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637 been drenched with corrosive sublimate by the necessary to progress as the bold propounder of theories; that there must be Maclaurens as well as Newtons in the service ".herbalist" impostor. of science; and, indeed, we cannot, upon any department of We cannot close these observations without alluding to the Nature, bring to bear too great a variety of mental character. therefore, there were no other reason for instituting a school following words by Dr. BULL, one of those who gave such po- If, of practical chemistry than the prospect it affords of smoothsitive evidence of the contagion of secondary syphilis.-" He ing the path of future philosophers, it ought to be sufficient himself had observed the disease one hundred times in nurses to call forth and sustain our efforts. But there are more imwho got foundlings to nurse." Is Dr. BULL aware that he is mediate and pressing motives. The recent discoveries of chemistry, especially relating to organic matter, are like those one of those lucky individuals who has seen what no other of navigators who touch only the shores of new continents mortal, Irish or English, ever before witnessed ? We beg to -they merely indicate unexplored regions, and point the way the instruments and methods of reinform him that JOHN HuNTER met with a few supposed cases, for future researches. That search recently devised for investigating organic productions which he details; RicoRD alludes to one or two; and others; should have been so little employed in this country,-as you who have had much greater opportunities than Dr. BULL oi must admit they have been,-can only be explained by the absence of efficient instruction. No one, in the present day, seeing syphilis, have rarely witnessed such cases. Might not can oppose the progress of science on the ground of his not he find, on comparing these cases, that a hundred was not the being able to discover any USE in it. For while it would be difficult to point out any practical application of many beautiexact numberMight not he discover that he has classed af ful and successful investigations in organic chemistry, insyphilis cases similar to the one reported by Mr. AcToN in Tsi stances have been so numerous of most recondite observations, LANCET for January, 1845, which was eczema rubrum?Andi] finding a use in promoting the arts, and adding to the comforts of mankind, that such a plea can no longer avail as a subterhe sifts his evidence.and takes into consideration the ignorancE fuge for ignorance. Who, for example, could have imagined that the experiment of Galvani on the frog, as he watched the of his patients, the inattention to their symptoms, and th< of its muscles on the contact of metallic plates, should jerking occasional immorality of wet nurses, he may pause before hE have brought forth, as it has recently done, the numerous arts have of galvano-plastics, electrotyping, electroplating, &c., and again states that he has met with a hundred such cases. revolutionized some of the best established manufactures of Manchester and Sheffield. Who would stake his reputation on the prediction that the beautiful crystalline bodies, formed ADDRESS AN by the substitution of chlorine, bromine, iodine, &c., for hydrogen, in organic acids and alkaloids, by Laurent and Hofmann, DELIVERED IN shall always remain mere objects of speculative curiosity, and
plaintiff had
THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF HANOVER On
CHEMISTRY,
finil
Wednesday Evening,
no
use for the benefit of society ?
Assuming, then, that you, Gentlemen, are satisfied that the study of Nature and her laws should in every direction be promoted, and that if it be expedient to teach what is already known, together with the principles and methods of research, and to assist further inquirers, it should be done efficiently, and by the best means in our power, I would invite your at-
SQUARE, June 3.
THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CLARENDON IN THE CHAIR.
tention to the practical school of our College. I think it may be said with safety, that until this College BY JOHN GARDNER, M.D. was established, no chemist of any reputation was engaged THE establishment of this institution, toward which your in this country solely in teaching the science practically. The assistance has been so kindly and liberally afforded, must lectures of professors of colleges and private schools are doubtappear, to every one who fully considers its design and ob- less admirable means for imparting a general knowledge of ject, one of the most important enterprizes ever contem- the science. Occupying usually an hour daily, it requires a plated in this country. The dependence of Great Britain full session of six months to teach the leading facts and for her prosperity on arts and manufactures, based upon theories of inorganic matter, allowing only a few compendious physical science, in the absence of all systematic efforts to sketches for organic chemistrv. The Drecaration for these lecfoster and advance our knowledge of nature and her laws, has tures, together with other avocations, must necessarily have often called forth expressions of astonishment. You have engaged the whole time of the professors and their assistants. determined to terminate this state of things, and to form It was impossible for them to establish practical schools. The a school for inducting the student of Nature into a profound Apothecaries’ Company, (with that desire to advance the acquaintance with chemistry-that branch of natural science education of the profession for which that body has been which most needs at this time to be studied and promoted, remarkable,) three or four years ago, added to their curriculum and which is the key to the greatest variety of professions, practical chemistry, and the schools, in order to conform to trades, and economic arts. This being the general design of this law, instituted classes, which, during an hour daily, practhe Royal College of Chemistry, I am instructed by the Coun- tised the preparation of substances, and the application of tests. cil to place before you, somewhat in detail, although as briefly A few laboratories were also open for working students,at a fee of 10l. per month; the most frequented of these as possible, the means by which they propose to accomplish it, and to sketch out in outline the several subordinate points numbered only six students ; but on inquiring of every instiamongst which their efforts should be distributed, in order to tution in London, I could not discover one where the whole time and attention of a qualified professor was given to the stuaccomplish their main purpose. I need not remind you of the popularity of the science of dent, or where practical teaching was pursued systematically. If an alteration has taken place-if practical schools of chemistry; you are well aware of the fact, and of its causes, the beauty of its laws and principles, and the attractive character chemistry exist, and professors are appointed to devote their of the experiments usually exhibited to illustrate them. The whole time and energies to teaching-if the fees now demanded chemical lecturer commonly commands overflowing audiences, are so moderate as to fill the new laboratories with students, and nothing is more easy of attainment, or more accessible, it is to the enlightened Noblemen and Gentlemen who have in this country, than a speculative acquaintance with its formed this College that this service to science is to be attrileading facts and theories. You know, too, how often buted. it has happened, that amongst the spectators of the brilSince this College has been contemplated, too, the Pharmaliant phenomena of chemistry, some have been excited to a ceutical Society has opened a laboratory for teaching their love of the science, and a desire to pursue it, and have, by art in a scientific manner. I mention this, merely to observe, their own efforts, under great difficulties, and after a consi- that while it renders unnecessary a department of the College derable time, distinguished themselves by becoming original for teaching pharmacy, its objects are totally distinct and discoverers. A history of the difficulties met with and sur- different from our own. It is to pure chemistry, and to its mounted by those whose names are eminent in science, would application to practical arts, unrepresented by active societies, be, perhaps, the most powerful plea for this institution. It is that this institution is devoted. The method of study adopted at Giessen having been sucdifficult to fix a limit to the achievements of genius,but he who would entrust science to individual effort, must have forgotten cessful, so many chemists of reputation in this country having that the patient collector of facts, the labourer on details, is as studied there, and being accustomed to proclaim this fact.in ,
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demanding public confidence, it became a matter of primary importance to ascertain wherein the peculiarities of that school consisted. I am able very distinctly to assign the ’i causes of the pre-eminence of Giessen as a school of chemistry. In the first place, the reputation of Professor Liebig would I attract students, and the liberality of the Hessian government enables the professor to charge fees sufficiently moderate to come within the means of young men from the manufacturing, trading, and professional classes, and to employ qualified assistants to take the burthen of teaching. Secondly, a system of study is pursued, which embraces an initiation into all the manipulations required in the practice of the science, keeps the student’s attention constantly on the alert, sharpens his faculties of observation, obliges him to become acquainted with the principles and theories of chemistry, in order to draw correct inferences from the phenomena he creates, and, in one word, acts as a rigid mental discipline, as well as a technical
mixed sciences are acquired by those who have passed successfully through our universities is a matter of common remark. The of chemistry, in like manner, when pursued according to the system which I have described, becomes an ORGANON-an instrumental means of attaining an intellectual habit and qualification for the observation and interpretation of Nature. He who has thus become an expert analyst, has obtained a power capable of application in any direction for advancing his own knowledge, for practising the useful arts and manufactures, and for extending the boundaries of science. It is this system which is pursued in the laboratory of the Royal College of Chemistry, and its effects are already beginning to be manifested. A member of our Council, himself accustomed to teach another science, applicable to one of the noblest practical arts, works daily in the laboratory. A few days ago, he expressed to me his admiration of the earnestness, constancy, and zeal, displayed by every student, without exception, and his conviction that the system of teaching adopted, in comparison with others, is the only method of acquiring a satisfactory knowledge of chemistry. It is obviously too early for us to have any very striking investigations to adduce in proof of the value of our school. I may be allowed, however, to refer to a paper read by one of the students at the last meeting of the Chemical Society, on a purely scientific subject-namely, the phosphates of organic bases, as a contribution to science, which would do no discredit to a veteran. Mr. Nicholson, in that paper, detailed a number of analyses, made with remarkable skill and accuracy. Of course, it is chiefly to practice in analyses that the attention of the more advanced students is now, after only eight months’ study, confined. Our professor mentioned to me a trial he made, lately, of three of the students, by giving them for practice the analysis of gunpowder. The numbers which they respectively presented to him were1. Nitrate of potass, 7P.69 .. Carbon, 13.86 .. Sulphur, g.45 .. Moisture, 0. 2. Nitrate of potass, j6.g1 Carbon, 13.17 .. Su)phur,i).27.. Mo)Sture,0.65 3. Nitrate of potass, 76.70 Carbon, ]3.2S Suttihur,9,t7 Moisture, 0.65 I select this merely as an illustration of the way in which the students occupy themselves; numberless analyses of various substances are made in this way for practice every day. In a report presented to the Council, at the close of the first session, the Professor says, that several students will be perfectly qualified to commence, in the next session, the analysis of soils, ashes of plants, and mineral waters ; and so far as the present session has elapsed, there has been no relaxation of their labours to frustrate that anticipation. But you may very reasonably ask, Gentlemen, to what purposes can the knowledge and the skill thus obtained be applied, which shall compensate the supporters of the College for their labours and their money, and which shall avail to the students themselves in their progress in life ? To both parts of this question we can return a satisfactory answer. The advancement of science itself, the improvement of arts, the origination of new sources of industry, the illumination of the obscurer parts of physiology and pathology, the increase of our means of remedying diseases, and preserving health, may all be fairly anticipated to flow from a practical school of chemistry. A numerous body of men, qualified in the manner I have described, and scattered throughout this country, cannot fail to produce visible and palpable effects. There is a natural tendency in such knowledge as is definite to propagate and expand. Possessing a clear insight into the laws and phenomena of Nature, combined with manual dexterity, the young chemist will find everywhere around him materials unexamined, and examples of manufacturing industry leading to wealth and rank. Did these ever fail to animate men to exertion ?1 But we need not dwell on vague anticipations of the future. ’fiTe hope, under your fostering care, something will be done in our laboratory, to honour the founders of the College, and to commend it to the patronage of a larger number of subscribers, to invoke the aid of other societies, and to secure the favour of the government. It is proposed, as soon as the new laboratories are erected, to commence investigations for scientific and practical purposes. The Council have endeavoured to obtain the co-operation of the Royal Agricultural Society in the pursuit of researches which may benefit the landowner and farmer. The education of chemists capable ofanalyzing soils, manures, and produce, and of giving safe advice to the agriculturist, for economy, the increase of produce, and to save him from the frauds now so openly practised upon him, would seem sufficient to ensure support from that source. But there are subjects of inquiry which are of immediate and paramount importance for the successful cultivation of land, of such a nature as to require a special
i
introduction to all the facts at present known. The chemical student there must possess the preliminary qualification of a speculative acquaintance with the science. He then begins a course of experiments with his own hands, which produce the actions or manifestations which are characteristic of every known substance, at least, of all which are of ordinary occurThe plan is contained in the little work, entitled, rence. " Outlines of the Course of Qualitative Analysis followed in the Giessen Laboratory," which has lately been presented to the English public. The student takes potassa, soda, ammonia, baryta, magnesia lime, alumina, and all the metals and their oxides ; and with each he mixes the re-agents, which have, by the consent of chemists, been established as infallibly manifesting their peculiar reactions, and thus detecting with certainty their presence or absence in any given compound. In these experiments he has the constant assistance of a qualified teacher, to guard him against the use of too little or too great proportions of water, spirit, or other solvents-too great or too little heat; -to show him the best manner of manipulating; and to assist him in interpreting the results. These results are certain appearances, mostly addressed to the eye; and consequently, when spoken of as colours more or less vivid--precipitates more or less distinct, &c.,-form subjects, beyond any other in the whole range of human knowledge requiring the aid of an experienced teacher to define. The experiments thus to be made amount to many hundreds. When the student becomes familiar with all the phenomena produced by his re-agents with these bodies, and is able to assign the cause,-to give the rationale of the re-actions,-he begins the analyses of unknown substances-that is, of substances unknown to himself, but which are prepared by the Professor, and arranged in order, so as to lead the student, by slow and safe steps, from simple to complex cases. This they call going through the bottles. About twenty liquids, containing each only one base, are first taken; then, as many with one acid and one base; subsequently, two or more bases, two or more acids, and so on until the more complex cases are reached : and in the end, all the inorganic bases, and a number of acids in admixture, are analyzed, to try the student’s skill and memory. So important is this method of study felt to be, that even many men, with a high reputation for scientific knowledge, as soon as they have looked closely at its effects, have at Giessen submitted to go through the drudgery of this systematic course. When perfectly familiar with qualitative analysis-that is, when possessed of the power, imparted in this course, of detecting the presence or absence of every element in any possible form of mixture or compound,-the student is taught, by a similar system, to separate and estimate the quantities of every individual constituent: this is quantitative analysis ; afterwards, the preparation of organic matter, and its analysis by combustion, becomes a comparatively easy step. The constant presence, the incessant stimulus, and immediate aid, of a qualified instructor, is the corner-stone of this system. It has a parallel only in the custom, at our great lng1ish universities, of working with a private tutor when the student aspires to honours in classics or mathematics. Every difficulty, as it is met with, is explained; every fact for which the student feels at a loss is imparted; and his daily labour is definitely marked by the point reached in his onward progress. In a university education, the information obtained is generally held to be inferior in importance to the discipline of the mind, the attainment of habits of continued attention, and the exercise of the reasoning powers and memory. The deep study of classics and mathematics teaclies men how to learn, as well as furnishes them with the instruments available on all occasions and on all subjects; and the facility with which the
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laboratory, concerted efforts, and money to pursue; and we trust that the Royal Agricultural Society will, ere long, lend its assistance towards the institution of these inquiries. There are great advantages in such a laboratory as we possess, for carrying out investigations; the presence of numbers engaged in the same work, and of the professors, to assist, suggestions, leads often to success where indiby advice and viduals, by there own solitary exertions, fail. Subjects, too, are supplied and help afforded, the value of which must be felt to be appreciated. It by no means, as I conceive, lessens the merit of the individual who thus seeks assistance; on the contrary, it is most honourable and conducive, both to private and public benefit. We have already indications of fruits of this description. AT. Warren De la Rue has worked out, in our poorly-provided temporary laboratory, an investigation on cochineal, which, when published, will add to his already wellearned reputation as a chemist, and it has also furnished him with a new material available for the improvement of his beautiful and interesting art. It could not fail to be a subject of remark amongst the students, that the chemist is obliged to have recourse to Bohemian glass for his combustion tubes. One of our friends remarked, that he could induce English makers to fabricate such glass if they knew the exact proportion of its ingredients. Upon this hint Mr. Rowney undertook the task of analyzing some specimens of Bohemian glass. Mr. Rowney’s accuracy imparts value to the results he has obtained, and it seems very likely that from this point will emanate such improvements in the manufacture of glass as to preclude the necessity of importing from Bohemia. Gentlemen, these are trifles-this College is but in its embryo state, it has not even reached infancy; but it is diffi-
discovery will not only bring this into use, but it will enable the practitioner of medicine to prescribe the pure alkaloid, and to combine it at pleasure with vegetable or other acids, and thus to obviate the objections which are found in practice to lie against the sulphate of quinine, placing at command quinine and a variety of its salts at a price which will not preclude the poorest from its benefit. A grcat proportion of the vegetable kingdom still requires to be chemically investigated; of the materials which constitute the animal body, every one, without exception, awaits a new analysis and investigation. Not many months since, Professor Redtenbacher, of Prague, found that taurine, a constituent of bile, which acts a most important part in the animal economy, contains sulphur to the extent of 26 per cent. This element had been previously overlooked, in consequence of what must be considered
a
defect in the method of analysis
by combustion; in that process the oxygen of the analyzed body being estimated by the amount of loss, the equivalent of sulphur being precisely double that of oxygen, its presence did not disturb the calculation of the results. Professor Gregory has remarked, that this observation of Redtenbacher will probably turn out, in its consequences, one of the most important yet made in animal chemistry; and it cannot be doubted, that although our views must be changed in many points, in consequence of it, our knowledge will be extended and rendered more precise and more capable of direct application to physiology and pathology. Already Professor Liebig has found reason to believe that Mulder’s protein and oxides of protein exist only in imagination, as sulphur remains combined with the other elements after fibrine and albumen are subjected to
Mulder’s processes. To extend this inquiry into all the materials of the animal tissues, requires many skilful hands cult to repress our enthusiasm when we recollect what the and much labour. science of chemistry has done and is now doing, and contemThe principle upon which organic investigations are now plate the boundless unexplored regions of Nature inviting our pursued, is worthy of your serious attention; it is, to subject a substance to the action of heat, of oxidizing and reducing industry, and offering us its sure reward. Look only at the present uses of gas. Our esteemed friend agents, and generally to every influence capable of changing Mr. Lowe tells us that 1000 tons of coal are daily decomposed or modifying its composition, to analyze the resulting comfor the production of gas in the metropolis; that the iron pounds, to study their mutual relations, and thus to ascertain pipes in London alone measure several hundred miles-the the true nature of the original matter. This principle was extent of the smaller being almost incalculable; that gasome- first adopted by Chevreul ; its application by Dumas and ters are now made as large as a house, and that every town and Boullay to the compound ethers, Professor Liebig says, gave almost village has its gas-works. Consider the trades created, the first impulse to the extraordinary development which the myriads of men employed in working the mechanism of chemistry has since then attained. It has created, in fact, a this vast chemical process-and recollect that it is only in our new branch of the science, which it would be of great importTo ance to distinguish by a distinct, designation. We are familiar own time that this branch of industry has been created. chemistry, too, we are especially indebted for the present with the distinctions of analytical and synthetical chemistry. cheapness of this beautiful and indispensable light. The Analysis is the separation of a chemical compound into its comapplications found for the other products of the decomposi- ponent parts. Synthesis is the putting together the elements tion of coal have enabled the manufacturers to reduce its of compounds, and combining them into a chemical union. price; it has become one of the most useful instruments of The formation of water, and of nitric acid, by directly comthe laboratory, and it will now be employed, we trust, as a bining their elements, as effected by Mr. Cavendish, are means of effecting further discoveries. Will any one affirm examples of synthesis. Very little has been done in this that it is impossible to obtain from coal a solid, dry, portable direction, beyond a few instances illustrative of the safety of hydrocarbon, capable of being made a substitute for wax and depending upon analytical results, in certain cases, as philosotallow in the fabrication of candles, and so cheap as to super- phic facts. The only example I recollect of synthetic chemistry sede animal fat in lighting the humblest cottages ? applicable to practical purposes is, however, a most brilliant The point, however, to which I wish to direct your special one, made by Gmelin-namely, the formation of artificial ultraattention, in reference to our anticipations of advancing the marine, by mixing silica, alumina, soda, and sulphur, colourless science, is, organic chemistry. The apparatus for organic bodies, to produce that beautiful blue pigment. There is no combustion, the great invention of Professor Liebig, is already reason to believe that it is by way of synthesis that Nature proalmost daily in use in our laboratory. By its means, as you duces the many complex substances, termed organic matter. know, the analysis of matter belonging to the animal and The affinities of inorganic bodies are employed to group together vegetable kingdoms-the produce, in some form or other, of the proper elements, and in the process of constructing the the vital force-is effected with greater ease and equal pre- materials required in vegetable and animal organisms, intercision with the analysis of a soil or a mineral. The rapidity mediate compounds are formed, which, not being needed in with which discoveries are being made, and the immense a separate state, are again combined, and ultimately give rise extent of the science, render it almost impossible, except for to the substances which are the designed results of the prothe professed chemist, to follow and to appreciate its import- cess. Proceeding in the path indicated by Chevreul, these inance. Every now and then, however, some fact is made ternal forms of organic bodies are detached, recombined, known, having an immediate application to practical purposes, and undergo a variety of metamorphoses, by which the true and indicating how vast a field of inquiry exists in organic constitution of the first is revealed, and new complex bodies nature. Within the last few days, Professor Liebig has an- created, as it were, as truly organic as any of those produced nounced to us that a residue left in the manufacture of sul- by the vital force. The theory of compound radicals is the pliate of quinine is the pure alkaloid itself, merely obscured general expression of the fact, that very simple forms, consistby its form. The discovery of quinine by Pellatier, in 1820, ing of a few equivalents of two or three elements, may be revolutionized pharmacy. The active principles of the most assumed as the basis or rudimental centres of all the varieties nauseous drugs can now be isolated from the accompaniments of compounds constructed in living organisms. By breaking of woody fibre and other inert matters, and exhibited in a up the internal structure of these compounds, or by bringing concentrated form. This is a blessing which only those who to bear upon them other affinities, that is, by employing cerhave had to swallow bark in substance can fully under- tain media in imitation of the way pursued by Nature, many stand. During the twenty-six years in which sulphate of natural productions can be produced artificially, and a great quinine has been manufactured, a considerable portion, every number can be artificially made, exactly analogous to the year, of the pure alkaloid has been laid aside, and consequently acids, neutral bodies, and alkaloids found in plants. Of the a considerable amount has accumulated. Professor Liebig’s former kind; that is, of natural productions produced artifi-
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cially, several have become of commercial importance: the the oil obtained by distilling the flowers of the gualtheria manufacture of sugar from starch, by the mediation of sulphuric procumbens; and very recently, Professor Redtenbacher, by actacid ; of British gum, also from starch, which has materially ing upon oleic acid with nitric acid, and submitting the result affected the commerce of Senegal and the Gambia; and that to distillation; obtained no less than nine acids in the distillate; of valerianic acid, are well-known examples. The process for one of these is a new acid ; but very curiously, it was effecting the first of these transformations will illustrate the discovered at the same time in his own laboratory by a student, action of media. Sugar and starch have the same composi- in the plant called pelargonium roseum, from which, therefore, tion, except that the former contains the elements of two he has named the acid, pelargonic acid. It is impossible, in contemplating these results, to avoid atoms of water more than the latter. To add the water to the starch directly, so as to convert it into sugar, is at present entertaining the belief that chemists are upon a track which beyond our power. But we know that the vital force, aided will ultimately lead to the production, by artificial processes, by heat, converts starch into sugar. This is the rationale of of the natural alkaloids, morphine, strychnine, quinine, or and to the the process of malting. And a method has been known for such vegetable bodies as indigo, santaline, &c., some time, of effecting the same purpose; that is, of adding elucidation of the modus operandi of the vital forces in the elements of two atoms of water to the elements of starch, transforming the materials presented to the organs of nutrition and thereby converting it into sugar. This is done by the of plants and animals. As I have already observed, an especial designation seems long-continued boiling of starch in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. The acid acts as a medium to effect the demanded for this branch of chemistry, which is neither anaassumption of the water by the starch, and to transform it lytical nor synthetical. I will therefore propose, in the into sugar, the acid itself remaining unchanged. The same absence of a better term, to denominate the aggregate of the transformation may be effected on linen rags, and any form of processes by the term genesis, and the subject, genetical, or ligneous fibre, thus converting them into sugar. Other natural con8tructÙ)e chemistry. This branch of the science is occupying the attention of very substances which have been produced artificially possess only scientific interest, as URBA, formic acid, butyric acid, 8,c. ’ many students on the continent, and is undergoing a rapid From the masses of figures and calculations, But it by no means follows that these are of no practical The formation of butyric acid from starch, threw an now accumulating, representing analyses, we may anticipate use. important light on the sources of animal fat. Natural urea is a many practical results, of vast importance, to emerge. I ought curious and highly interesting substance. The restoration of not to quit this subject, without alluding to the improvements nitrogenous matter which has served its purposes in the animal in candle-making, resulting from Chevreul’s labours. For my own part, I entertain the most sanguine hopes that economy, to the atmosphere, whence it had been derived by vegetable organisms, requires it to be brought into the same the diseases most fatal to mankind will be elucidated, and, form it had originally, in order to its diffusion through the perhaps, wholly prevented, by pursuing this path of chemical whole mass of air around our planet-namely, into ammonia. inquiry. But ammonia would injure the animal tissues. The contriWhilst the science of organic chemistry was advancing on the Continent like a torrent, was this country to be permitted to vance by which this difficulty has been evaded, excited the admiration of M. Dumas. "Nature, ever provident," says he, remain the only one in Europe where the necessary qualifi" has caused the animal to secrete urea. Urea is a neutral cation could not be obtained to enable men to assist in this and inert substance, which can pass through the delicate great work ? The example of Hesse Darmstadt, in founding of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder, without irritat- and supporting a school at the bidding of Liebig, who structure ing or inflaming them. By the addition of two atoms of has given his country new importance in Europe, has been water, it becomes converted into the carbonate of ammonia. followed by France, Prussia, Belgium, and even Russia In this form it travels from the earth to the atmosphere, from and Austria, and nearly all the smaller German states. Is the atmosphere to the earth in rain and dew, and is thence the accomplished chemist less likely to find profitable employagain served upon, and elaborated by, plants into the forms ment in the manufactures, arts, and professions of Great adapted for animal nourishment." Britain, than in those countries ?1 Much as we have to boast The manner in which Nature employs the affinities of inor- of in the way of popular lectures, it might occur to many ganic bodies as media for the production of organic compounds, to suspect the soundness of the knowledge thus obtained is in some cases understood. Thus, for instance, the potass if the patent list were examined, and the extraordinary mistaken up from the soil by plants, has a great affinity for car- takes made, to the serious pecuniary loss of many persons for bonic acid, and by virtue of that affinity fixes it from its want of just scientific notions, considered. I may mention, as gaseous state in the atmosphere. In the juices of the plants an illustration of this remark, the credit given by the public, it meets with water in a nascent state, asit is separated from and, I might add, by some distinguished individuals, to the its combinations in the organism; this water, or rather its profession, made not long since, that a fuel had been discoelements, combining with the carbonating potass, converts it vered which would burn and supply heat without leaving the into oxalate of potass, or by a further accession of hydrogen, ordinary products of combustion-that no carbonic acid was into citric, malic, tartaric, and other acids, sugar, gum, starch, given to the atmosphere in burning this material. The belief &c., oxygen being set free. Thus the affinity of potass for entertained in this ridiculous fiction was sincere enough, as it carbonic acid, &c., is the force which primarily originates the cost the loss of several lives. Assuredly, the spread of changes essential to these combinations. In like manner, but chemists, taught after the manner we have adopted, will by processes not at present understood, phosphorus and sul- supply the public with better instruction. It is a startling, but nevertheless certain fact, that in many phur, in all probability, mediate the production of materials for building up animal bodies, albumen, fibrine, &c. of our manufactures, depending, wholly or in part, upon cheOf the latter kind-that is, artificial organic compounds,- mical principles, this country is fast falling behind those of the several basic bodies or alkaloids have been formed by Laurent, continent. If the instances in which this is most evident may Hofmann, and others, and a very interesting one from the oil appear insignificant in comparison with the vast creations of of bran, by Professor Fownes, termed by him furfurine. These our machinery, it should be remembered how easy a downalkaloids combine with acids, and form series of crystalline ward progress becomes. " A respect for every department of salts, as distinct and well-defined as those of the natural Nature," says Baron Humboldt,is especially necessary in the organic alkaloids. present times, when the material wealth and increasing welfare The Great Author of Nature seems to have provided laws of nations is so closely connected with the diligent use of regulating the affinities of the elements for the creation by natural productions and natural forces. The most superficial our instrumentality of organic bodies, for which no use is glance at the present condition of Europe assures us that any found in nature. It is necessary, however, to be cautious in relaxation of effort would be followed by gradual diminution the latter assertion, because it has happened, in at least three and ultimate annihilation of national prosperity. Nothing but energetic progress in chemistry, and other branches of or four instances, that such artificial compounds, first formed in the laboratory, have been afterwards discovered to exist in natural science, will save any state from the evils of decline. Man can make no use of Nature, can appropriate none of her plants or animals. In the course of the investigation of AT. De La Rue, already powers, if he be not conversant with her laws, and the relations alluded to, that gentleman discovered a new crystalline snb- of number and measure existing amid her processes. Those stance existing in cochineal, to the extent of about one- nations which relax now in manufacturing activity, in the third per cent., which appears to be identical with a sub- practical application of technical chemistry, must inevitably stance lately described by Liebig, and formed by him by fall from any prosperity they may have attained; more espeacting on caseine with caustic potass. Salicylic acid, and oxide cially as neighbouring states, instinct with powers of youthful of methyle, first produced by the decomposition of other renovation, in which science and practice co-operate, enter organic substances, were afterwards found to coexist in upon the struggle, and press forward in the race :’
development.
.
641 It is wholly inconceivable, that the enlightened statesmen who guide the energies of this country, will, when once their attention is aroused to these truths, withhold their aid in establishing this College. Its special object is too great to be merged into courses of general education, or to be entrusted to individual exertion. The association and co-operation of but a few persons representing each science and art based upon chemistry, would, however, amply suffice to effect its purposes. Perhaps it is better to call forth voluntary efforts, than to institute schools of chemistry by authority, and to clog them with official restrictions. Gentlemen, it only remains for me to say what grateful thanks are due from all persons interested in science and the arts, but especially from the gentlemen who enjoy the priviledge of our course of instruction, to our Royal President, our noble Vice-presidents, and to the Council, for their generous assistance in founding this College. This they have afforded, under the conviction, that this institution is calculated to confer great and enduring benefits on all classes of their fellow-countrymen, and on all mankind; and that-although not obviously and conspicuously-yet to the enlightened mindthe highest exercise of benevolence is to promote the extension of our knowledge and of our power over nature. To one gentleman, however, we owe an especial debt of gratitude, for his constant personal exertions, the devotion of his valuable time, and the unwearied employment of his influence, with the most ,noble and enlarged views, to promote the establishment of this College. I should be deprived of the greatest pleasure I derive from my own efforts in its behalf, if I could not publicly acknowledge that our successwhich, I trust, is now unquestionable-will be mainly attributable to Sir James Clark.
DRUGGISTS’ SURGERY. 2’0 tlte Editor of THE LANCET. SIR,—At page 532 in the last number of THE LANCET is a report from Bartholomew’s Hospital, by Mr. Holmes Coote, of a dislocation of both humeri, occasioned by a fall on the
was immediately after the accident taken to the shop of a druggist, who, when the man had sufficiently recovered from the shock of the fall, examined the left shoulder, which was bruised, and pronounced it " sprained," and directed a liniment to be applied. About a fortnight after the accident, he was admitted into Bartholomew’s Hospital, under Mr. Lawrence, when both humeri were found to be dislocated. In giving a report of the case, I think Mr. Holmes Coote should have availed himself of the opportunity of deprecating the evil resulting from chemists and druggists presuming to give an opinion or advice on any medical or surgical case. Here was this poor man suffering a whole fortnight of pain, longer than he otherwise would have done had he applied to a surgeon, or sought relief at an hospital, immediately after quitting the shop of this druggist. Not only did he suffer a fortnight’s more pain, but in all probability he was a man with a wife and family, who also most likely had to suffei many privations, from the father not being able to labour foi their support by one fortnight so soon as he might otherwise have done.-I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, H. H. R. May, 1846.
pavement; that the patient
_________________
MR.
ON THE DIVISION OF MIDWIFERY FEES. TUCKER, OF BERNERS-STREET, IN REPLY TO MR. ROBINS REMARKS.
MR. ROBINS says, in the commencement of his letter, that the views proposed by the Society, " in my simplicity I had presumed to condemn." Now the Society does not ask ego to entertain any particular views, but seeks to establish some rules which shall be the most just and honourable that can be possibly entertained, and in accordance with the opinions of the greatest number of practitioners. While the point is contested, individual opinions bear equal value; therefore the gentleman mentioned in -my letter, though he had might on his side, I do not think had either justice or honour. Mr. Robins again observes-" It would have been as well if the opinions of the profession had been ascertained before the resolutions referred to had been propounded." Now, it is only in answer to mention, that the profession are too apt, a3 we have found, to stand aloof until they know to what they subscribe.
MEDICAL
NEWS,
FACTS, NOTICES, AND REMARKS. FRENCH REWARDS
TO
MEDICAL MEN.—The
Royal
Academy of Sciences, Paris, have just awarded to M. Amussat, their first prize in medicine and surgery, of 601., for his re-
searches on wounds of the vascular system. Dr. Bonnet, of Lyons, received the second prize, of the value of 501., for his investigations on diseased joints. Prizes of 251. each were also awarded to Dr. Becquerel and Dr. Rodier, as an encouragement for their researches on the composition of the blood in health and in disease. A sum of 201. was awarded to M. Réveille Parise, for his remarks on the dressing of wounds with thin plates of lead. M. Morel received 201. for his memoir on dislocations of the clavicle, and M. Clias also obtained the The gold sum of 201. for his new method of gymnastics. medal,value 351., was presented to the celebrated ichthyologist, M. Agassiz, for his valuable work on living and fossil fishes. Other prizes were awarded to Messrs. Bischoff and Raciborski for their respective treatises. Thus upwards of 2501. have been presented by this Academy to medical men, for the encouragement of their efforts in art and science. How true the saying, These things are managed better in France" than in England!
ROYAL COLLEGE
OF
SURGEONS.—At
a
meeting
of
the Fellows, on Tuesday last, Cæsar H. Hawkins, Esq., surgeon to St. George’s Hospital, was elected a member of the council, in the vacancy occasioned by the decease of J. Scott,
Esq., of the London Hospital. Several leading medical men in the provinces attended on this occasion, to record their votes, Leeds, Bath, Bristol, Nottingham, &c., sending their representatives to the college. KING’S COLLEGE HOSPITAL.—The annual dinner in behalf of this institution, took place on Saturday, May 23rd, at the Freemasons’ Tavern, the Earl of Eldon in the chair. In the course of the evening it was stated that the gross amount of receipts for the past year had been 54461. lls. 10d., and the expenditure, 50081. 3s. 8d. ; the number of patients admitted during the year, had been 1,266, exclusive of outpatients. Dr. Arthur Farre acknowledged the toast of the Medical Officers.
THE LATE PROFESSOR DAVIS.—USE OF THE DISSECTIONS IN TURKEY.-The Sultan is stated to have promulgated an order, that the bodies of female slaves FORCEPS. who die in the market shall be given up by their owners to To the Editor of THE LANCET. the students in medicine for dissection. SIR,—You will see that Professor Murphy, at the close of His ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT has appointed his letter, (THE LANCET, p. 613,) has-in his imauthorized conMajor William J. Judd, of the Scots Fusileer Guards, Surgeon clusion, from the late Dr. Davis’s writings or his teaching, to be Surgeon in Ordinary to his Royal Highness. Mr. Judd that his predecessor sometimes used the forceps " when the head was impacted in the pelvis"-fully confirmed the cor- is well known to the profession by his published works, and his papers in THE LANCET, particularly those on the negro’s rectness of my reading (see THE LANCET for May 23rd) of the skin. passage in question in his work, imputing to the late Dr. FOR CONSUMPTION, ETC., BROMPTON. — he advocated " that a much bolder use of the Davis, forceps At HOSPITAL an annual than he (Dr. Murphy) would recommend."-(p. 159 of his meeting of governors, on Saturday, May 30, the report stated that the expenses hitherto incurred for the new work.) I am glad that I have been the means of correcting Pro. building, have amounted to 13,4461., of which the sum of 91341. fessor Murphy’s misapprehension of his author, and that he has been received; a balance remaining against the charity of has had the candour to admit his mistake. 51321., payment of which, by arrangement with the builder, is The cause of truth, not less than duty, has induced me, as a extended over three years and a half. MR. GOADLEY’s excellent collection has been preformer pupil, and a son of the late Professor, to act, as Dr Murphy himself, I am sure, would have done under the same sented to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, by a committee of gentlemen, who subscribed four hundred J. HALL DAVIS. Russell-place, Fitzroy-square, June, 1846. pounds for its purchase. Prince Albert was a donor of 201.
plaintiff had
THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF HANOVER On
CHEMISTRY,
finil
Wednesday Evening,
no
use for the benefit of society ?
Assuming, then, that you, Gentlemen, are satisfied that the study of Nature and her laws should in every direction be promoted, and that if it be expedient to teach what is already known, together with the principles and methods of research, and to assist further inquirers, it should be done efficiently, and by the best means in our power, I would invite your at-
SQUARE, June 3.
THE RIGHT HON. THE EARL OF CLARENDON IN THE CHAIR.
tention to the practical school of our College. I think it may be said with safety, that until this College BY JOHN GARDNER, M.D. was established, no chemist of any reputation was engaged THE establishment of this institution, toward which your in this country solely in teaching the science practically. The assistance has been so kindly and liberally afforded, must lectures of professors of colleges and private schools are doubtappear, to every one who fully considers its design and ob- less admirable means for imparting a general knowledge of ject, one of the most important enterprizes ever contem- the science. Occupying usually an hour daily, it requires a plated in this country. The dependence of Great Britain full session of six months to teach the leading facts and for her prosperity on arts and manufactures, based upon theories of inorganic matter, allowing only a few compendious physical science, in the absence of all systematic efforts to sketches for organic chemistrv. The Drecaration for these lecfoster and advance our knowledge of nature and her laws, has tures, together with other avocations, must necessarily have often called forth expressions of astonishment. You have engaged the whole time of the professors and their assistants. determined to terminate this state of things, and to form It was impossible for them to establish practical schools. The a school for inducting the student of Nature into a profound Apothecaries’ Company, (with that desire to advance the acquaintance with chemistry-that branch of natural science education of the profession for which that body has been which most needs at this time to be studied and promoted, remarkable,) three or four years ago, added to their curriculum and which is the key to the greatest variety of professions, practical chemistry, and the schools, in order to conform to trades, and economic arts. This being the general design of this law, instituted classes, which, during an hour daily, practhe Royal College of Chemistry, I am instructed by the Coun- tised the preparation of substances, and the application of tests. cil to place before you, somewhat in detail, although as briefly A few laboratories were also open for working students,at a fee of 10l. per month; the most frequented of these as possible, the means by which they propose to accomplish it, and to sketch out in outline the several subordinate points numbered only six students ; but on inquiring of every instiamongst which their efforts should be distributed, in order to tution in London, I could not discover one where the whole time and attention of a qualified professor was given to the stuaccomplish their main purpose. I need not remind you of the popularity of the science of dent, or where practical teaching was pursued systematically. If an alteration has taken place-if practical schools of chemistry; you are well aware of the fact, and of its causes, the beauty of its laws and principles, and the attractive character chemistry exist, and professors are appointed to devote their of the experiments usually exhibited to illustrate them. The whole time and energies to teaching-if the fees now demanded chemical lecturer commonly commands overflowing audiences, are so moderate as to fill the new laboratories with students, and nothing is more easy of attainment, or more accessible, it is to the enlightened Noblemen and Gentlemen who have in this country, than a speculative acquaintance with its formed this College that this service to science is to be attrileading facts and theories. You know, too, how often buted. it has happened, that amongst the spectators of the brilSince this College has been contemplated, too, the Pharmaliant phenomena of chemistry, some have been excited to a ceutical Society has opened a laboratory for teaching their love of the science, and a desire to pursue it, and have, by art in a scientific manner. I mention this, merely to observe, their own efforts, under great difficulties, and after a consi- that while it renders unnecessary a department of the College derable time, distinguished themselves by becoming original for teaching pharmacy, its objects are totally distinct and discoverers. A history of the difficulties met with and sur- different from our own. It is to pure chemistry, and to its mounted by those whose names are eminent in science, would application to practical arts, unrepresented by active societies, be, perhaps, the most powerful plea for this institution. It is that this institution is devoted. The method of study adopted at Giessen having been sucdifficult to fix a limit to the achievements of genius,but he who would entrust science to individual effort, must have forgotten cessful, so many chemists of reputation in this country having that the patient collector of facts, the labourer on details, is as studied there, and being accustomed to proclaim this fact.in ,
638
demanding public confidence, it became a matter of primary importance to ascertain wherein the peculiarities of that school consisted. I am able very distinctly to assign the ’i causes of the pre-eminence of Giessen as a school of chemistry. In the first place, the reputation of Professor Liebig would I attract students, and the liberality of the Hessian government enables the professor to charge fees sufficiently moderate to come within the means of young men from the manufacturing, trading, and professional classes, and to employ qualified assistants to take the burthen of teaching. Secondly, a system of study is pursued, which embraces an initiation into all the manipulations required in the practice of the science, keeps the student’s attention constantly on the alert, sharpens his faculties of observation, obliges him to become acquainted with the principles and theories of chemistry, in order to draw correct inferences from the phenomena he creates, and, in one word, acts as a rigid mental discipline, as well as a technical
mixed sciences are acquired by those who have passed successfully through our universities is a matter of common remark. The of chemistry, in like manner, when pursued according to the system which I have described, becomes an ORGANON-an instrumental means of attaining an intellectual habit and qualification for the observation and interpretation of Nature. He who has thus become an expert analyst, has obtained a power capable of application in any direction for advancing his own knowledge, for practising the useful arts and manufactures, and for extending the boundaries of science. It is this system which is pursued in the laboratory of the Royal College of Chemistry, and its effects are already beginning to be manifested. A member of our Council, himself accustomed to teach another science, applicable to one of the noblest practical arts, works daily in the laboratory. A few days ago, he expressed to me his admiration of the earnestness, constancy, and zeal, displayed by every student, without exception, and his conviction that the system of teaching adopted, in comparison with others, is the only method of acquiring a satisfactory knowledge of chemistry. It is obviously too early for us to have any very striking investigations to adduce in proof of the value of our school. I may be allowed, however, to refer to a paper read by one of the students at the last meeting of the Chemical Society, on a purely scientific subject-namely, the phosphates of organic bases, as a contribution to science, which would do no discredit to a veteran. Mr. Nicholson, in that paper, detailed a number of analyses, made with remarkable skill and accuracy. Of course, it is chiefly to practice in analyses that the attention of the more advanced students is now, after only eight months’ study, confined. Our professor mentioned to me a trial he made, lately, of three of the students, by giving them for practice the analysis of gunpowder. The numbers which they respectively presented to him were1. Nitrate of potass, 7P.69 .. Carbon, 13.86 .. Sulphur, g.45 .. Moisture, 0. 2. Nitrate of potass, j6.g1 Carbon, 13.17 .. Su)phur,i).27.. Mo)Sture,0.65 3. Nitrate of potass, 76.70 Carbon, ]3.2S Suttihur,9,t7 Moisture, 0.65 I select this merely as an illustration of the way in which the students occupy themselves; numberless analyses of various substances are made in this way for practice every day. In a report presented to the Council, at the close of the first session, the Professor says, that several students will be perfectly qualified to commence, in the next session, the analysis of soils, ashes of plants, and mineral waters ; and so far as the present session has elapsed, there has been no relaxation of their labours to frustrate that anticipation. But you may very reasonably ask, Gentlemen, to what purposes can the knowledge and the skill thus obtained be applied, which shall compensate the supporters of the College for their labours and their money, and which shall avail to the students themselves in their progress in life ? To both parts of this question we can return a satisfactory answer. The advancement of science itself, the improvement of arts, the origination of new sources of industry, the illumination of the obscurer parts of physiology and pathology, the increase of our means of remedying diseases, and preserving health, may all be fairly anticipated to flow from a practical school of chemistry. A numerous body of men, qualified in the manner I have described, and scattered throughout this country, cannot fail to produce visible and palpable effects. There is a natural tendency in such knowledge as is definite to propagate and expand. Possessing a clear insight into the laws and phenomena of Nature, combined with manual dexterity, the young chemist will find everywhere around him materials unexamined, and examples of manufacturing industry leading to wealth and rank. Did these ever fail to animate men to exertion ?1 But we need not dwell on vague anticipations of the future. ’fiTe hope, under your fostering care, something will be done in our laboratory, to honour the founders of the College, and to commend it to the patronage of a larger number of subscribers, to invoke the aid of other societies, and to secure the favour of the government. It is proposed, as soon as the new laboratories are erected, to commence investigations for scientific and practical purposes. The Council have endeavoured to obtain the co-operation of the Royal Agricultural Society in the pursuit of researches which may benefit the landowner and farmer. The education of chemists capable ofanalyzing soils, manures, and produce, and of giving safe advice to the agriculturist, for economy, the increase of produce, and to save him from the frauds now so openly practised upon him, would seem sufficient to ensure support from that source. But there are subjects of inquiry which are of immediate and paramount importance for the successful cultivation of land, of such a nature as to require a special
i
introduction to all the facts at present known. The chemical student there must possess the preliminary qualification of a speculative acquaintance with the science. He then begins a course of experiments with his own hands, which produce the actions or manifestations which are characteristic of every known substance, at least, of all which are of ordinary occurThe plan is contained in the little work, entitled, rence. " Outlines of the Course of Qualitative Analysis followed in the Giessen Laboratory," which has lately been presented to the English public. The student takes potassa, soda, ammonia, baryta, magnesia lime, alumina, and all the metals and their oxides ; and with each he mixes the re-agents, which have, by the consent of chemists, been established as infallibly manifesting their peculiar reactions, and thus detecting with certainty their presence or absence in any given compound. In these experiments he has the constant assistance of a qualified teacher, to guard him against the use of too little or too great proportions of water, spirit, or other solvents-too great or too little heat; -to show him the best manner of manipulating; and to assist him in interpreting the results. These results are certain appearances, mostly addressed to the eye; and consequently, when spoken of as colours more or less vivid--precipitates more or less distinct, &c.,-form subjects, beyond any other in the whole range of human knowledge requiring the aid of an experienced teacher to define. The experiments thus to be made amount to many hundreds. When the student becomes familiar with all the phenomena produced by his re-agents with these bodies, and is able to assign the cause,-to give the rationale of the re-actions,-he begins the analyses of unknown substances-that is, of substances unknown to himself, but which are prepared by the Professor, and arranged in order, so as to lead the student, by slow and safe steps, from simple to complex cases. This they call going through the bottles. About twenty liquids, containing each only one base, are first taken; then, as many with one acid and one base; subsequently, two or more bases, two or more acids, and so on until the more complex cases are reached : and in the end, all the inorganic bases, and a number of acids in admixture, are analyzed, to try the student’s skill and memory. So important is this method of study felt to be, that even many men, with a high reputation for scientific knowledge, as soon as they have looked closely at its effects, have at Giessen submitted to go through the drudgery of this systematic course. When perfectly familiar with qualitative analysis-that is, when possessed of the power, imparted in this course, of detecting the presence or absence of every element in any possible form of mixture or compound,-the student is taught, by a similar system, to separate and estimate the quantities of every individual constituent: this is quantitative analysis ; afterwards, the preparation of organic matter, and its analysis by combustion, becomes a comparatively easy step. The constant presence, the incessant stimulus, and immediate aid, of a qualified instructor, is the corner-stone of this system. It has a parallel only in the custom, at our great lng1ish universities, of working with a private tutor when the student aspires to honours in classics or mathematics. Every difficulty, as it is met with, is explained; every fact for which the student feels at a loss is imparted; and his daily labour is definitely marked by the point reached in his onward progress. In a university education, the information obtained is generally held to be inferior in importance to the discipline of the mind, the attainment of habits of continued attention, and the exercise of the reasoning powers and memory. The deep study of classics and mathematics teaclies men how to learn, as well as furnishes them with the instruments available on all occasions and on all subjects; and the facility with which the
study
..
..
..
639
laboratory, concerted efforts, and money to pursue; and we trust that the Royal Agricultural Society will, ere long, lend its assistance towards the institution of these inquiries. There are great advantages in such a laboratory as we possess, for carrying out investigations; the presence of numbers engaged in the same work, and of the professors, to assist, suggestions, leads often to success where indiby advice and viduals, by there own solitary exertions, fail. Subjects, too, are supplied and help afforded, the value of which must be felt to be appreciated. It by no means, as I conceive, lessens the merit of the individual who thus seeks assistance; on the contrary, it is most honourable and conducive, both to private and public benefit. We have already indications of fruits of this description. AT. Warren De la Rue has worked out, in our poorly-provided temporary laboratory, an investigation on cochineal, which, when published, will add to his already wellearned reputation as a chemist, and it has also furnished him with a new material available for the improvement of his beautiful and interesting art. It could not fail to be a subject of remark amongst the students, that the chemist is obliged to have recourse to Bohemian glass for his combustion tubes. One of our friends remarked, that he could induce English makers to fabricate such glass if they knew the exact proportion of its ingredients. Upon this hint Mr. Rowney undertook the task of analyzing some specimens of Bohemian glass. Mr. Rowney’s accuracy imparts value to the results he has obtained, and it seems very likely that from this point will emanate such improvements in the manufacture of glass as to preclude the necessity of importing from Bohemia. Gentlemen, these are trifles-this College is but in its embryo state, it has not even reached infancy; but it is diffi-
discovery will not only bring this into use, but it will enable the practitioner of medicine to prescribe the pure alkaloid, and to combine it at pleasure with vegetable or other acids, and thus to obviate the objections which are found in practice to lie against the sulphate of quinine, placing at command quinine and a variety of its salts at a price which will not preclude the poorest from its benefit. A grcat proportion of the vegetable kingdom still requires to be chemically investigated; of the materials which constitute the animal body, every one, without exception, awaits a new analysis and investigation. Not many months since, Professor Redtenbacher, of Prague, found that taurine, a constituent of bile, which acts a most important part in the animal economy, contains sulphur to the extent of 26 per cent. This element had been previously overlooked, in consequence of what must be considered
a
defect in the method of analysis
by combustion; in that process the oxygen of the analyzed body being estimated by the amount of loss, the equivalent of sulphur being precisely double that of oxygen, its presence did not disturb the calculation of the results. Professor Gregory has remarked, that this observation of Redtenbacher will probably turn out, in its consequences, one of the most important yet made in animal chemistry; and it cannot be doubted, that although our views must be changed in many points, in consequence of it, our knowledge will be extended and rendered more precise and more capable of direct application to physiology and pathology. Already Professor Liebig has found reason to believe that Mulder’s protein and oxides of protein exist only in imagination, as sulphur remains combined with the other elements after fibrine and albumen are subjected to
Mulder’s processes. To extend this inquiry into all the materials of the animal tissues, requires many skilful hands cult to repress our enthusiasm when we recollect what the and much labour. science of chemistry has done and is now doing, and contemThe principle upon which organic investigations are now plate the boundless unexplored regions of Nature inviting our pursued, is worthy of your serious attention; it is, to subject a substance to the action of heat, of oxidizing and reducing industry, and offering us its sure reward. Look only at the present uses of gas. Our esteemed friend agents, and generally to every influence capable of changing Mr. Lowe tells us that 1000 tons of coal are daily decomposed or modifying its composition, to analyze the resulting comfor the production of gas in the metropolis; that the iron pounds, to study their mutual relations, and thus to ascertain pipes in London alone measure several hundred miles-the the true nature of the original matter. This principle was extent of the smaller being almost incalculable; that gasome- first adopted by Chevreul ; its application by Dumas and ters are now made as large as a house, and that every town and Boullay to the compound ethers, Professor Liebig says, gave almost village has its gas-works. Consider the trades created, the first impulse to the extraordinary development which the myriads of men employed in working the mechanism of chemistry has since then attained. It has created, in fact, a this vast chemical process-and recollect that it is only in our new branch of the science, which it would be of great importTo ance to distinguish by a distinct, designation. We are familiar own time that this branch of industry has been created. chemistry, too, we are especially indebted for the present with the distinctions of analytical and synthetical chemistry. cheapness of this beautiful and indispensable light. The Analysis is the separation of a chemical compound into its comapplications found for the other products of the decomposi- ponent parts. Synthesis is the putting together the elements tion of coal have enabled the manufacturers to reduce its of compounds, and combining them into a chemical union. price; it has become one of the most useful instruments of The formation of water, and of nitric acid, by directly comthe laboratory, and it will now be employed, we trust, as a bining their elements, as effected by Mr. Cavendish, are means of effecting further discoveries. Will any one affirm examples of synthesis. Very little has been done in this that it is impossible to obtain from coal a solid, dry, portable direction, beyond a few instances illustrative of the safety of hydrocarbon, capable of being made a substitute for wax and depending upon analytical results, in certain cases, as philosotallow in the fabrication of candles, and so cheap as to super- phic facts. The only example I recollect of synthetic chemistry sede animal fat in lighting the humblest cottages ? applicable to practical purposes is, however, a most brilliant The point, however, to which I wish to direct your special one, made by Gmelin-namely, the formation of artificial ultraattention, in reference to our anticipations of advancing the marine, by mixing silica, alumina, soda, and sulphur, colourless science, is, organic chemistry. The apparatus for organic bodies, to produce that beautiful blue pigment. There is no combustion, the great invention of Professor Liebig, is already reason to believe that it is by way of synthesis that Nature proalmost daily in use in our laboratory. By its means, as you duces the many complex substances, termed organic matter. know, the analysis of matter belonging to the animal and The affinities of inorganic bodies are employed to group together vegetable kingdoms-the produce, in some form or other, of the proper elements, and in the process of constructing the the vital force-is effected with greater ease and equal pre- materials required in vegetable and animal organisms, intercision with the analysis of a soil or a mineral. The rapidity mediate compounds are formed, which, not being needed in with which discoveries are being made, and the immense a separate state, are again combined, and ultimately give rise extent of the science, render it almost impossible, except for to the substances which are the designed results of the prothe professed chemist, to follow and to appreciate its import- cess. Proceeding in the path indicated by Chevreul, these inance. Every now and then, however, some fact is made ternal forms of organic bodies are detached, recombined, known, having an immediate application to practical purposes, and undergo a variety of metamorphoses, by which the true and indicating how vast a field of inquiry exists in organic constitution of the first is revealed, and new complex bodies nature. Within the last few days, Professor Liebig has an- created, as it were, as truly organic as any of those produced nounced to us that a residue left in the manufacture of sul- by the vital force. The theory of compound radicals is the pliate of quinine is the pure alkaloid itself, merely obscured general expression of the fact, that very simple forms, consistby its form. The discovery of quinine by Pellatier, in 1820, ing of a few equivalents of two or three elements, may be revolutionized pharmacy. The active principles of the most assumed as the basis or rudimental centres of all the varieties nauseous drugs can now be isolated from the accompaniments of compounds constructed in living organisms. By breaking of woody fibre and other inert matters, and exhibited in a up the internal structure of these compounds, or by bringing concentrated form. This is a blessing which only those who to bear upon them other affinities, that is, by employing cerhave had to swallow bark in substance can fully under- tain media in imitation of the way pursued by Nature, many stand. During the twenty-six years in which sulphate of natural productions can be produced artificially, and a great quinine has been manufactured, a considerable portion, every number can be artificially made, exactly analogous to the year, of the pure alkaloid has been laid aside, and consequently acids, neutral bodies, and alkaloids found in plants. Of the a considerable amount has accumulated. Professor Liebig’s former kind; that is, of natural productions produced artifi-
640
cially, several have become of commercial importance: the the oil obtained by distilling the flowers of the gualtheria manufacture of sugar from starch, by the mediation of sulphuric procumbens; and very recently, Professor Redtenbacher, by actacid ; of British gum, also from starch, which has materially ing upon oleic acid with nitric acid, and submitting the result affected the commerce of Senegal and the Gambia; and that to distillation; obtained no less than nine acids in the distillate; of valerianic acid, are well-known examples. The process for one of these is a new acid ; but very curiously, it was effecting the first of these transformations will illustrate the discovered at the same time in his own laboratory by a student, action of media. Sugar and starch have the same composi- in the plant called pelargonium roseum, from which, therefore, tion, except that the former contains the elements of two he has named the acid, pelargonic acid. It is impossible, in contemplating these results, to avoid atoms of water more than the latter. To add the water to the starch directly, so as to convert it into sugar, is at present entertaining the belief that chemists are upon a track which beyond our power. But we know that the vital force, aided will ultimately lead to the production, by artificial processes, by heat, converts starch into sugar. This is the rationale of of the natural alkaloids, morphine, strychnine, quinine, or and to the the process of malting. And a method has been known for such vegetable bodies as indigo, santaline, &c., some time, of effecting the same purpose; that is, of adding elucidation of the modus operandi of the vital forces in the elements of two atoms of water to the elements of starch, transforming the materials presented to the organs of nutrition and thereby converting it into sugar. This is done by the of plants and animals. As I have already observed, an especial designation seems long-continued boiling of starch in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. The acid acts as a medium to effect the demanded for this branch of chemistry, which is neither anaassumption of the water by the starch, and to transform it lytical nor synthetical. I will therefore propose, in the into sugar, the acid itself remaining unchanged. The same absence of a better term, to denominate the aggregate of the transformation may be effected on linen rags, and any form of processes by the term genesis, and the subject, genetical, or ligneous fibre, thus converting them into sugar. Other natural con8tructÙ)e chemistry. This branch of the science is occupying the attention of very substances which have been produced artificially possess only scientific interest, as URBA, formic acid, butyric acid, 8,c. ’ many students on the continent, and is undergoing a rapid From the masses of figures and calculations, But it by no means follows that these are of no practical The formation of butyric acid from starch, threw an now accumulating, representing analyses, we may anticipate use. important light on the sources of animal fat. Natural urea is a many practical results, of vast importance, to emerge. I ought curious and highly interesting substance. The restoration of not to quit this subject, without alluding to the improvements nitrogenous matter which has served its purposes in the animal in candle-making, resulting from Chevreul’s labours. For my own part, I entertain the most sanguine hopes that economy, to the atmosphere, whence it had been derived by vegetable organisms, requires it to be brought into the same the diseases most fatal to mankind will be elucidated, and, form it had originally, in order to its diffusion through the perhaps, wholly prevented, by pursuing this path of chemical whole mass of air around our planet-namely, into ammonia. inquiry. But ammonia would injure the animal tissues. The contriWhilst the science of organic chemistry was advancing on the Continent like a torrent, was this country to be permitted to vance by which this difficulty has been evaded, excited the admiration of M. Dumas. "Nature, ever provident," says he, remain the only one in Europe where the necessary qualifi" has caused the animal to secrete urea. Urea is a neutral cation could not be obtained to enable men to assist in this and inert substance, which can pass through the delicate great work ? The example of Hesse Darmstadt, in founding of the kidneys, ureters, and bladder, without irritat- and supporting a school at the bidding of Liebig, who structure ing or inflaming them. By the addition of two atoms of has given his country new importance in Europe, has been water, it becomes converted into the carbonate of ammonia. followed by France, Prussia, Belgium, and even Russia In this form it travels from the earth to the atmosphere, from and Austria, and nearly all the smaller German states. Is the atmosphere to the earth in rain and dew, and is thence the accomplished chemist less likely to find profitable employagain served upon, and elaborated by, plants into the forms ment in the manufactures, arts, and professions of Great adapted for animal nourishment." Britain, than in those countries ?1 Much as we have to boast The manner in which Nature employs the affinities of inor- of in the way of popular lectures, it might occur to many ganic bodies as media for the production of organic compounds, to suspect the soundness of the knowledge thus obtained is in some cases understood. Thus, for instance, the potass if the patent list were examined, and the extraordinary mistaken up from the soil by plants, has a great affinity for car- takes made, to the serious pecuniary loss of many persons for bonic acid, and by virtue of that affinity fixes it from its want of just scientific notions, considered. I may mention, as gaseous state in the atmosphere. In the juices of the plants an illustration of this remark, the credit given by the public, it meets with water in a nascent state, asit is separated from and, I might add, by some distinguished individuals, to the its combinations in the organism; this water, or rather its profession, made not long since, that a fuel had been discoelements, combining with the carbonating potass, converts it vered which would burn and supply heat without leaving the into oxalate of potass, or by a further accession of hydrogen, ordinary products of combustion-that no carbonic acid was into citric, malic, tartaric, and other acids, sugar, gum, starch, given to the atmosphere in burning this material. The belief &c., oxygen being set free. Thus the affinity of potass for entertained in this ridiculous fiction was sincere enough, as it carbonic acid, &c., is the force which primarily originates the cost the loss of several lives. Assuredly, the spread of changes essential to these combinations. In like manner, but chemists, taught after the manner we have adopted, will by processes not at present understood, phosphorus and sul- supply the public with better instruction. It is a startling, but nevertheless certain fact, that in many phur, in all probability, mediate the production of materials for building up animal bodies, albumen, fibrine, &c. of our manufactures, depending, wholly or in part, upon cheOf the latter kind-that is, artificial organic compounds,- mical principles, this country is fast falling behind those of the several basic bodies or alkaloids have been formed by Laurent, continent. If the instances in which this is most evident may Hofmann, and others, and a very interesting one from the oil appear insignificant in comparison with the vast creations of of bran, by Professor Fownes, termed by him furfurine. These our machinery, it should be remembered how easy a downalkaloids combine with acids, and form series of crystalline ward progress becomes. " A respect for every department of salts, as distinct and well-defined as those of the natural Nature," says Baron Humboldt,is especially necessary in the organic alkaloids. present times, when the material wealth and increasing welfare The Great Author of Nature seems to have provided laws of nations is so closely connected with the diligent use of regulating the affinities of the elements for the creation by natural productions and natural forces. The most superficial our instrumentality of organic bodies, for which no use is glance at the present condition of Europe assures us that any found in nature. It is necessary, however, to be cautious in relaxation of effort would be followed by gradual diminution the latter assertion, because it has happened, in at least three and ultimate annihilation of national prosperity. Nothing but energetic progress in chemistry, and other branches of or four instances, that such artificial compounds, first formed in the laboratory, have been afterwards discovered to exist in natural science, will save any state from the evils of decline. Man can make no use of Nature, can appropriate none of her plants or animals. In the course of the investigation of AT. De La Rue, already powers, if he be not conversant with her laws, and the relations alluded to, that gentleman discovered a new crystalline snb- of number and measure existing amid her processes. Those stance existing in cochineal, to the extent of about one- nations which relax now in manufacturing activity, in the third per cent., which appears to be identical with a sub- practical application of technical chemistry, must inevitably stance lately described by Liebig, and formed by him by fall from any prosperity they may have attained; more espeacting on caseine with caustic potass. Salicylic acid, and oxide cially as neighbouring states, instinct with powers of youthful of methyle, first produced by the decomposition of other renovation, in which science and practice co-operate, enter organic substances, were afterwards found to coexist in upon the struggle, and press forward in the race :’
development.
.
641 It is wholly inconceivable, that the enlightened statesmen who guide the energies of this country, will, when once their attention is aroused to these truths, withhold their aid in establishing this College. Its special object is too great to be merged into courses of general education, or to be entrusted to individual exertion. The association and co-operation of but a few persons representing each science and art based upon chemistry, would, however, amply suffice to effect its purposes. Perhaps it is better to call forth voluntary efforts, than to institute schools of chemistry by authority, and to clog them with official restrictions. Gentlemen, it only remains for me to say what grateful thanks are due from all persons interested in science and the arts, but especially from the gentlemen who enjoy the priviledge of our course of instruction, to our Royal President, our noble Vice-presidents, and to the Council, for their generous assistance in founding this College. This they have afforded, under the conviction, that this institution is calculated to confer great and enduring benefits on all classes of their fellow-countrymen, and on all mankind; and that-although not obviously and conspicuously-yet to the enlightened mindthe highest exercise of benevolence is to promote the extension of our knowledge and of our power over nature. To one gentleman, however, we owe an especial debt of gratitude, for his constant personal exertions, the devotion of his valuable time, and the unwearied employment of his influence, with the most ,noble and enlarged views, to promote the establishment of this College. I should be deprived of the greatest pleasure I derive from my own efforts in its behalf, if I could not publicly acknowledge that our successwhich, I trust, is now unquestionable-will be mainly attributable to Sir James Clark.
DRUGGISTS’ SURGERY. 2’0 tlte Editor of THE LANCET. SIR,—At page 532 in the last number of THE LANCET is a report from Bartholomew’s Hospital, by Mr. Holmes Coote, of a dislocation of both humeri, occasioned by a fall on the
was immediately after the accident taken to the shop of a druggist, who, when the man had sufficiently recovered from the shock of the fall, examined the left shoulder, which was bruised, and pronounced it " sprained," and directed a liniment to be applied. About a fortnight after the accident, he was admitted into Bartholomew’s Hospital, under Mr. Lawrence, when both humeri were found to be dislocated. In giving a report of the case, I think Mr. Holmes Coote should have availed himself of the opportunity of deprecating the evil resulting from chemists and druggists presuming to give an opinion or advice on any medical or surgical case. Here was this poor man suffering a whole fortnight of pain, longer than he otherwise would have done had he applied to a surgeon, or sought relief at an hospital, immediately after quitting the shop of this druggist. Not only did he suffer a fortnight’s more pain, but in all probability he was a man with a wife and family, who also most likely had to suffei many privations, from the father not being able to labour foi their support by one fortnight so soon as he might otherwise have done.-I am, Sir, your most obedient servant, H. H. R. May, 1846.
pavement; that the patient
_________________
MR.
ON THE DIVISION OF MIDWIFERY FEES. TUCKER, OF BERNERS-STREET, IN REPLY TO MR. ROBINS REMARKS.
MR. ROBINS says, in the commencement of his letter, that the views proposed by the Society, " in my simplicity I had presumed to condemn." Now the Society does not ask ego to entertain any particular views, but seeks to establish some rules which shall be the most just and honourable that can be possibly entertained, and in accordance with the opinions of the greatest number of practitioners. While the point is contested, individual opinions bear equal value; therefore the gentleman mentioned in -my letter, though he had might on his side, I do not think had either justice or honour. Mr. Robins again observes-" It would have been as well if the opinions of the profession had been ascertained before the resolutions referred to had been propounded." Now, it is only in answer to mention, that the profession are too apt, a3 we have found, to stand aloof until they know to what they subscribe.
MEDICAL
NEWS,
FACTS, NOTICES, AND REMARKS. FRENCH REWARDS
TO
MEDICAL MEN.—The
Royal
Academy of Sciences, Paris, have just awarded to M. Amussat, their first prize in medicine and surgery, of 601., for his re-
searches on wounds of the vascular system. Dr. Bonnet, of Lyons, received the second prize, of the value of 501., for his investigations on diseased joints. Prizes of 251. each were also awarded to Dr. Becquerel and Dr. Rodier, as an encouragement for their researches on the composition of the blood in health and in disease. A sum of 201. was awarded to M. Réveille Parise, for his remarks on the dressing of wounds with thin plates of lead. M. Morel received 201. for his memoir on dislocations of the clavicle, and M. Clias also obtained the The gold sum of 201. for his new method of gymnastics. medal,value 351., was presented to the celebrated ichthyologist, M. Agassiz, for his valuable work on living and fossil fishes. Other prizes were awarded to Messrs. Bischoff and Raciborski for their respective treatises. Thus upwards of 2501. have been presented by this Academy to medical men, for the encouragement of their efforts in art and science. How true the saying, These things are managed better in France" than in England!
ROYAL COLLEGE
OF
SURGEONS.—At
a
meeting
of
the Fellows, on Tuesday last, Cæsar H. Hawkins, Esq., surgeon to St. George’s Hospital, was elected a member of the council, in the vacancy occasioned by the decease of J. Scott,
Esq., of the London Hospital. Several leading medical men in the provinces attended on this occasion, to record their votes, Leeds, Bath, Bristol, Nottingham, &c., sending their representatives to the college. KING’S COLLEGE HOSPITAL.—The annual dinner in behalf of this institution, took place on Saturday, May 23rd, at the Freemasons’ Tavern, the Earl of Eldon in the chair. In the course of the evening it was stated that the gross amount of receipts for the past year had been 54461. lls. 10d., and the expenditure, 50081. 3s. 8d. ; the number of patients admitted during the year, had been 1,266, exclusive of outpatients. Dr. Arthur Farre acknowledged the toast of the Medical Officers.
THE LATE PROFESSOR DAVIS.—USE OF THE DISSECTIONS IN TURKEY.-The Sultan is stated to have promulgated an order, that the bodies of female slaves FORCEPS. who die in the market shall be given up by their owners to To the Editor of THE LANCET. the students in medicine for dissection. SIR,—You will see that Professor Murphy, at the close of His ROYAL HIGHNESS PRINCE ALBERT has appointed his letter, (THE LANCET, p. 613,) has-in his imauthorized conMajor William J. Judd, of the Scots Fusileer Guards, Surgeon clusion, from the late Dr. Davis’s writings or his teaching, to be Surgeon in Ordinary to his Royal Highness. Mr. Judd that his predecessor sometimes used the forceps " when the head was impacted in the pelvis"-fully confirmed the cor- is well known to the profession by his published works, and his papers in THE LANCET, particularly those on the negro’s rectness of my reading (see THE LANCET for May 23rd) of the skin. passage in question in his work, imputing to the late Dr. FOR CONSUMPTION, ETC., BROMPTON. — he advocated " that a much bolder use of the Davis, forceps At HOSPITAL an annual than he (Dr. Murphy) would recommend."-(p. 159 of his meeting of governors, on Saturday, May 30, the report stated that the expenses hitherto incurred for the new work.) I am glad that I have been the means of correcting Pro. building, have amounted to 13,4461., of which the sum of 91341. fessor Murphy’s misapprehension of his author, and that he has been received; a balance remaining against the charity of has had the candour to admit his mistake. 51321., payment of which, by arrangement with the builder, is The cause of truth, not less than duty, has induced me, as a extended over three years and a half. MR. GOADLEY’s excellent collection has been preformer pupil, and a son of the late Professor, to act, as Dr Murphy himself, I am sure, would have done under the same sented to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, by a committee of gentlemen, who subscribed four hundred J. HALL DAVIS. Russell-place, Fitzroy-square, June, 1846. pounds for its purchase. Prince Albert was a donor of 201.