately 0.25 ppm at 500 ft. (Note that the daily averages shown in Table 1 are based on data from the last 4 wk of an 8-wk flock when NH3 production was at its highest.) It was expected that the downstream NH3 concentrations would be much lower during the first few weeks of the flock, when the amount of NH3 the houses emit is significantly lower, compared with the last 4 wk of the flock, because of reduced ventilation requirements, broiler size, and manure production. The overall flock average at each site would be lower than the values listed in Table 1.
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 5. Cumulative percentage of observations with corresponding NH3 concentration (50 to 56 d).
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Figures 4 and 5 show the cumulative percentage of observations vs. NH3 concentration at the different locations for the 2 study periods. For the first study period, NH3 concentrations were 1 ppm or less 64, 86, and 97% of the time at the 100-, 200-, and 300-ft locations, respectively. For the second study period, NH3 concentrations were 1 ppm or less 76, 91, and 94% of the time at the 100-, 300-, and 500-ft locations, respectively. During the 28- to 49-d period, the maximum recorded NH3 concentrations at the 100-, 200-, and 300-ft locations were 2.9, 2.9, and 2.5 ppm, respectively. During the 50- to 56-d period, the maximum recorded NH3 concentrations were 2.1, 2.4, and 1.6 ppm at 100, 300, and 500 ft, respectively. Although the closer sites were somewhat lower during the second study period, when the emissions were higher, the climatic effects of wind speed, wind direction, and temperature also were associated with concentration. All the above maximum NH3 concentrations occurred only for a single 15-min measurement
period during the night. For the first study period, the observed NH3 concentrations were 2 ppm or greater for an accumulative time of 4 h at the 100-ft location, 2 h at the 200-ft location, and 1 h at the 300-ft location. During the second study period, when the ventilation rate was higher, NH3 concentrations were greater than 2 ppm for an accumulative time of 1 h or less at the 100- and 200-ft locations. It is important to note that 2 ppm is well below the detectable NH3 odor threshold limit of between 5 and 50 ppm given by the US Environmental Protection Agency [12]. Average daily NH3 concentrations downstream of the poultry houses increased over the course of the study (Figure 6). The general increasing trend was due to a combination of factors: NH3 emission rates increase as birds get older and excrete more manure, and ventilation rates increase in response to a larger bird heat load and (in this study) higher ambient temperatures. There were 2 deviations in the general trend: 1) an ambient temperature decrease
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 6. Daily average NH3 concentration (56 in. from the soil surface).
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(July 22) with decreased tunnel ventilation and increased use of side-wall fans, creating greater dispersion of the exiting air, and 2) on August 11, the average NH3 concentration at the 100-ft location being less than at either the 300- or 500ft location. (The most likely cause for the latter relatively low NH3 concentrations was an equipment error.) Average daily NH3 concentrations decreased more from the 100- to 200-ft measurement locations than from the 200- to 300-ft locations or from the 300- to 500-ft locations. This relatively rapid decrease in NH3 concentrations near the source is characteristic of the unstable air influence on dispersion. Variability in the rate of decrease is due to the influence of temperature, wind direction, and wind speed. Wind direction was a significant influence on downstream NH3 concentrations, despite the fact that the tunnel fans in the houses forced airflow toward the sensor sites. Ammonia concentrations were greatest when the predominant wind direction was from the houses toward the measurement locations. Because the tunnel fans were on the eastern end of the houses, it was expected that the highest observed NH3 concentrations would occur when the winds were blowing roughly west to east. Indeed, 90% of the observations when the NH3 concentrations were found to be greater than 0.5 ppm at 300 ft occurred when the wind was blowing toward
a compass direction of 190 to 300° (Figure 7). Similar results were found 200 ft from the tunnel fans (92%). The effect wind direction had on downstream NH3 concentrations was most notable at distances greater than 100 ft downstream from the tunnel fans. The reduced influence of wind direction at the 100-ft OPL location was due to a low but measurable wind velocity produced by the tunnel fans at the 100-ft location. It is important to note that this particular farm was selected in part because 6 of the 8 tunnel ventilation fans in the houses were located across the eastern end walls of the houses. This fan configuration created a single plume of air from each of the houses directed toward the field measurement sites. In most tunnel-ventilated poultry houses, the majority of the fans are not positioned in the end wall, but rather in the side walls in close proximity to the end walls. This side-wall fan configuration, in effect, creates 2 air masses exiting at right angles to the long axes of the poultry houses, potentially resulting in more mixing of the house air with the outside environment and creating less of an exhaust plume effect. During the first study period, 59% of the measurements were taken when the wind was from 190 to 300° (in the direction of the measurement locations). Average NH3 measure-
Figure 8. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations with respect to general wind direction for 50 to 56 d.
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Figure 7. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations with respect to general wind direction for 28 to 49 d.
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ments were approximately twice as high at the 100-ft location when the wind was blowing in this same direction, as compared with all other directions (Figure 7). The differences increased nearly 4-fold at the 200- and 300-ft locations, suggesting a major influence of wind direction on measurement site concentrations. During the second study period, 37% of the measurements were taken when the wind was blowing between 190 and 300°. At the 100-ft location, there was nearly a 10-fold increase when the wind was blowing between 190 and 300° compared with when it was blowing from all other directions (Figure 8). The difference decreased to approximately 3-fold for the 300- and 500-ft locations, further indicating the influence of the fans on the closest measurement site compared with the effect of climate (wind speed and direction) on more distant downstream sites. It is important to note that average NH3 concentrations at the 200-, 300-, and 500-ft locations remained well below 1 ppm in both wind direction scenarios.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between ammonia concentration and wind speed. The highest average concentrations occurred when wind speed dropped below 2 mph. This suggests that less mixing of the air is occurring as the wind speed decreases and the dispersion of the emitted NH3 is reduced. The highest downstream NH3 concentrations occurred at night between the hours of 5 p.m. and 7 a.m. because of stable nighttime weather conditions and low wind speeds. The diurnal variation was most clear for the 200- and 300-ft locations, where the measurement sites were less affected by the airflow produced by the tunnel fans compared with the 100-ft location. The average daytime (6 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and nighttime (6 p.m. to 6 a.m.) NH3 concentrations for both study periods are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Nighttime NH3 concentrations were approximately twice as high as daytime concentrations for both study periods at distances from the poultry houses of 200 ft or greater.
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Figure 9. Ammonia concentration and wind speed at 300 ft downstream from the broiler houses.
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periods at distances of 200 ft or greater were less than 1 ppm. Ammonia concentrations were 1 ppm or less for approximately 85, 90, and 95% of the measurements made at 200, 300, and 500 ft downstream, respectively. Peak downstream NH3 concentrations occurred when wind speeds were less than 2 mph. The highest downstream NH3 concentrations occurred between the hours of 6 p.m. and 6 a.m., which are typically associated with low wind speeds and thermally stable weather conditions.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS Over the course of the 4-wk study with nearmarket-age birds, the maximum 15-min average downstream NH3 concentrations during the observation periods at distances 100 ft or greater from the poultry houses were detected as greater than 2 ppm for only short periods of time (first study period, 4 h at the 100-ft location, 2 h at the 200-ft location, and 1 h at the 300-ft location; second study period, 1 h at the 100 ft location and less at the 200-ft and more distant locations). These concentrations reflect the effect of climate on downwind dispersion and are concentrations that are less than the EPA detectable odor threshold range of 5 to 50 ppm [12]. Average NH3 concentrations for both study
Figure 11. Average hourly NH3 concentrations at 300 and 500 ft downstream for 50 to 56 d.
1. Ammonia concentrations decreased rapidly in the first 300 ft downstream from the broiler house. 2. Wind direction and wind speed had a large influence on NH3 concentrations downstream from poultry houses. 3. Although 1 farm and 1 flock were all that were monitored during this study, these data provide the first measurements of NH3 concentrations downwind from poultry houses. More work is needed on this topic in the future to examine the impact that housing design and other farm management practices might have on NH3 concentrations outside poultry houses.
REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. National Research Council. 2003. Air emissions from animal feeding operations. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC. 2. Burns, R. T., K. A. Armstrong, F. R. Walker, C. J. Richards, and D. R. Raman. 2003. Ammonia emissions from a broiler production facility in the United States. Pages 88– 95 in Proc. Int. Symp. Gaseous and Odor Emissions from Animal Production Facilities. Commission Internationale du Genie Rural, Horsens, Denmark. 3. Burns, R. T., H. Xin, R. Gates, H. Li, S. Hoff, L. Moody, D. Overhults, and J. Earnest. 2007. Tyson Broiler Ammonia Emission Monitoring Project: Final Report. Iowa State University, University of Kentucky. May 1, 2007. [Report on emissions study sponsored by Tyson Foods Inc.] http://www.extension.iastate.edu/airquality/reports.html Accessed Oct. 2008. 4. Lacey, R. E., J. S. Redwine, and C. B. Parnell Jr.. 2003. Particulate matter and ammonia emission factors for tunnel-ventilated broiler production houses in the southern U.S. Trans. ASAE 46:1203–1214. 5. Liang, Y., H. Xin, E. F. Wheeler, R. S. Gates, J. S. Zajaczkowski, P. Topper, H. Li, and K. D. Casey. 2005. Ammonia emissions from U.S. laying hen houses in Iowa and Pennsylvania. Trans. ASAE 48:1927–1941.
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 10. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations (day and night) at 200 and 300 ft downstream for 28 to 49 d.
Fairchild et al.: AMMONIA OUTSIDE OF BROILER HOUSES 6. Wheeler, E. F., K. D. Casey, R. S. Gates, H. Xin, J. L. Zajaczkowski, P. A. Topper, Y. Liang, and A. J. Pescatore. 2006. Ammonia emissions from twelve U.S. broiler chicken houses. Trans. ASABE 49:1495–1512. 7. Secrest, C. 2003. US District Court, Northern District of Ohio, United States of America (USEPA) vs. Buckeye Egg Farm, L.P., Croton Farm, LLC, and Anton Pohlmann. Civil Action No. 3:03CV7681, Dec. 2003. 8. Model CGSBC50 tunnel fans, and model CGSBC36 exhaust fans, Cumberland, Assumption, IL. 9. Weather station part number H21-002, Onset Computer Corporation, Buzzards Bay, MA. 10. GasFinder Open Path Monitor, Boreal Laser Inc., Spruce Grove, Alberta, Canada. 11. Bauer, J., J. Tulip, P. Kain, M. Paulson, and J. Ondrak. 1999. Results of the application of a new laser based open-
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path spectrometer for the measurement of fugitive emissions from gas processing plants. Pages 186–196 in Proc. Conf. Optical Sensing for Environmental and Process Monitoring. Air and Water Waste Manage. Assoc., Dallas, TX. 12. US Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Hazards of ammonia releases at ammonia refrigeration facilities (update). http://www.epa.gov/oem/docs/chem/ammonia.pdf Accessed Oct. 2008.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by a grant from the US Poultry and Egg Association Harold E. Ford Foundation (Tucker, GA). The authors thank the host producers for their support and suggestions.
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Ammonia concentrations downstream of broiler operations1 B. D. Fairchild,*1 M. Czarick,† L. A. Harper,* J. W. Worley,† C. W. Ritz,* B. D. Hale,‡ and L. P. Naeher‡ *Department of Poultry Science, †Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, and ‡Department of Environmental Health Science, The University of Georgia, Athens 30602
SUMMARY Within broiler production facilities, NH3 concentrations have always been of concern from a bird performance and worker health standpoint. However, NH3 emitted from poultry houses is receiving increased attention from the environmental and community nuisance perspectives. Studies on NH3 emissions from poultry operations found within the literature do not address how NH3 disperses or the actual concentrations observed at varying distances downwind from poultry houses. The objective of this study was to measure downwind NH3 concentrations emitted from broiler houses when ventilation rates would be at a maximum. Open-path laser spectrometers were utilized for this study and for period 1 were placed 100, 200, and 300 ft from the houses from 28 to 49 d and in period 2 were placed at 100, 200, and 500 ft from 50 to 56 d. Data were collected during the last 4 wk of a 56-d grow-out cycle in 2 periods during a summer flock on a 4-house broiler farm located in northeastern Georgia. Ammonia concentrations were lower as distance from the houses increased, with NH3 levels at 100, 200, 300, and 500 ft being less than 1 ppm in approximately 60, 75, 85, and 90% of the observations, respectively. Ammonia concentrations extending to 100 ft from the houses were influenced by the tunnel fans themselves. Wind direction and wind speed were the factors that significantly influenced downstream NH3 concentrations beyond 100 ft. At no time did measured NH3 levels meet or exceed established Occupational Safety and Health Administration-US Environmental Protection Agency NH3 odor-detection threshold values during this study. Key words: wind speed, climate, wind direction, emissions 2009 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 18:630–639 doi:10.3382/japr.2008-00126
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Air emissions are important issues for the poultry industry from both environmental and nuisance viewpoints. The 2004 report from the 1
National Academy of Sciences Ad Hoc Committee on Air Emissions from Animal Feeding Operations concluded that the existing data in the literature regarding NH3 emission rates from animal feeding operations was inconsistent and
Mention of trade names or commercial products in this article is solely for the purpose of providing specific information and does not imply recommendation or endorsement by The University of Georgia. 2 Corresponding author: [email protected]
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Primary Audience: Poultry Producers, Government Environmental Agencies, Researchers
Fairchild et al.: AMMONIA OUTSIDE OF BROILER HOUSES
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poultry operations, poultry companies, and local governments when addressing nuisance complaints and lawsuits concerning these issues. One objective of this study was to measure NH3 concentrations at distances from the source of emissions (tunnel fans) on a commercial broiler farm during periods of high air exchange rates typically encountered during hot weather with near-market-age birds. A second objective was to determine how wind speed and direction influenced NH3 concentrations on a tunnel-ventilated broiler farm. Figure 1. Study farm layout (not to scale).
This study was conducted on a 4-house broiler farm in northeastern Georgia, from July 18 through August 12, 2007. The 40 × 500 ft tunnel-ventilated, dropped-ceiling houses were orientated approximately east-to-west, with approximately 750 ft of open pasture located on the east end of the 4 houses (Figure 1). The houses sit on a fill with a gradual 10-ft drop-off occur-
Figure 2. Percentage of usable NH3 data for each day used in the analysis. Useable data were defined as having an observation at each laser location and having at least 67% of the daily data present.
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
that more work needed to be performed in this area of study [1]. Studies in trace gas emissions from commercial poultry operations do not address gas concentrations once they are exhausted from the poultry house [2–6]. Litigation against growers has implicated NH3 and particulate matter as a nuisance or health-related issue [7]. Knowledge of NH3 dissipation is needed for
MATERIALS AND METHODS
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ring for the first 90 ft. The field was relatively flat, with a 1% slope from 100 to 500 ft. The houses were equipped with five 36-in. side-wall exhaust fans (approximately 10,000 ft3/min at 0.05 in. of static pressure) and eight 50-in. tunnel fans (approximately 23,000 ft3/min at 0.05 in. of static pressure) [8], 6 of which were located in the eastern end wall and 1 of which was located on either side of the tunnel fan end wall. Evaporative cooling was provided by approximately 60 ft of 6-in. evaporative cooling pads located on each side wall of the western end of each of the 4 houses. Approximately 23,500 birds were placed in each of the 4 houses. The monitoring study was initiated when the birds were 4 wk old. The study was concluded when the birds were marketed at approximately 8 wk of age. The litter in the houses had been in place for 2 previous flocks. The farm manager operated the houses according to standard industry practices. Equipment was placed in the open pasture located to the east of the poultry houses. This position was chosen because of the open pasture location and the direction at which the air mass would be exiting the tunnel fans. To avoid confusion between downwind from the fans vs. ambient downwind, in this study, the direction of airflow from the fans was defined as down-
stream, whereas downwind was defined as the direction the ambient wind was blowing. Two weather stations [9] were placed on the farm to monitor temperature, RH, wind speed, and wind direction. Wind speed and direction sensors were placed 10.5 ft from the ground. Downstream NH3 concentrations were measured using open-path, line-averaged laser spectrometry [10]. These open-path lasers (OPL) use the principle of a single-line, fixed-wavelength radiation absorption within the near-infrared spectrum of 1,300 to 1,700 nm [11]. The OPL were tuned to 1,512 nm for the measurement of NH3. Such a narrow absorption line avoids mutual absorption interference of other gases such as CO2, CH4, and water vapor. These instruments have been calibrated routinely at the factory and have an automatic internal reference procedure with a known NH3 standard, and calibration was checked on site with standard gases before and after the study to account for any instrument drift. Ammonia concentrations were measured downstream from the houses at 100-, 200-, and 300-ft distances from the houses for the first 3 wk of the study (28 to 49 d). During the last week of the study (50 to 56 d), NH3 concentrations were measured at 100, 300, and 500 ft from the houses to obtain measurements farther away
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 3. Average daily outside temperature and tunnel fan operation.
Fairchild et al.: AMMONIA OUTSIDE OF BROILER HOUSES
Data Analysis Measurements were taken and recorded per minute from weather stations and OPL. Oneminute data were then averaged on a 15-min basis for analysis. There were periods throughout the study when NH3 measurements could not be collected at 1 or more of the OPL locations, pri-
Table 1. Average ammonia concentrations for the 2 study periods Location (ft) Ammonia (ppm) SEM Observations1 (no.) 28 to 49 d 100 200 300 50 to 56 d 100 300 500
0.528 0.479 0.328
0.017 0.016 0.011
914 914 914
0.492 0.391 0.251
0.052 0.031 0.021
221 221 221
1
An observation is a 15-min average.
marily because of rain, condensation on the reflectors, or foggy conditions. Because one of the primary objectives of the study was to determine how NH3 concentration varied with distance from the poultry houses, any 15-min period that did not have an NH3 data point at each of the 3 OPL locations was not included for analysis. To represent average daily NH3 concentrations more accurately, study days that did not have
Figure 4. Cumulative percentage of observations with corresponding NH3 concentration (28 to 49 d).
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
from the houses when the greatest amount of air was being exchanged. The line-average concentration was measured over a path length of approximately 180 ft at 56 in. from the ground and was centered on houses 1 and 2 to avoid the effects that the trees located on the south side of house 4 might have on airflow during periods with wind (Figure 1). All data were synchronized with house temperature, ventilation level (number of exhaust fans), and ventilation mode (tunnel vs. side-wall inlets), which were collected using a personal computer connected to the electronic environmental controllers in the houses.
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at least 67% of the data present were not used (Figure 2).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The data indicated that the houses were in tunnel ventilation mode approximately 96% of the time. In tunnel ventilation mode, all fresh air enters the house through openings on the west end and is exhausted through the tunnel fans on the east end of the house. When not in tunnel mode, the houses were ventilated through a combination of side-wall air inlets evenly spaced down the length of the houses and a combination of side-wall exhaust fans and 1 or 2 tunnel fans. The average number of tunnel fans operating each day increased over the course of the flock, corresponding to flock age and average outside temperature (Figure 3). During the first week of the study, fewer than half the tunnel ventilation fans were required to maintain proper house conditions. During the last 2 wk of the study, essentially all the tunnel fans operated 24 h/d.
Average NH3 concentrations during the 28to 49-d period when the OPL were located at 100, 200, and 300 ft from the poultry houses are shown in Table 1. Average NH3 concentration during the last week of the study (50 to 56 d) when the OPL were 100, 300, and 500 ft are also shown in Table 1. The highest NH3 concentrations during both study periods were at the 100-ft OPL location and decreased with distance from the houses, ranging from approximately 0.50 ppm at 100 ft to approximately 0.25 ppm at 500 ft. (Note that the daily averages shown in Table 1 are based on data from the last 4 wk of an 8-wk flock when NH3 production was at its highest.) It was expected that the downstream NH3 concentrations would be much lower during the first few weeks of the flock, when the amount of NH3 the houses emit is significantly lower, compared with the last 4 wk of the flock, because of reduced ventilation requirements, broiler size, and manure production. The overall flock average at each site would be lower than the values listed in Table 1.
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at UCSF Library on March 16, 2015
Figure 5. Cumulative percentage of observations with corresponding NH3 concentration (50 to 56 d).
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Figures 4 and 5 show the cumulative percentage of observations vs. NH3 concentration at the different locations for the 2 study periods. For the first study period, NH3 concentrations were 1 ppm or less 64, 86, and 97% of the time at the 100-, 200-, and 300-ft locations, respectively. For the second study period, NH3 concentrations were 1 ppm or less 76, 91, and 94% of the time at the 100-, 300-, and 500-ft locations, respectively. During the 28- to 49-d period, the maximum recorded NH3 concentrations at the 100-, 200-, and 300-ft locations were 2.9, 2.9, and 2.5 ppm, respectively. During the 50- to 56-d period, the maximum recorded NH3 concentrations were 2.1, 2.4, and 1.6 ppm at 100, 300, and 500 ft, respectively. Although the closer sites were somewhat lower during the second study period, when the emissions were higher, the climatic effects of wind speed, wind direction, and temperature also were associated with concentration. All the above maximum NH3 concentrations occurred only for a single 15-min measurement
period during the night. For the first study period, the observed NH3 concentrations were 2 ppm or greater for an accumulative time of 4 h at the 100-ft location, 2 h at the 200-ft location, and 1 h at the 300-ft location. During the second study period, when the ventilation rate was higher, NH3 concentrations were greater than 2 ppm for an accumulative time of 1 h or less at the 100- and 200-ft locations. It is important to note that 2 ppm is well below the detectable NH3 odor threshold limit of between 5 and 50 ppm given by the US Environmental Protection Agency [12]. Average daily NH3 concentrations downstream of the poultry houses increased over the course of the study (Figure 6). The general increasing trend was due to a combination of factors: NH3 emission rates increase as birds get older and excrete more manure, and ventilation rates increase in response to a larger bird heat load and (in this study) higher ambient temperatures. There were 2 deviations in the general trend: 1) an ambient temperature decrease
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Figure 6. Daily average NH3 concentration (56 in. from the soil surface).
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(July 22) with decreased tunnel ventilation and increased use of side-wall fans, creating greater dispersion of the exiting air, and 2) on August 11, the average NH3 concentration at the 100-ft location being less than at either the 300- or 500ft location. (The most likely cause for the latter relatively low NH3 concentrations was an equipment error.) Average daily NH3 concentrations decreased more from the 100- to 200-ft measurement locations than from the 200- to 300-ft locations or from the 300- to 500-ft locations. This relatively rapid decrease in NH3 concentrations near the source is characteristic of the unstable air influence on dispersion. Variability in the rate of decrease is due to the influence of temperature, wind direction, and wind speed. Wind direction was a significant influence on downstream NH3 concentrations, despite the fact that the tunnel fans in the houses forced airflow toward the sensor sites. Ammonia concentrations were greatest when the predominant wind direction was from the houses toward the measurement locations. Because the tunnel fans were on the eastern end of the houses, it was expected that the highest observed NH3 concentrations would occur when the winds were blowing roughly west to east. Indeed, 90% of the observations when the NH3 concentrations were found to be greater than 0.5 ppm at 300 ft occurred when the wind was blowing toward
a compass direction of 190 to 300° (Figure 7). Similar results were found 200 ft from the tunnel fans (92%). The effect wind direction had on downstream NH3 concentrations was most notable at distances greater than 100 ft downstream from the tunnel fans. The reduced influence of wind direction at the 100-ft OPL location was due to a low but measurable wind velocity produced by the tunnel fans at the 100-ft location. It is important to note that this particular farm was selected in part because 6 of the 8 tunnel ventilation fans in the houses were located across the eastern end walls of the houses. This fan configuration created a single plume of air from each of the houses directed toward the field measurement sites. In most tunnel-ventilated poultry houses, the majority of the fans are not positioned in the end wall, but rather in the side walls in close proximity to the end walls. This side-wall fan configuration, in effect, creates 2 air masses exiting at right angles to the long axes of the poultry houses, potentially resulting in more mixing of the house air with the outside environment and creating less of an exhaust plume effect. During the first study period, 59% of the measurements were taken when the wind was from 190 to 300° (in the direction of the measurement locations). Average NH3 measure-
Figure 8. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations with respect to general wind direction for 50 to 56 d.
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Figure 7. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations with respect to general wind direction for 28 to 49 d.
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ments were approximately twice as high at the 100-ft location when the wind was blowing in this same direction, as compared with all other directions (Figure 7). The differences increased nearly 4-fold at the 200- and 300-ft locations, suggesting a major influence of wind direction on measurement site concentrations. During the second study period, 37% of the measurements were taken when the wind was blowing between 190 and 300°. At the 100-ft location, there was nearly a 10-fold increase when the wind was blowing between 190 and 300° compared with when it was blowing from all other directions (Figure 8). The difference decreased to approximately 3-fold for the 300- and 500-ft locations, further indicating the influence of the fans on the closest measurement site compared with the effect of climate (wind speed and direction) on more distant downstream sites. It is important to note that average NH3 concentrations at the 200-, 300-, and 500-ft locations remained well below 1 ppm in both wind direction scenarios.
Figure 9 shows the relationship between ammonia concentration and wind speed. The highest average concentrations occurred when wind speed dropped below 2 mph. This suggests that less mixing of the air is occurring as the wind speed decreases and the dispersion of the emitted NH3 is reduced. The highest downstream NH3 concentrations occurred at night between the hours of 5 p.m. and 7 a.m. because of stable nighttime weather conditions and low wind speeds. The diurnal variation was most clear for the 200- and 300-ft locations, where the measurement sites were less affected by the airflow produced by the tunnel fans compared with the 100-ft location. The average daytime (6 a.m. to 6 p.m.) and nighttime (6 p.m. to 6 a.m.) NH3 concentrations for both study periods are shown in Figures 10 and 11. Nighttime NH3 concentrations were approximately twice as high as daytime concentrations for both study periods at distances from the poultry houses of 200 ft or greater.
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Figure 9. Ammonia concentration and wind speed at 300 ft downstream from the broiler houses.
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periods at distances of 200 ft or greater were less than 1 ppm. Ammonia concentrations were 1 ppm or less for approximately 85, 90, and 95% of the measurements made at 200, 300, and 500 ft downstream, respectively. Peak downstream NH3 concentrations occurred when wind speeds were less than 2 mph. The highest downstream NH3 concentrations occurred between the hours of 6 p.m. and 6 a.m., which are typically associated with low wind speeds and thermally stable weather conditions.
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS Over the course of the 4-wk study with nearmarket-age birds, the maximum 15-min average downstream NH3 concentrations during the observation periods at distances 100 ft or greater from the poultry houses were detected as greater than 2 ppm for only short periods of time (first study period, 4 h at the 100-ft location, 2 h at the 200-ft location, and 1 h at the 300-ft location; second study period, 1 h at the 100 ft location and less at the 200-ft and more distant locations). These concentrations reflect the effect of climate on downwind dispersion and are concentrations that are less than the EPA detectable odor threshold range of 5 to 50 ppm [12]. Average NH3 concentrations for both study
Figure 11. Average hourly NH3 concentrations at 300 and 500 ft downstream for 50 to 56 d.
1. Ammonia concentrations decreased rapidly in the first 300 ft downstream from the broiler house. 2. Wind direction and wind speed had a large influence on NH3 concentrations downstream from poultry houses. 3. Although 1 farm and 1 flock were all that were monitored during this study, these data provide the first measurements of NH3 concentrations downwind from poultry houses. More work is needed on this topic in the future to examine the impact that housing design and other farm management practices might have on NH3 concentrations outside poultry houses.
REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. National Research Council. 2003. Air emissions from animal feeding operations. Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, DC. 2. Burns, R. T., K. A. Armstrong, F. R. Walker, C. J. Richards, and D. R. Raman. 2003. Ammonia emissions from a broiler production facility in the United States. Pages 88– 95 in Proc. Int. Symp. Gaseous and Odor Emissions from Animal Production Facilities. Commission Internationale du Genie Rural, Horsens, Denmark. 3. Burns, R. T., H. Xin, R. Gates, H. Li, S. Hoff, L. Moody, D. Overhults, and J. Earnest. 2007. Tyson Broiler Ammonia Emission Monitoring Project: Final Report. Iowa State University, University of Kentucky. May 1, 2007. [Report on emissions study sponsored by Tyson Foods Inc.] http://www.extension.iastate.edu/airquality/reports.html Accessed Oct. 2008. 4. Lacey, R. E., J. S. Redwine, and C. B. Parnell Jr.. 2003. Particulate matter and ammonia emission factors for tunnel-ventilated broiler production houses in the southern U.S. Trans. ASAE 46:1203–1214. 5. Liang, Y., H. Xin, E. F. Wheeler, R. S. Gates, J. S. Zajaczkowski, P. Topper, H. Li, and K. D. Casey. 2005. Ammonia emissions from U.S. laying hen houses in Iowa and Pennsylvania. Trans. ASAE 48:1927–1941.
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Figure 10. Average of 15-min NH3 concentrations (day and night) at 200 and 300 ft downstream for 28 to 49 d.
Fairchild et al.: AMMONIA OUTSIDE OF BROILER HOUSES 6. Wheeler, E. F., K. D. Casey, R. S. Gates, H. Xin, J. L. Zajaczkowski, P. A. Topper, Y. Liang, and A. J. Pescatore. 2006. Ammonia emissions from twelve U.S. broiler chicken houses. Trans. ASABE 49:1495–1512. 7. Secrest, C. 2003. US District Court, Northern District of Ohio, United States of America (USEPA) vs. Buckeye Egg Farm, L.P., Croton Farm, LLC, and Anton Pohlmann. Civil Action No. 3:03CV7681, Dec. 2003. 8. Model CGSBC50 tunnel fans, and model CGSBC36 exhaust fans, Cumberland, Assumption, IL. 9. Weather station part number H21-002, Onset Computer Corporation, Buzzards Bay, MA. 10. GasFinder Open Path Monitor, Boreal Laser Inc., Spruce Grove, Alberta, Canada. 11. Bauer, J., J. Tulip, P. Kain, M. Paulson, and J. Ondrak. 1999. Results of the application of a new laser based open-
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path spectrometer for the measurement of fugitive emissions from gas processing plants. Pages 186–196 in Proc. Conf. Optical Sensing for Environmental and Process Monitoring. Air and Water Waste Manage. Assoc., Dallas, TX. 12. US Environmental Protection Agency. 2001. Hazards of ammonia releases at ammonia refrigeration facilities (update). http://www.epa.gov/oem/docs/chem/ammonia.pdf Accessed Oct. 2008.
Acknowledgments
This research was funded by a grant from the US Poultry and Egg Association Harold E. Ford Foundation (Tucker, GA). The authors thank the host producers for their support and suggestions.
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