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An appraisal of strategies for housing improvement in rural Tanzania
An Appraisal of Strategies for Housing Improvement in Rural Tanzania FAUSTIN T. KALABAMU”
Ardhi Institute, Tanzania
INTRODUCTION
Since attainment of independence, the Government of Tanzania has adopted several strategies aimed at improving rural housing conditions as part of its national strategy for socio-economic development through rural development. Although some inlprovements have been recorded, there is still room for further achievements especially if rural housing improvement policies are integrated with rural industriaiisation programmes. The present essay is an attempt to review the adopted strategies and make suggestions for better performance. The essay may be split into four broad sections. The first section is a brief on conditions in rural Tanzania. The next section explores current housing strategies while the last but one section is an evaluation of the strategies. The last section contains recommendations. RURAL
CONDITIONS
IN TANZANIA
The main purpose of this section is to give a reader, unfamiliar with rural Tanzania, some pertinent information regarding rural conditions. Unless otherwise indicated much of the information on rural Tanzania has been based on two articles by Karlsson, namely Facts and Figures (1980) and Housing Co~d~t~~~?.~ In Ta~z~ln~a (1981). Population As per the 1978 national population census, Tanzania had a population of 17,512,610 inhabitants out of which 15,099,710 (or 86.9%) lived in rural areas. From the same source the total number of rural households may be estimated at 3,000,OOOtaking an average household size of 5 persons. Karlsson estimates that the rural population increases at 325,0~0-390,000 persons or 65,000-78,000 households each year. According to the Third Five-Year Plan life expectancy was 45 years in 1974. About 47% of the rural population was, in 1978, aged less than 15 years. The dependent population, that is children aged below 15 years and old people aged over 54 years constituted nearly 56% of the rural population. Females in rural areas outnumbered males in the ratio 106:lOO. ’ Address
for correspondence:
do Arclhi Institute,
P.O.
81
Box 35176,
Dar-es-Salaam.
Tanzania.
Economy-
As noted above Tanzania is a predominantly rural country: the rural population constitutes about 86.9%. Nearly all the rural population is engaged in agricultural activities, that is, crop growing and animal husbandry. In 1978, an average household of 5 persons had an average income of shs. 6,400 per year (US$l = 10 shs.). This figure included shs. 3,400 in cash money and shs. 3,000 in subsistence income. Preliminary estimates by the National Building Research Unit (BRU) on cash expenditure in 1978 for farming rural households indicate that: t/1 of the households spent less than shs. 1,400 per household per year: M of the households spent less than shs. 2,600 per household per year; “/j of the households spent less than shs. 3,700 per household per year: 90% of the households spent less than shs. 5,700 per household per year. Housing According to the Household Budget Survey (HBS) conducted in 1969, 82% of all houses in Tanzania had rectangular shapes varying only in the location of entrance doors and roof designs. Shapes for the other 18% included cylindrical structures with conical roofs, and beehive structures. With the exception of a possible decrease in the number of cylindrical houses, the proportions are expected not to have changed considerably. The majority of houses are only one room in width with a total maximum of three habitable rooms per house. The average house has an area of 40-50 sq. m giving an average of 8-10 sq. m per person. The number of persons per room is estimated at 1.7. There has been a decrease, from 71 to 59%. of houses built by prospective household owners (with unpaid labour) between 1968-1969 and 1976-1977; and an increase, from 20 to 34%, of houses built with temporary employed labour in the same period. The temporary employed labour category normally includes rather slightly skilled labour (artisans) who construct non-traditional structures such as metal roofs, and brick walls. Rural houses built by ‘full time professionals’ constitute an estimated less than 5%, while they constitute about 13% in urban areas. It is estimated that the total average cost of a house built in 1978 was shs. 6,000 of which shs. 2,000 was in cash terms and shs. 4.000 in subsistence terms. These figures indicate that only ti of the total house costs derives from monetary expenditures. Over 98% of the households that constructed houses in 1977 all over Tanzania used their private savings. The proportion is definitely much higher in rural areas. The average life length of houses in Tanzania has been estimated at 7 years. Of course, self-built houses constructed in locally available organic materials last for an even shorter period.
CURRENT
STRATEGIES
FOR IMPROVING
RURAL HOUSING
IN TANZANIA
Introduction Colonial governments in Tanzania did not take an active part in improving rural housing conditions - and indeed for the all African population - until after the Second World War. Even then, assistance was centred on urban African elites and high income earners who benefited through such programmes as African Urban Housing Schemes, African Government Housing Scheme, and the Urban Roof Loan Scheme.
An Appruisal of Strategres for Housing Improvement
in Rural Tanzunia
83
The governments’ policy on rural housing was “of constructive non-intervention” (Maganga and Ndjovu, 1981). Rural housing was to be built, as in precolonial days, by efforts of rural communities themselves and mainly with locally available materials. The non-intervention attitudes may have been necessitated by lack of satisfactory finance given the large number of houses and the quantum of facilities that would have been necessary to construct and provide. Moreover the rural population was scattered, less and unlike the urban population, organised and, therefore, posed no threat to the then governments. Furthermore, their abject poverty was less visible than in urban areas. Unlike colonial governments, the post-Independence government has shown keen interest in the improvement of rural housing conditions. It has used two approaches: direct and indirect intervention. Indirect intervention The indirect intervention approach has centred on creating socio-economic and cultural conditions that are conducive to housing improvement which is achieved by “supplying the necessary infrastructure and service inputs subsequently creating favourable conditions for higher rural productivity” so that rural communities may expand “their agricultural capacities either through diversified economic activities such as mixed farming or concentration of production of specific agricultural crops, or by improving the existing methods of cultivation” (Towo, 1981). It is expected that improved farming would result in increased agricultural productivity which would raise rural households’ incomes. Some of the earnings raised would be used in improving rural settlements and housing conditions of the respective communities. Increased agricultural productivity and incomes should be accompanied by deliberate policies which, by way of education and persuasion, would urge and encourage the rural population to improve their habitat. In short the approach assumes that increased incomes augmented by education, self-esteem and general awareness would result in the need for selfliberation from both natural unfavourable conditions and poor living conditions; and the desire for, and ability to, afford an improved house. Several strategies have been deployed to implement the above philosophy. They include villagesation, establishment of Rural Housing and Construction Units, research and folk mobilisation. Villagesation Villagesation, the mobilising of scattered homesteads into planned villages in the post-Arusha Declaration era, aimed at, among other things, enhancing community harmony by increasing productivity through provision of expertise and communal ownership of major means of production at grass root levels; and improving rural environment by providing health, educational, water facilities etc. Up to June 1978, about 8033 villages had been established. Of the total villages, 95% were registered in accordance with the Village and Ujamaa Villages Act of 1975. Of the registered villages 79% had formed village councils and governments. According to the Act, and as is later contained in the Local Government Act of 1982, each village is organised as in Fig. 1. Three of the committees are relevant to rural housing. While the Education, Culture and Social Welfare Committee is pre-occupied with, among others, disseminating knowledge and campaigning for better environment including better housing, the Construction and Transport Committee has duties of constructing public buildings and organising the construction of residential houses and transportation of building materials and other products. The
I
I
;
Viliage
1 I Composed I I village
Assembly by all
adult
members
I ;
Village
Chairman and Village Secretary
I I
i 1 I :
I :
II I
I
I
I Defence
I I Planning I /Crop I and ! : Production , , and a ‘Finance 1Security , , and 1Committee: 1Marketing I ICommItteeI I I CommIttee I I
-I.
I
I
1
I
: :Constructlon; ; Educat,on. I 1and , I Culture and I I Social ‘Weifare ’ ! Transport I CommIttee , I DeveLopment ;I (1 1CommIttee
1
I I / I I ,
Planning and Finance Committee has the responsibility of initiating new investment ventures, managing finance and co-ordinating the activities of other committees. The most significant point here is that the present villages contain instruments for promoting better house building and are well geared to receiving, executing and monitoring projects. Above all housing is allocated its righteous position and importance. The villagesation programmes have been accompanied by efforts to provide community facilities. Under the Universal Primary Education (UPE) Programme, nearly 85% of all school age children can now attend school. While the percentage of households using natural sources of water (such as lakes, rivers and springs) decreased nearly by half from 60% in 1968169 to 34% in 1976/77, those using tapped water increased from 8% to 22% in the same period. There has also been recorded an increase in the proportion of households depending on water storage magazines/tanks from 3 to 9% in 1968/69 and 1976177 respectively. The rest have been using shallow wells. The proportion of households with access to pit latrines has also increased from 50% in 1968/69 to 78% in 1976177. Rural
Comtruction
and Housirlg
Units
and Housing Units were established in 1962 in order to: Rural Construction masonry, (1) provide on job training of villagers in skills such as carpentry, and metal works: and implementation of rural (2) assist villages in the planning, supervision construction works like construction of better houses, rural health centres, water works, produce stores, primary schools etc.; (3) assist village councils to promote and sustain the spirit and practice of selfhelp (Tanzania, 1978). of five technical personnel and is equipped with one Each unit is composed Landrover, a tlpper, a long wheelbase truck and a set of handtools for trade. By 1978. 55 such units had been established in the same number of districts. It was planned to establish 28 more units in the remaining districts so that by 1980 all districts in mainland Tanzania would have a unit each. It was also planned to strengthen the 55 units and to provide adequate equipment to all District Folk Development Colleges where the training of villagers were to be taken. It has been noted elsewhere. however, that some of the units have assumed the functions and duties of Public Works Departments or carry out simple repairs on government houses; and that some units have had no contact with any village (Tanzania, 1982, p. 2). This has been attributed to lack of personnel, equipment and transport.
At1 Appxtiwl
qf Strtrtegies for
Housing
Improvement
in Rural
Tanzania
8.5
Research Several institutions of the Government of Tanzania are engaged in one way or another in conducting research on ‘how rural housing conditions could be improved’. These include the National Scientific Research Council (NSRC), Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO) and the Building Research Unit (BRU) - the latter having played a more significant role. The NRSC council has made research on none-water borne low-cost pit-latrines appropriate to rural areas whereas SIDO has carried out research on building hardware. BRU was established in 1970 and got down to work in early 1971. The objectives of establishing the unit were: (1) to clarify the problems within the field of housing and building; (2) to arrange that these problems as far as possible and in relevant ways are solved; (3) to co-ordinate research efforts and thus enable an appropriate distribution of tasks for economic utilisation of staff, equipment and other resources . . . ; (4) to collaborate with governmental bodies, parastatals and others in order to ensure practical utilisation of research results; (5) to undertake investigations, surveys etc. for government and other bodies (Edvardsen and Hegdal, 1972). Since its establishment, the unit has carried out research and published reports on various building materials concerning all parts of a house (foundation, wall, floor, roof, plaster etc.) and designed numerous model houses for different climates and cultures. Outstanding products include soil-cement blocks, burnt bricks, cement-asbestos sheets, sisal-reinforced sheets, and soil stabilisation. The main concerns of the unit have been to (a) reduce building costs, (b) prolong the length of house lives, and (c) increase house comfort and hygiene.
Folk mobilisation To disseminate research findings and to increase general awareness, the government and its agencies have employed a number of techniques including: (1) construction of model houses by the Rural Construction and Housing Units and Building Research Unit; (2) seminars and short term workshops for villagers - conducted in villages or at Folk Development Colleges; (3) use of Village Development Officers (Mabwana Maendeleo) -this has, of late, become least important; (4) national campaigns such as ‘Nyumba Bora’ (Better Houses) and ‘Mtu ni Af’a’ (Man Depends On Health); (5) the mass media such as radio commentaries, newspaper features and pamphlets; (6) Adult Education classes whereby campaigns are contained in textbooks.
Direct intervention Direct intervention has happened less often than indirect intervention. When it has, it has been based on the understanding that the rural population lacks both the ‘technical know-how’ and finance to afford an improved house: a house that is usually built by paid and skilled labour with proprietary building materials. The intervention has been through actual house construction and provision of housing loans.
House construction In the early 1960s the government planned the development of 69 ‘model villages’ each costing an estimated three million shillings. Much of the finance was to come from foreign agencies, notably the World Bank. The programme aimed at increasing annual per capita cash income from the then shs. 500 in traditional and scattered settlements to shs. 3,000 in the new model villages; and at generally improving rural environment by actual construction of houses and indirectly as a result of increased income. The programme was abandoned in the late 1960s after only 34 villages had been built mainly because the programme proved to be very costly and also because of the later national policy of self-reliance contained in the 1967 Arushu Declaration. Tunzania
Housing
Bank
(THB)
The Tanzania Housing Bank was established by an Act of Parliament in 1972. It took over assets and liabilities of the Permanent Housing Finance Company of Tanzania (PHFCT) which had hitherto concerned itself with financing private expensive urban commercial and residential buildings. The Bank was established. irzter alia, to finance, and encourage the construction of permanent (c.5 improved) housing mainly within the means of the people; to promote the use and production of local building materials; and to mobilise local savings and support self-reliance within the housing sector (Tanzania Housing Bank Act, 1972). In its first nine years of operation, the Bank spent shs. 1233.3 millions in financing residential houses in Mainland Tanzania. While urban housing loans rose from a total value of shs. 42.2 millions in 1973 to a peak of shs. 93.8 millions in 1979 (and fell to shs. 46.2 millions in 1981), rural housing loans have increased twenty four times from a meagre shs. 7.3 millions in 1974 to a total figure of shs. 176.0 millions in 1981. Of the total sum of loans for the period 1973 to 198 1.53% was spent in rural areas to finance 60% of the total number of houses financed h\, the THB. However, the regional distribution of the THB rural loans for residential houses was very skewed. Over 60% of total rural loans was spent in four regions: Dar es Salaam (39.4%), Kilimanjaro (10.7X), Mbeya (7.5%) and Kagera (6.8%). If housing units built in Dar es Salaam Rural with financial aid from THB arc excluded from rural totals, the number of THB financed rural houses by 1981 reduce from 18,693 to 12,174 (which is not even enough for 0.5% of rural households). The Bank attributes its inability to serve a larger rural population to several factors. First, the Bank claims that villages or individuals living in rural areas do not supply the Bank with vital information and statistics in time to facilitate fast processing of the loans. It asserts that sometimes it takes up to two years to provide the data. Second, some villages take too long ;I time to complete house construction works. In the meantime. inflation causes the construction costs to soar. Third, many beneficiaries build bigger houses than those approved and agreed upon by the Bank. The alterations increase construction costs thereby making it difficult to complete the house. Fourth. repayment of loans is not prompt which reduces the Banks ability to render more loans (Tanzania. 19x2: p. 169). ASSESSMENT
Despite the numerous improving at a very
OF THE STRATEGIES
strategies just explored, rural housing conditions to Karlsson (1980. 1981). slow pace. According
arc the
An Appraisal of Strategies for Housing Improvement
in Rural Tanzania
87
proportion of houses with metal roofs has increased from 17% in 1968/69 to only 26% in 1976/77 while roofs thatched with grass or leaves decreased from 70% to only 61% in the same period. The ratio of mud-roofed houses has remained constant at 11%. Improvements in wall materials have been even less conspicious. Houses with walls built in conventional permanent building materials (burnt bricks, stones, concrete, sand-cement etc.) constituted 6% in 1968/69 as well as in 1976/77. Walls built of organic materials only (poles, branches and grass), however, decreased from 36 to 32% while mud-and-pole walls slightly increased from 43 to 45% during the same period. At the same time, there has been some significant decrease in houses without formal foundations: from 90 to 73%; and an increase in the use of stones-in-sand mortar which constituted zero percent in 1968/69 to 16% in 1976/77. Concrete, cement and brick foundations also increased in popularity from 1 to 6%. While the mass campaigns on ‘Nyumha Boru’ (Better Houses) and the like may have succeeded in raising the general awareness of peasants on what constitutes an improved house, other strategies have not been all that successful. As evidenced above. rural housing conditions are still of relatively poor quality. They still reflect the hurry with which the villagesation programme took place in the years 1972-1975. Although a considerable proportion of households have rebuilt their houses since then (see Muzo and Kalabamu, 1983), most houses are of temporary nature: temporary structures for temporary living. The creation of villages and, therefore, permanent settlements should have resulted in permanent and better houses and living conditions. The stalemate may be attributed to several factors. First, although it has been possible, to provide educational, health, commercial, transport facilities etc. to a majority of households that lacked such services before villagesation, there has not been increased purchasing power: the majority of households still earn just enough for subsistence. Second, locally produced (traditional) building materials are increasingly becoming difficult to obtain. Such materials include special grass that takes longer to decay; poles that are termite resistant; and stabilising clay and anthill soil. Animal grazing and farming in and around villages as well as deforestation are responsible for the increased distant locations and partial disappearance of the materials in question. Third, households with cash incomes high enough to afford manufactured conventional building materials fail to obtain them simply because they are not available on the market. The production of cement and corrugated iron sheets by national industries has completely failed to satisfy rural demand. The little that comes from factories is consumed mostly in Dar es Salaam and in other big urban centres. Remote and inaccessible rural areas suffer most. Fourth, free (mutual) assistance to house builders is decreasing. Besides labour becoming marketed local materials are also being marketed. The general trend is that the higher the village incomes, the less is the proportion of houses built at zero monetary costs. As noted earlier, the provision of services and facilities seem to have improved considerably. However, a visit to rural areas will quickly indicate that that is not quite true. Most water taps are dry either because the pumping machines have broken down or because there is simply no diesel to run the machines. Disposal of human excreta is also unsatisfactory as most pit-latrines are not well covered while others are built too close to residential houses. Refuse and domestic waste is left haphazardly to rot or to be blown away by wind. The need for improving rural housing is more exigent now than ever before due to the compact nature of the rural settlements created under the villagesation programme. The dangers of such epidemics as cholera are more acute in the new settlements visd-vti scattered homesteads. Other environmental dangers include fire outbreaks, floods and storms.
All in all, the present rural houses fail to satisfy biophysical and psychosocial needs of the rural inhabitants. The houses neither satisfactorily protect dwellers from natural disasters and elements (e.g. excessive heat, cold, dampness storms and insects) nor satisfy their feelings and expectations which have been raised through ‘N_y~mha Rora’ (Better Houses) campaigns and increased literacy.
Plausible and tempting as the strategy of constructing or financing the construction of standard houses in rural areas may be, it has several misgivings. First, it may lead to alienation of the rural population in that the dwellers may lack personal attachment and love to the houses. Such alienation is usually responsible for vandalic acts against public housing schemes in urban areas. and difficult to implement as Second, the option would be very expensive happened with attempts to build model villages in the early 1960s. The option of providing on grant or loan system - building materials and skilled labour with recipients providing the unskilled labour and locally available materials has some limitations too. Much as the strategy eliminates possibilities of alienation and reduces monetary costs thereby enabling the capital outlay to reach a larger section of the community, it is equally very expensive. To cater for new households formation alone would require at least shs. 650 millions each year by giving each household only shs. 10,000 for building materials. That would not eliminate the current gap of sub-standard houses; nor does the Tanzania Government have the money to pay. As stated earlier. the option of raising rural incomes is based on the philosophy which assumes that with increased rural incomes. part of the savings will be spent on housing improvements. So far emphasis has been placed on increasing agrict.ltural output as a means to raising rural incomes. The idea should be extended to embrace rural industrialisation. The government, especially local governments should assist in this sphere by providing inputs, machinery and technology. Rural industries should include manufacturing of building materials such as lime, bricks, tiles, frames (wooden and metallic), and fittings besides food milling, processing and packing, textiles. and footwear. It should be possible to sell products from one settlement to other areas within a district or region by way of specialisation. Although it may be argued that the rural population may not invest the lessons from the Tanzania H0usir.g Bank increased incomes on housing, operations indicate a general tendency of investing more in housing as rural incomes improve as evidenced by the four major regional beneficiaries. To cnsnrc increased investments into the housing sector. and in order to sustain rural industrialisation. the rural population should be trained in how to use the new products. The training may be undertaken within villages or through local Folk Dcvclopment Colleges. Government houses and offices, and other public buildings should be constructed with the locally manufactured materials and should employ as much local labour as possible. The construction and transport committee in each village should be able to give logistic support and draw up housing programmes. In fact skills in making burnt bricks and tiles and general construction of nontraditional houses common in Iringa, Ruruma, Mbcya, Morogoro. Kilimanjaro, Kigoma. Bukoba areas etc. are said to have been acquired through working with church missionaries, government departments and other organisations that made and used such materials in Tanzania (Edvardsen and Hcdgal, 1072). It is worth mentioning here that at present, and in the near future, the rural population is too poor to repay any housing loans. The loans may prove a heavy burden and make them more miserable than ever before. Whatever combination
An Appraisal of Strategies ,for Housing Improvement
x’s
irl Rural Tanzania
of options the government, or any other organisation may adopt, the objectives should be to increase the life span of rural houses; to maximise utilisation of local resources and institutions; and to improve the overall rural environment. The options should have self-propagating elements such that rural housing improvement becomes a continuous process. As the old saying goes: give fish to a poor man, you feed him for one day; teach him how to fish, you feed him all his life. And so let it be with rural housing. It is, therefore, recommended that the role of government and aid-agencies should be restricted to introduction and promotion of better house construction techniques; guaranteeing production of improved and durable local building components; creation of better rural environment; and raising incomes. They should never attempt constructing houses as such.
REFERENCES Bengston. P.A., Tanzania Saruji Corporation in Relation to National Housing Policy. Paper presented at a conference: “Towards a National Housing Policy”. organiscd by the Centre for Housing Studies and Budding Research Unit at Arusha International Conference Centre: 3-8 March, 1980. Boalt, C., Village Housing in Tunzania. A Pilot Study of Four Villages in Transition. National Building Research Unit, Dar es Salaam, 1975. Carlson, E., Human Needs Related to Dwellings. Paper by the Ccntrc for Housine Housing Policy”. oreanised Inter&onal Conference Ccntic: 3-8 March, 19X0.
Housing
and
presented at a conference: “Towards a National Studies and Building Research Unit :it Arush;
Ebrahim, A.A.N. and Kristiansen. H., Implementation sf Reasonable Methods for Preservation of Building Poles. National Housing and Building Research Unit. Dar es Salaam, 1980. Edvardsen, K.I. and Hegdal. B., Rural Housing in Tanzania: Report on a Prestudy. National Building Research Unit, Dar es Salaam. 1972. Karlsson, Policy -
R., Facts and Figures (on housing). Paper held at the AICC on 3-8 March, 1080.
Karlsson, published
R.. “Housing Conditions by the Tanzania National
presented
at conference:
Towards
Maganga, F.J. and Ndjovu. C.E.K., Financing Rural Housing in Tanzania. Paper Rural Housing organised by the Centre for Housing Studies and held at Arusha Centre: 12-20 May, 1981. F.T.,
a National
Rural Housing Improvement.
Muzo,
R.K.
Svard,
C., Rural Low-cost Houses. National
Housing
Ardhi
and Building
Institute.
Research
Svare, T.I., Minimum Requirements for Permanent Single Storey Houses. Research Unit, Dar es Salaam. 1974.
and
Housing
in Tanzania”, in Bulletin of Research and In,formation, Vol. Scientific Research Council, Dar es Salaam, 1981.
Kulaba, S.M., Housing, Socialism and Nationul Developmenf in Tanzania. CHS Tanzania Ardhi Institute. Dar es Salaam, 1981.
and Kalabamu.
Housing
I. No. 4.
Occasional
Paper.
presented at a seminar on International Conference Dar es Salaam.
1983.
Unit, Dar cs Salaam. National
Housing
1977.
and Building
Tanzania, The United Republic of, Request for Assistance for Proposed Expansion and Establishment of Rural Construction and Housing Z/nits in Tanzania. Prime Minister’s Office. Dodoma, 1978. Tanzania, The United Planning and Economic
Republic Affairs,
of, 1978 Population Census Dar es Salaam, 1981.
Vol. II, Bureau
of Statistics,
Ministry
of
Tanzania, The United Republic of. Ripoti ya Semina ya Viorlgoii wa Divisheni ya Mufurlzo ~a Ufundi na (ijenzi. (Report of the seminar for leaders of Rural Housing and Construction Units.) The seminar was held at Iringa on i-101211982. The report is published by the Prime Minister’s Office. Dodoma. 1982:~ Tanzania. Minister’s
The United Republic of, Syllabus for the 2 Years Basic Certijkate Courw for Technicians. Prime Office, Community Development. Dodoma, 1982b.
Towo, M.M.N., An Attempt on: Social Planning for Improvement of Rural Housing in Tanzania. .A Polic?, Approach. Paper presented at a seminar on Rural Housing organised by the Centre for Housing Studies and held at Arusha International Conference Centre 12-20 May, 1981. THB,
Tanzania
Housing
Bank,
Annual Report and Accounts, Dar es Salaam,
1979.
Editor’s Note: Because of vagaries of international postal \ervices. it has proved newswry to procced to publication without receiving the authors’ final corrections. The Editors have made every effort to cngurc that the authors’ final text has been nccuratcly reproduced here. hut accept responsibility for any deviation therefrom.
Ardhi Institute, Tanzania
INTRODUCTION
Since attainment of independence, the Government of Tanzania has adopted several strategies aimed at improving rural housing conditions as part of its national strategy for socio-economic development through rural development. Although some inlprovements have been recorded, there is still room for further achievements especially if rural housing improvement policies are integrated with rural industriaiisation programmes. The present essay is an attempt to review the adopted strategies and make suggestions for better performance. The essay may be split into four broad sections. The first section is a brief on conditions in rural Tanzania. The next section explores current housing strategies while the last but one section is an evaluation of the strategies. The last section contains recommendations. RURAL
CONDITIONS
IN TANZANIA
The main purpose of this section is to give a reader, unfamiliar with rural Tanzania, some pertinent information regarding rural conditions. Unless otherwise indicated much of the information on rural Tanzania has been based on two articles by Karlsson, namely Facts and Figures (1980) and Housing Co~d~t~~~?.~ In Ta~z~ln~a (1981). Population As per the 1978 national population census, Tanzania had a population of 17,512,610 inhabitants out of which 15,099,710 (or 86.9%) lived in rural areas. From the same source the total number of rural households may be estimated at 3,000,OOOtaking an average household size of 5 persons. Karlsson estimates that the rural population increases at 325,0~0-390,000 persons or 65,000-78,000 households each year. According to the Third Five-Year Plan life expectancy was 45 years in 1974. About 47% of the rural population was, in 1978, aged less than 15 years. The dependent population, that is children aged below 15 years and old people aged over 54 years constituted nearly 56% of the rural population. Females in rural areas outnumbered males in the ratio 106:lOO. ’ Address
for correspondence:
do Arclhi Institute,
P.O.
81
Box 35176,
Dar-es-Salaam.
Tanzania.
Economy-
As noted above Tanzania is a predominantly rural country: the rural population constitutes about 86.9%. Nearly all the rural population is engaged in agricultural activities, that is, crop growing and animal husbandry. In 1978, an average household of 5 persons had an average income of shs. 6,400 per year (US$l = 10 shs.). This figure included shs. 3,400 in cash money and shs. 3,000 in subsistence income. Preliminary estimates by the National Building Research Unit (BRU) on cash expenditure in 1978 for farming rural households indicate that: t/1 of the households spent less than shs. 1,400 per household per year: M of the households spent less than shs. 2,600 per household per year; “/j of the households spent less than shs. 3,700 per household per year: 90% of the households spent less than shs. 5,700 per household per year. Housing According to the Household Budget Survey (HBS) conducted in 1969, 82% of all houses in Tanzania had rectangular shapes varying only in the location of entrance doors and roof designs. Shapes for the other 18% included cylindrical structures with conical roofs, and beehive structures. With the exception of a possible decrease in the number of cylindrical houses, the proportions are expected not to have changed considerably. The majority of houses are only one room in width with a total maximum of three habitable rooms per house. The average house has an area of 40-50 sq. m giving an average of 8-10 sq. m per person. The number of persons per room is estimated at 1.7. There has been a decrease, from 71 to 59%. of houses built by prospective household owners (with unpaid labour) between 1968-1969 and 1976-1977; and an increase, from 20 to 34%, of houses built with temporary employed labour in the same period. The temporary employed labour category normally includes rather slightly skilled labour (artisans) who construct non-traditional structures such as metal roofs, and brick walls. Rural houses built by ‘full time professionals’ constitute an estimated less than 5%, while they constitute about 13% in urban areas. It is estimated that the total average cost of a house built in 1978 was shs. 6,000 of which shs. 2,000 was in cash terms and shs. 4.000 in subsistence terms. These figures indicate that only ti of the total house costs derives from monetary expenditures. Over 98% of the households that constructed houses in 1977 all over Tanzania used their private savings. The proportion is definitely much higher in rural areas. The average life length of houses in Tanzania has been estimated at 7 years. Of course, self-built houses constructed in locally available organic materials last for an even shorter period.
CURRENT
STRATEGIES
FOR IMPROVING
RURAL HOUSING
IN TANZANIA
Introduction Colonial governments in Tanzania did not take an active part in improving rural housing conditions - and indeed for the all African population - until after the Second World War. Even then, assistance was centred on urban African elites and high income earners who benefited through such programmes as African Urban Housing Schemes, African Government Housing Scheme, and the Urban Roof Loan Scheme.
An Appruisal of Strategres for Housing Improvement
in Rural Tanzunia
83
The governments’ policy on rural housing was “of constructive non-intervention” (Maganga and Ndjovu, 1981). Rural housing was to be built, as in precolonial days, by efforts of rural communities themselves and mainly with locally available materials. The non-intervention attitudes may have been necessitated by lack of satisfactory finance given the large number of houses and the quantum of facilities that would have been necessary to construct and provide. Moreover the rural population was scattered, less and unlike the urban population, organised and, therefore, posed no threat to the then governments. Furthermore, their abject poverty was less visible than in urban areas. Unlike colonial governments, the post-Independence government has shown keen interest in the improvement of rural housing conditions. It has used two approaches: direct and indirect intervention. Indirect intervention The indirect intervention approach has centred on creating socio-economic and cultural conditions that are conducive to housing improvement which is achieved by “supplying the necessary infrastructure and service inputs subsequently creating favourable conditions for higher rural productivity” so that rural communities may expand “their agricultural capacities either through diversified economic activities such as mixed farming or concentration of production of specific agricultural crops, or by improving the existing methods of cultivation” (Towo, 1981). It is expected that improved farming would result in increased agricultural productivity which would raise rural households’ incomes. Some of the earnings raised would be used in improving rural settlements and housing conditions of the respective communities. Increased agricultural productivity and incomes should be accompanied by deliberate policies which, by way of education and persuasion, would urge and encourage the rural population to improve their habitat. In short the approach assumes that increased incomes augmented by education, self-esteem and general awareness would result in the need for selfliberation from both natural unfavourable conditions and poor living conditions; and the desire for, and ability to, afford an improved house. Several strategies have been deployed to implement the above philosophy. They include villagesation, establishment of Rural Housing and Construction Units, research and folk mobilisation. Villagesation Villagesation, the mobilising of scattered homesteads into planned villages in the post-Arusha Declaration era, aimed at, among other things, enhancing community harmony by increasing productivity through provision of expertise and communal ownership of major means of production at grass root levels; and improving rural environment by providing health, educational, water facilities etc. Up to June 1978, about 8033 villages had been established. Of the total villages, 95% were registered in accordance with the Village and Ujamaa Villages Act of 1975. Of the registered villages 79% had formed village councils and governments. According to the Act, and as is later contained in the Local Government Act of 1982, each village is organised as in Fig. 1. Three of the committees are relevant to rural housing. While the Education, Culture and Social Welfare Committee is pre-occupied with, among others, disseminating knowledge and campaigning for better environment including better housing, the Construction and Transport Committee has duties of constructing public buildings and organising the construction of residential houses and transportation of building materials and other products. The
I
I
;
Viliage
1 I Composed I I village
Assembly by all
adult
members
I ;
Village
Chairman and Village Secretary
I I
i 1 I :
I :
II I
I
I
I Defence
I I Planning I /Crop I and ! : Production , , and a ‘Finance 1Security , , and 1Committee: 1Marketing I ICommItteeI I I CommIttee I I
-I.
I
I
1
I
: :Constructlon; ; Educat,on. I 1and , I Culture and I I Social ‘Weifare ’ ! Transport I CommIttee , I DeveLopment ;I (1 1CommIttee
1
I I / I I ,
Planning and Finance Committee has the responsibility of initiating new investment ventures, managing finance and co-ordinating the activities of other committees. The most significant point here is that the present villages contain instruments for promoting better house building and are well geared to receiving, executing and monitoring projects. Above all housing is allocated its righteous position and importance. The villagesation programmes have been accompanied by efforts to provide community facilities. Under the Universal Primary Education (UPE) Programme, nearly 85% of all school age children can now attend school. While the percentage of households using natural sources of water (such as lakes, rivers and springs) decreased nearly by half from 60% in 1968169 to 34% in 1976/77, those using tapped water increased from 8% to 22% in the same period. There has also been recorded an increase in the proportion of households depending on water storage magazines/tanks from 3 to 9% in 1968/69 and 1976177 respectively. The rest have been using shallow wells. The proportion of households with access to pit latrines has also increased from 50% in 1968/69 to 78% in 1976177. Rural
Comtruction
and Housirlg
Units
and Housing Units were established in 1962 in order to: Rural Construction masonry, (1) provide on job training of villagers in skills such as carpentry, and metal works: and implementation of rural (2) assist villages in the planning, supervision construction works like construction of better houses, rural health centres, water works, produce stores, primary schools etc.; (3) assist village councils to promote and sustain the spirit and practice of selfhelp (Tanzania, 1978). of five technical personnel and is equipped with one Each unit is composed Landrover, a tlpper, a long wheelbase truck and a set of handtools for trade. By 1978. 55 such units had been established in the same number of districts. It was planned to establish 28 more units in the remaining districts so that by 1980 all districts in mainland Tanzania would have a unit each. It was also planned to strengthen the 55 units and to provide adequate equipment to all District Folk Development Colleges where the training of villagers were to be taken. It has been noted elsewhere. however, that some of the units have assumed the functions and duties of Public Works Departments or carry out simple repairs on government houses; and that some units have had no contact with any village (Tanzania, 1982, p. 2). This has been attributed to lack of personnel, equipment and transport.
At1 Appxtiwl
qf Strtrtegies for
Housing
Improvement
in Rural
Tanzania
8.5
Research Several institutions of the Government of Tanzania are engaged in one way or another in conducting research on ‘how rural housing conditions could be improved’. These include the National Scientific Research Council (NSRC), Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO) and the Building Research Unit (BRU) - the latter having played a more significant role. The NRSC council has made research on none-water borne low-cost pit-latrines appropriate to rural areas whereas SIDO has carried out research on building hardware. BRU was established in 1970 and got down to work in early 1971. The objectives of establishing the unit were: (1) to clarify the problems within the field of housing and building; (2) to arrange that these problems as far as possible and in relevant ways are solved; (3) to co-ordinate research efforts and thus enable an appropriate distribution of tasks for economic utilisation of staff, equipment and other resources . . . ; (4) to collaborate with governmental bodies, parastatals and others in order to ensure practical utilisation of research results; (5) to undertake investigations, surveys etc. for government and other bodies (Edvardsen and Hegdal, 1972). Since its establishment, the unit has carried out research and published reports on various building materials concerning all parts of a house (foundation, wall, floor, roof, plaster etc.) and designed numerous model houses for different climates and cultures. Outstanding products include soil-cement blocks, burnt bricks, cement-asbestos sheets, sisal-reinforced sheets, and soil stabilisation. The main concerns of the unit have been to (a) reduce building costs, (b) prolong the length of house lives, and (c) increase house comfort and hygiene.
Folk mobilisation To disseminate research findings and to increase general awareness, the government and its agencies have employed a number of techniques including: (1) construction of model houses by the Rural Construction and Housing Units and Building Research Unit; (2) seminars and short term workshops for villagers - conducted in villages or at Folk Development Colleges; (3) use of Village Development Officers (Mabwana Maendeleo) -this has, of late, become least important; (4) national campaigns such as ‘Nyumba Bora’ (Better Houses) and ‘Mtu ni Af’a’ (Man Depends On Health); (5) the mass media such as radio commentaries, newspaper features and pamphlets; (6) Adult Education classes whereby campaigns are contained in textbooks.
Direct intervention Direct intervention has happened less often than indirect intervention. When it has, it has been based on the understanding that the rural population lacks both the ‘technical know-how’ and finance to afford an improved house: a house that is usually built by paid and skilled labour with proprietary building materials. The intervention has been through actual house construction and provision of housing loans.
House construction In the early 1960s the government planned the development of 69 ‘model villages’ each costing an estimated three million shillings. Much of the finance was to come from foreign agencies, notably the World Bank. The programme aimed at increasing annual per capita cash income from the then shs. 500 in traditional and scattered settlements to shs. 3,000 in the new model villages; and at generally improving rural environment by actual construction of houses and indirectly as a result of increased income. The programme was abandoned in the late 1960s after only 34 villages had been built mainly because the programme proved to be very costly and also because of the later national policy of self-reliance contained in the 1967 Arushu Declaration. Tunzania
Housing
Bank
(THB)
The Tanzania Housing Bank was established by an Act of Parliament in 1972. It took over assets and liabilities of the Permanent Housing Finance Company of Tanzania (PHFCT) which had hitherto concerned itself with financing private expensive urban commercial and residential buildings. The Bank was established. irzter alia, to finance, and encourage the construction of permanent (c.5 improved) housing mainly within the means of the people; to promote the use and production of local building materials; and to mobilise local savings and support self-reliance within the housing sector (Tanzania Housing Bank Act, 1972). In its first nine years of operation, the Bank spent shs. 1233.3 millions in financing residential houses in Mainland Tanzania. While urban housing loans rose from a total value of shs. 42.2 millions in 1973 to a peak of shs. 93.8 millions in 1979 (and fell to shs. 46.2 millions in 1981), rural housing loans have increased twenty four times from a meagre shs. 7.3 millions in 1974 to a total figure of shs. 176.0 millions in 1981. Of the total sum of loans for the period 1973 to 198 1.53% was spent in rural areas to finance 60% of the total number of houses financed h\, the THB. However, the regional distribution of the THB rural loans for residential houses was very skewed. Over 60% of total rural loans was spent in four regions: Dar es Salaam (39.4%), Kilimanjaro (10.7X), Mbeya (7.5%) and Kagera (6.8%). If housing units built in Dar es Salaam Rural with financial aid from THB arc excluded from rural totals, the number of THB financed rural houses by 1981 reduce from 18,693 to 12,174 (which is not even enough for 0.5% of rural households). The Bank attributes its inability to serve a larger rural population to several factors. First, the Bank claims that villages or individuals living in rural areas do not supply the Bank with vital information and statistics in time to facilitate fast processing of the loans. It asserts that sometimes it takes up to two years to provide the data. Second, some villages take too long ;I time to complete house construction works. In the meantime. inflation causes the construction costs to soar. Third, many beneficiaries build bigger houses than those approved and agreed upon by the Bank. The alterations increase construction costs thereby making it difficult to complete the house. Fourth. repayment of loans is not prompt which reduces the Banks ability to render more loans (Tanzania. 19x2: p. 169). ASSESSMENT
Despite the numerous improving at a very
OF THE STRATEGIES
strategies just explored, rural housing conditions to Karlsson (1980. 1981). slow pace. According
arc the
An Appraisal of Strategies for Housing Improvement
in Rural Tanzania
87
proportion of houses with metal roofs has increased from 17% in 1968/69 to only 26% in 1976/77 while roofs thatched with grass or leaves decreased from 70% to only 61% in the same period. The ratio of mud-roofed houses has remained constant at 11%. Improvements in wall materials have been even less conspicious. Houses with walls built in conventional permanent building materials (burnt bricks, stones, concrete, sand-cement etc.) constituted 6% in 1968/69 as well as in 1976/77. Walls built of organic materials only (poles, branches and grass), however, decreased from 36 to 32% while mud-and-pole walls slightly increased from 43 to 45% during the same period. At the same time, there has been some significant decrease in houses without formal foundations: from 90 to 73%; and an increase in the use of stones-in-sand mortar which constituted zero percent in 1968/69 to 16% in 1976/77. Concrete, cement and brick foundations also increased in popularity from 1 to 6%. While the mass campaigns on ‘Nyumha Boru’ (Better Houses) and the like may have succeeded in raising the general awareness of peasants on what constitutes an improved house, other strategies have not been all that successful. As evidenced above. rural housing conditions are still of relatively poor quality. They still reflect the hurry with which the villagesation programme took place in the years 1972-1975. Although a considerable proportion of households have rebuilt their houses since then (see Muzo and Kalabamu, 1983), most houses are of temporary nature: temporary structures for temporary living. The creation of villages and, therefore, permanent settlements should have resulted in permanent and better houses and living conditions. The stalemate may be attributed to several factors. First, although it has been possible, to provide educational, health, commercial, transport facilities etc. to a majority of households that lacked such services before villagesation, there has not been increased purchasing power: the majority of households still earn just enough for subsistence. Second, locally produced (traditional) building materials are increasingly becoming difficult to obtain. Such materials include special grass that takes longer to decay; poles that are termite resistant; and stabilising clay and anthill soil. Animal grazing and farming in and around villages as well as deforestation are responsible for the increased distant locations and partial disappearance of the materials in question. Third, households with cash incomes high enough to afford manufactured conventional building materials fail to obtain them simply because they are not available on the market. The production of cement and corrugated iron sheets by national industries has completely failed to satisfy rural demand. The little that comes from factories is consumed mostly in Dar es Salaam and in other big urban centres. Remote and inaccessible rural areas suffer most. Fourth, free (mutual) assistance to house builders is decreasing. Besides labour becoming marketed local materials are also being marketed. The general trend is that the higher the village incomes, the less is the proportion of houses built at zero monetary costs. As noted earlier, the provision of services and facilities seem to have improved considerably. However, a visit to rural areas will quickly indicate that that is not quite true. Most water taps are dry either because the pumping machines have broken down or because there is simply no diesel to run the machines. Disposal of human excreta is also unsatisfactory as most pit-latrines are not well covered while others are built too close to residential houses. Refuse and domestic waste is left haphazardly to rot or to be blown away by wind. The need for improving rural housing is more exigent now than ever before due to the compact nature of the rural settlements created under the villagesation programme. The dangers of such epidemics as cholera are more acute in the new settlements visd-vti scattered homesteads. Other environmental dangers include fire outbreaks, floods and storms.
All in all, the present rural houses fail to satisfy biophysical and psychosocial needs of the rural inhabitants. The houses neither satisfactorily protect dwellers from natural disasters and elements (e.g. excessive heat, cold, dampness storms and insects) nor satisfy their feelings and expectations which have been raised through ‘N_y~mha Rora’ (Better Houses) campaigns and increased literacy.
Plausible and tempting as the strategy of constructing or financing the construction of standard houses in rural areas may be, it has several misgivings. First, it may lead to alienation of the rural population in that the dwellers may lack personal attachment and love to the houses. Such alienation is usually responsible for vandalic acts against public housing schemes in urban areas. and difficult to implement as Second, the option would be very expensive happened with attempts to build model villages in the early 1960s. The option of providing on grant or loan system - building materials and skilled labour with recipients providing the unskilled labour and locally available materials has some limitations too. Much as the strategy eliminates possibilities of alienation and reduces monetary costs thereby enabling the capital outlay to reach a larger section of the community, it is equally very expensive. To cater for new households formation alone would require at least shs. 650 millions each year by giving each household only shs. 10,000 for building materials. That would not eliminate the current gap of sub-standard houses; nor does the Tanzania Government have the money to pay. As stated earlier. the option of raising rural incomes is based on the philosophy which assumes that with increased rural incomes. part of the savings will be spent on housing improvements. So far emphasis has been placed on increasing agrict.ltural output as a means to raising rural incomes. The idea should be extended to embrace rural industrialisation. The government, especially local governments should assist in this sphere by providing inputs, machinery and technology. Rural industries should include manufacturing of building materials such as lime, bricks, tiles, frames (wooden and metallic), and fittings besides food milling, processing and packing, textiles. and footwear. It should be possible to sell products from one settlement to other areas within a district or region by way of specialisation. Although it may be argued that the rural population may not invest the lessons from the Tanzania H0usir.g Bank increased incomes on housing, operations indicate a general tendency of investing more in housing as rural incomes improve as evidenced by the four major regional beneficiaries. To cnsnrc increased investments into the housing sector. and in order to sustain rural industrialisation. the rural population should be trained in how to use the new products. The training may be undertaken within villages or through local Folk Dcvclopment Colleges. Government houses and offices, and other public buildings should be constructed with the locally manufactured materials and should employ as much local labour as possible. The construction and transport committee in each village should be able to give logistic support and draw up housing programmes. In fact skills in making burnt bricks and tiles and general construction of nontraditional houses common in Iringa, Ruruma, Mbcya, Morogoro. Kilimanjaro, Kigoma. Bukoba areas etc. are said to have been acquired through working with church missionaries, government departments and other organisations that made and used such materials in Tanzania (Edvardsen and Hcdgal, 1072). It is worth mentioning here that at present, and in the near future, the rural population is too poor to repay any housing loans. The loans may prove a heavy burden and make them more miserable than ever before. Whatever combination
An Appraisal of Strategies ,for Housing Improvement
x’s
irl Rural Tanzania
of options the government, or any other organisation may adopt, the objectives should be to increase the life span of rural houses; to maximise utilisation of local resources and institutions; and to improve the overall rural environment. The options should have self-propagating elements such that rural housing improvement becomes a continuous process. As the old saying goes: give fish to a poor man, you feed him for one day; teach him how to fish, you feed him all his life. And so let it be with rural housing. It is, therefore, recommended that the role of government and aid-agencies should be restricted to introduction and promotion of better house construction techniques; guaranteeing production of improved and durable local building components; creation of better rural environment; and raising incomes. They should never attempt constructing houses as such.
REFERENCES Bengston. P.A., Tanzania Saruji Corporation in Relation to National Housing Policy. Paper presented at a conference: “Towards a National Housing Policy”. organiscd by the Centre for Housing Studies and Budding Research Unit at Arusha International Conference Centre: 3-8 March, 1980. Boalt, C., Village Housing in Tunzania. A Pilot Study of Four Villages in Transition. National Building Research Unit, Dar es Salaam, 1975. Carlson, E., Human Needs Related to Dwellings. Paper by the Ccntrc for Housine Housing Policy”. oreanised Inter&onal Conference Ccntic: 3-8 March, 19X0.
Housing
and
presented at a conference: “Towards a National Studies and Building Research Unit :it Arush;
Ebrahim, A.A.N. and Kristiansen. H., Implementation sf Reasonable Methods for Preservation of Building Poles. National Housing and Building Research Unit. Dar es Salaam, 1980. Edvardsen, K.I. and Hegdal. B., Rural Housing in Tanzania: Report on a Prestudy. National Building Research Unit, Dar es Salaam. 1972. Karlsson, Policy -
R., Facts and Figures (on housing). Paper held at the AICC on 3-8 March, 1080.
Karlsson, published
R.. “Housing Conditions by the Tanzania National
presented
at conference:
Towards
Maganga, F.J. and Ndjovu. C.E.K., Financing Rural Housing in Tanzania. Paper Rural Housing organised by the Centre for Housing Studies and held at Arusha Centre: 12-20 May, 1981. F.T.,
a National
Rural Housing Improvement.
Muzo,
R.K.
Svard,
C., Rural Low-cost Houses. National
Housing
Ardhi
and Building
Institute.
Research
Svare, T.I., Minimum Requirements for Permanent Single Storey Houses. Research Unit, Dar es Salaam. 1974.
and
Housing
in Tanzania”, in Bulletin of Research and In,formation, Vol. Scientific Research Council, Dar es Salaam, 1981.
Kulaba, S.M., Housing, Socialism and Nationul Developmenf in Tanzania. CHS Tanzania Ardhi Institute. Dar es Salaam, 1981.
and Kalabamu.
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I. No. 4.
Occasional
Paper.
presented at a seminar on International Conference Dar es Salaam.
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Unit, Dar cs Salaam. National
Housing
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and Building
Tanzania, The United Republic of, Request for Assistance for Proposed Expansion and Establishment of Rural Construction and Housing Z/nits in Tanzania. Prime Minister’s Office. Dodoma, 1978. Tanzania, The United Planning and Economic
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Vol. II, Bureau
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of
Tanzania, The United Republic of. Ripoti ya Semina ya Viorlgoii wa Divisheni ya Mufurlzo ~a Ufundi na (ijenzi. (Report of the seminar for leaders of Rural Housing and Construction Units.) The seminar was held at Iringa on i-101211982. The report is published by the Prime Minister’s Office. Dodoma. 1982:~ Tanzania. Minister’s
The United Republic of, Syllabus for the 2 Years Basic Certijkate Courw for Technicians. Prime Office, Community Development. Dodoma, 1982b.
Towo, M.M.N., An Attempt on: Social Planning for Improvement of Rural Housing in Tanzania. .A Polic?, Approach. Paper presented at a seminar on Rural Housing organised by the Centre for Housing Studies and held at Arusha International Conference Centre 12-20 May, 1981. THB,
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Editor’s Note: Because of vagaries of international postal \ervices. it has proved newswry to procced to publication without receiving the authors’ final corrections. The Editors have made every effort to cngurc that the authors’ final text has been nccuratcly reproduced here. hut accept responsibility for any deviation therefrom.