- Email: [email protected]
An aura of confusion Part 2: the aided eye—‘imaging the aura?’
ARTICLE IN PRESS Complementary Therapies in Nursing & Midwifery (2004) 10, 116–123
An aura of confusion Part 2: the aided eyeF‘imaging the aura?’ Tim Duerden* Faculty of Health Care and Social Work Studies, School of Community, Health Sciences and Social Care, The University of Salford, Frederick Road, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK
KEYWORDS Complementary and alternative medicine; Vital energy; Aura; Kirlian photography; Gas discharge visualisation; Polychromatic interference photography; Imaging; Diagnostic techniques
Summary The second of three papers considers claims made for the perception or detection of vital energy. Many systems of complementary and alternative medicine assume the existence of a vital force that mediates therapeutic efficacy, for example chi or qi in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Vital energy directly perceived or imaged that surrounds living organisms is frequently termed the aura. A range of devices or techniques are claimed to image the aura. These include Kirlian photography, gas discharge visualisation (GDV) and polychromatic interference photography (PIP). This paper explores such claims and argues that the images produced can be explained using concepts from the physical sciences. It is suggested that techniques such as KP, GDV or PIP currently offer insufficient reliable research evidence concerning their use as diagnostic or imaging alternatives. Consequently their clinical use is debateable. Kirlian photography and its derivatives may however be useful as a research tool by providing visual records of complex bodily responses to experimental situations. For example, responses to physiological or psychological stressors. & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction The previous paper1 in this series aimed to show how normal physiological phenomena may be inappropriately used to support claims of the existence of a vital force (also known as chi/qi, ki, prana, orgone, etheric energy, auric energy, subtle energy, etc.). This paper considers various devices that have been employed to attempt to image vital energy in the light of the physical sciences. Many systems of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) posit the existence of a vital force and consider it to be an agent for the efficacy of these systems. It undermines the credibility of such vitalist CAM systems if evidence cited in support of this vitalist stance can be simply explained using non-vitalist concepts. In such *Tel.: þ 44-161-295-2429; fax: þ 44-161-295-427. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Duerden).
situations, a credible physical science explanation needs to be offered alongside alternative vitalist explanations if a meaningful dialogue with the physical science community is to be maintained. Images evoke powerful responses and it takes a determined effort to question the validity of visual imageryFstage magicians make full use of this habitual credulity. The Kirlian images illustrating the discussion below are potent, it is difficult not to impose meanings onto them. Potency may reflect culturally derived expectations as in the haloes of light portrayed in religious imagery. Alternatively, physiological phenomena (as discussed in Part 1 of this series) could be mistaken for perceptions of aura, or, perhaps, there is some intuitive resonance with an innate ability to sense auras. Part 1 explored the limited validity and reliability of the human sensory system. Imaging systems offer an apparently objective means to not only extend the range of the sensory system but also to give a
1353-6117/$ - see front matter & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ctnm.2004.01.002
ARTICLE IN PRESS An aura of confusion Part 2
reproducible, objective record of what has been imaged, so permitting the application of analytical and statistical tools. However, all images are artefacts of the process that creates them and manipulation of these processes will alter the resultant image and its subsequent interpretation. This is particularly true for the devices that generate a coloured output. Light radiation within a very narrow range of electromagnetic frequencies stimulates the colour sensitive cells of the retina. Only artificial sensors that are sensitive to this frequency range can produce images that are representative of human colour visionFcolour photography or video being examples. Sensing devices operating outside this narrow frequency range or operating over only part of this range may have a coloured output. However, these are ‘false-colours’ generated to enhance image interpretation and may not be related to colours generated by visible light radiation. Furthermore, by changing the settings of an imaging device, different colours can be assigned to represent a particular frequency. This means that the colours have no inherent meaning. The following discussion will consider the more frequently encountered imaging devices. This is a difficult area of study as published research is very limited and few are in the English language. Whilst the Internet acts as a forum for many researchers there continue to be validity and reliability issues with data.
Kirlian photography (KP) Kirlian photography is an electrophotography technique named after Semyon and Valentina Kirlian who improved the existing ‘bio-electricity’ photography of their day following a chance discovery in 1939.2,3 They found that by placing an object on a photographic plate which is in a light proof cassette and generating a strong electric field around the photographic plate, they could produce beautiful photographs of the discharge patterns that outlined the object. It seemed that living objects give different patterns when compared to dead objects. The Kirlians noticed that individuals appeared to show differing discharge patterns and they questioned whether the health of an individual affected the discharge pattern. From their work and that of others, there do seem to be differences in the overall patterns of healthy and ill people but the interpretations of these patterns remains controversial and difficult. The majority of KP research has been conducted in Russia and was popularised
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in the 1970s by Thelma Moss in her book The Body Electric4 which explored the ‘human energy field’(HEF). The ‘aura’ seen in KP is due to corona discharge. In a high intensity electric field, the insulation provided by the air breaks down. An electric current flows, exciting air molecules to such a degree that they give off lightFthis is termed corona discharge. On a much grander scale, this process gives rise to lightning bolts. The colour of the light produced is characteristic of the molecules found in air and, as nitrogen is the dominant gas in air, nitrogen’s pale blue discharge colour predominates. Sparks arising from static electricity or from electrical appliances are blue for the same reason. This can be demonstrated by transparent electrode Kirlian photography that allows the blue discharge to be seen with the naked eye.5 KP initially used photographic film to record the images, although the film was not designed for this purpose. KP involves an insulated high voltage electrode upon which a sheet of photographic film is placed. The subject is then connected to earthFthe insulator, film and subject form a barrier to current flow. If the electric field is sufficiently intense, corona discharge will occur between the object and the electrode when the insulation of the air breaks down. The presence of electrolytes (salts) and water in the subject’s body and in the film will offer preferential conduction pathways that can influence the points at which the air insulation breaks down (ionises). As the film is uniform it is variations in the subject’s surface that will change the location and intensity of discharge in the air. Exposure time and voltage must be kept constant to provide comparable images. Colour film comprises, in sequence, blue, green and red sensitive layers backed by a light opaque barrier. See Figs. 1 and 2. The opaque backing is usually orientated in the Kirlian device so that this has the object placed on it. The uppermost blue sensitive layer is therefore against the electrode plate and so corona discharge between the plate and film will produce blue light that the blue emulsion will record. As there is little light of any other colour produced, the green and red layers will not capture any transmitted light passing out of the blue layer into the green and red layers. In addition, the ionisation pathways across the film can directly affect the emulsion and this is most likely to occur in the blue layer as it is this layer that is in close contact with the electrode and so this will also show as a blue image. Thus the blue parts of a Kirlian image are a record of both the
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Figure 1 Representation of corona discharge around finger tip and close-up of the interaction with layers of colour film. Reproduced with permission of the author, after de la Plaza.5
Figure 2 Representation of corona discharge streamers around a thumb as seen through a transparent condenser electrode. Reproduced with permission of the author, after de la Plaza.5
blue light in the coronal discharge and the passage of the electrical discharge through the film. Air gaps between the subject and the film can result in discharge pathways forming between the subject and the back of the filmFthis is most likely to affect the red layer as this is next to the opaque backing layer and this will show as red in the Kirlian image. The green layer is unlikely to be effected and this accounts for the scarcity of green in Kirlian images recorded on standard colour film. Polaroids film is used in some Kirlian devices. It has a very complex structure permitting many colours to be
generated,5 in addition, if pressure is applied to a developing Polaroids image, exceedingly strange coloured shapes can be generated. See, the images in Fig. 3 for examples of Kirlian photographs. It is therefore not possible to place any real value on the colour of Kirlian images. If the film was reversed (and steps taken to prevent light exposure), more red colours would seen. The moisture content of the skin seems to be a major factor in determining the size of the discharge patterns produced, if applied pressure, movement, air humidity and temperature are kept
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! Esteban de Figure 3 Examples of Kirlian Photographs using colour film. Reproduced with the kind permission of Andres la Plaza.5 Colour images and links to de la Plaza’s website are available at http://www.chssc.salford.ac.uk/aura.htm
constantFsweat glands appear to generate more intense discharges and individual discharge lines can frequently be traced back to the pore of a sweat gland. The electrical resistance of the skin (also called galvanic skin resistance), which changes with the amount of salty sweat produced, does not correlate well with the intensity of discharge although changes in KP images with changing health are often ascribed to this.3,6,7 Although the colours are not of interpretive value, the patterns may be. Changes in complexity of patterns may be related to changes in biological activity of tissues. Increased intensity and irregularity of the discharge pattern may relate to reduced tissue function. However, the low reproducibility of KP images causes great difficulty in their use as a reliable investigative tool.3 Some proponents of KP promote differences seen between living and dead organisms. However, all living cells generate an electric field by pumping electrolytes (electrically charged dissolved salts or ions) from one side of the cell membrane to the other. Both the field and the partitioning of electrolytes would be expected to alter the appearance of KP images of living cells in compar-
ison to dead cells in which the field and partitioning are lost. See Fig. 4 that illustrates the changing KP images taken of a dying leaf.
Acupuncture and Kirlian photography There is a wealth of research that shows how electromagnetic fields generated by body cells vary slightly over the body surface.8 These electromagnetic fields have complex relationships to tissue healing and cell signalling.9 Acupuncture points are often associated with a local change to electrical field strength and skin resistanceFa phenomenon used by the electronic acupuncture point stimulators that give an audible alarm when detecting altered skin resistance that may coincide with the traditional acupuncture point. If the concept in Traditional Chinese Medicine of a relationship between acupuncture points and qi is accepted, it could also be argued that changes to qi may change the bio-electrical properties of the skin associated with the acupuncture point and so change resultant KP images. Wan10 suggests that
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Figure 4 Fresh and dying leaf. Reproduced with the kind permission of Rubellus Petrinus.11
Figure 5 The phantom leaf effect. Reproduced with the kind permission of Rubellus Petrinus.11
collagen fibres in the body play an important role in local electric field strength and that acupuncture points tend to lie in regions with lower collagen density. Phantom leaf images are often cited as proof of the ability of Kirlian photography to capture the ‘vital force field’ around living things. In this process a KP image of a leaf is taken, then part of the leaf is removed and a second KP image taken. In a phantom leaf image, the absent area of removed part still shows a discharge trace. This effect has been claimed to have been observed even when a second plate is used for the second image to prevent moisture traces from the leaf in first image. This phenomenon is often cited to support the vitalist stance however images are rarely documented. Fig. 5 represents an example that was apparently obtained after 500 attempts.11 Difficulty in capturing an image is sometimes taken as an indication of the fugitive nature of the auric field. However after so many experiments a random discharge pattern may indeed look something like the lost part of the leaf. Unless the effect
can be reliably demonstrated and replicated, it is probably an experimental artefact.
Healing and Kirlian photography Some individuals and healers claim to be able to influence the shape of a discharge pattern. One explanation for such changes is that blood flow, skin temperature, etc. may alter when a healer focuses on their hands, although some studies refute this.6,7 There have been reports that healers may be able to generate unusually intense bio-magnetic fields and these may alter the Kirlian image.12 There is a complex interaction between healing, biofeedback, autosuggestion and physiological changes that make Kirlian images of healing difficult to evaluate. Healers tend to focus on their hands and can become aware of altered sensations as they do so which may induce changes in physiology as they enter a relaxed and reflective state. Such
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variations are likely to be reflected in a Kirlian image although it is not possible to identify and measure the extent to which a single physiological variable may have altered. Image changes may be the result of many small changes arising from the altered state of the healer and this may affect the Kirlian image.
Frequently fraudulent Kirlian photography In the United Kingdom, alternative health exhibitions often have ‘aura photography’ stalls that utilise a number of devices. For example a Kirlianlike device superimposes a Polaroids picture of a subject’s head with a corona discharge pattern derived from electrodes on which the subject’s fingers are placed. The galvanic skin resistance of the fingers to control the intensity of different lights within the machine produce aura-like fogs that are superimposed over the image of the subject’s head. See Fig. 6. Other devices may produce a random scattering of light unrelated to any biological measure. The fraudulent nature of such images resides in claims that the image shows the aura around the head despite the head in the photograph being unrelated to the apparent aura. Nickell13 offers an entertaining account of his experience of aura photography. Figure 7 illustrates a more recent type of aura imaging supposedly depicting ‘energy centres’ and an oval ‘aura’ around the outline of a human body. The computer generated image is typically based on electrical and temperature information from the subject’s hand.
Figure 7 Computer generated image of the ‘aura’ using hand electrodes. Patterns in centre are meant to represent the chakras. Reproduced with permission of Sylvia Connley.
Where the electrical resistance or temperature of the skin is used to modify colours in Polaroids or computer generated images there may be some relation to health or stress levels. However in uncontrolled conditions such as a health fair, little reliable information would be obtained. As the colours are artefacts of the image generation process no specific meanings can be ascribed to them. Furthermore, operators of these systems often employ cold reading techniques,14 thus clients unwittingly provide the information that the images supposedly reveal.
Gas discharge visualisation (GDV)
Figure 6 Polaroids ‘aura’ imagesFgenerated by contact with hand electrodes, made to look as if an ‘aura’ is around the head. (i) Reproduced with kind permission of Sylvia Connley. (ii) Reproduced with the kind permission of Joan Louizou.
There are now electronic devices that plug into a computer and produce real-time images of corona discharge around small objects (e.g. fingertips) that can be displayed and recorded on-screen. Typically these combine transparent condenser electrode electrophotography with a small video camera. Gas discharge visualisation (GDV) is one example of such a device and was developed by Konstantin Korotkov in the 1990s. Another GDV is the monopulse plasmagraph (MP) developed by Vadim Bondarev. Both approaches lend themselves to research evaluation but concerns about validity and reliability of such devices remain.15
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Certain proponents of the GDV and MP systems have developed computer based analysis that claim to provide detailed whole-body diagnostic information from variations in fingertip discharge patterns. Whilst an interesting concept, it is difficult to understand how clinically meaningful information can be reliably generated using this technique.
Polychromatic interference photography (PIP) PIP was developed by Harry Oldfield. This technique uses a computer processed video image that claims to highlight the body’s energy field, the acupuncture energy lines (meridians), and mid-line energy centres (chakras). A high-speed digital camera feeds images of the subject into computer software that analyses the image according to light intensity. Different levels of light intensity are assigned false-colours. It is argued that the software is able to highlight interactions between the body’s vital energy field and incident and reflected light, captured by the digital camera. The colours and patterns produced
are then analysed according to their location over or around the body. These are then correlated to the aura, chakras and meridians thus informing diagnosis and treatment.16 However, when it is considered that acupuncture meridians tend to run in natural depressions on the body surface and chakras tend to be associated with natural prominences or depressions, then one might assume that there would be alterations in contrast regardless of the existence or not of meridians or chakras. The colours are chosen by the software designer and so are arbitrary. Zones of contrast are seen in clothing and shadows as much as the subject’s body. It is therefore questionable whether credibility can be given to any diagnosis based on such images (Fig. 8).
Laying on of hands It is claimed that the ‘laying on of hands’ by healers produces a healing effect demonstrated by the colour of an aura lightening in tone. In the PIP image (Fig. 9) this colour change is probably due to
Figure 8 PIP images. Reproduced with the kind permission of Harry Oldfield.16
Figure 9 PIP images of healing: before and during. Reproduced with the kind permission of Harry Oldfield.16
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changes in illumination resulting from subject or healer movement or in changes in environmental lighting. Indeed, real-time processed images may show where healers should place their hands. If subjects or operators can see the screen, they may be likely to move into a position that results in the most demonstrable effect on the screen.
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as a visual imageFbut even this would require considerable work in order to develop reliable research methodologies. The final paper in this series will consider the aura of confusion surrounding dowsing, the role of suggestion, ideo-motor response and draw together themes raised across the series.
Conclusion This review has addressed three of the most frequently cited HEF imaging techniques. The questions raised about such techniques in this paper, may be rather dispiriting reading for those seeking evidence for the existence of vital energy. It is however, important to highlight the profusion of pseudo-science, unsubstantiated claims and to question the quality of research conducted in this field to date. Bio-electric phenomena may yet yield useful and extremely valuable diagnostic techniques and treatment in the future. It is vitally important that competent research is funded, conducted, replicated and published in international journals. Until this occurs claims will continue to be perceived as spurious and unsubstantiated. KP or GDV are electrophotographic images of corona dischargeFa physical process. The patterns in the discharge are the likely result of multiple, mutually interacting factors acting over different timescales that would be susceptible to varying degrees of experimental control. These factors would include internal physiological and psychophysiological factors as well as external environmental, operator and instrumentation factors. These factors may all initiate complex effects on corona discharge patterns. If it is accepted that vital energies exist and that they can influence physical properties of matter, then the vital energies would be interacting with some or all of the above factors, further adding to the complexity of the system. It is unlikely, therefore, that electrophotography could ever give a direct measure of vital energyFhow would the influence of variations in vital energy be experimentally isolated from the other variables operating in this complex system? What electrophotography may offer is a means to represent the sum of these complex interactions
References 1. Duerden T. An aura of confusion: ‘seeing auras- vital energy or human physiology?’ Part 1 of a three part series. Complment Ther Nurs Midwifery 2003;10:22–9. 2. Snellgrove B. The unseen self: the mysteries of Kirlian photography explained. Saffron Walden: CW Daniel; 1996. 3. Stanwick M. Aura photography: mundane physics or diagnostic tool? Nurs Times 1996;92(25):39–41. 4. Moss T. The body electric: a personal journey into the mysteries of parapsychological research, Bioenergy and Kirlian photography. Los Angeles: J.P Tarcher; 1979. 5. de la Plaza, A. Andy’s (Le Magicien) Kirlian photography page http://www.geocities.com/lemagicien 2000/kfpage/ kf.html (Undated). Last accessed 20/11/03. 6. Russo M, Choudhri AF, Whitworth G, Weinberg AD, Bickel W, Oz MC. Quantitative analysis of reproducible changes in high-voltage electrophotography. J Altern Complement Med 2001;7(6):617–27. 7. Hovsepian W, Rupert P. The use of electrophotographic techniques in differentiating state depression and state anxiety. Br J Psychol 1983;74(3):371–9. 8. Smith C, Best S. Electromagnetic man: health and hazard in the electrical environment. London: Palgrave Macmillan; 1989. 9. Goodman R, Blank M. Insights into electromagnetic interaction mechanisms. J Cell Physiol 2002;192(1):16–22. 10. Ho M. The acupuncture system, the liquid crystalline collagen fibres of the connective tissues. http://www. i-sis.org.uk/lcm.php (Undated). Last accessed 20/11/03. 11. Petrinus R. Kirlian photography. http://pwp.netcabo. pt/r.petrinus/Fkirlian1-e.htm (Undated). Last Accessed 20/11/03. 12. Oschman J. Energy medicine: the scientific basis of bioenergy therapies. London: Churchill Livingstone; 2000. 13. Nickell J. Aura photography: a candid shot. http://www. csicop.org/si/2000-05/i-files.html (2000). Last accessed 20/11/03. 14. Hyman R. Cold Reading: how to convince strangers that you know all about them. Zetetic 1977;I(2):18–37. 15. Bell IR, Lewis DA, Brooks AJ, Lewis SE, Schwartz GE. Gas discharge visualization evaluation of ultramolecular doses of homeopathic medicines under blinded, controlled conditions. J Altern Complement Med 2003;9(1):25–38. 16. Oldfield H. PIP. http://www.electrocrystal.com/pip.html (Undated) Last Accessed 20/11/03.
An aura of confusion Part 2: the aided eyeF‘imaging the aura?’ Tim Duerden* Faculty of Health Care and Social Work Studies, School of Community, Health Sciences and Social Care, The University of Salford, Frederick Road, Salford, Greater Manchester M5 4WT, UK
KEYWORDS Complementary and alternative medicine; Vital energy; Aura; Kirlian photography; Gas discharge visualisation; Polychromatic interference photography; Imaging; Diagnostic techniques
Summary The second of three papers considers claims made for the perception or detection of vital energy. Many systems of complementary and alternative medicine assume the existence of a vital force that mediates therapeutic efficacy, for example chi or qi in Traditional Chinese Medicine. Vital energy directly perceived or imaged that surrounds living organisms is frequently termed the aura. A range of devices or techniques are claimed to image the aura. These include Kirlian photography, gas discharge visualisation (GDV) and polychromatic interference photography (PIP). This paper explores such claims and argues that the images produced can be explained using concepts from the physical sciences. It is suggested that techniques such as KP, GDV or PIP currently offer insufficient reliable research evidence concerning their use as diagnostic or imaging alternatives. Consequently their clinical use is debateable. Kirlian photography and its derivatives may however be useful as a research tool by providing visual records of complex bodily responses to experimental situations. For example, responses to physiological or psychological stressors. & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction The previous paper1 in this series aimed to show how normal physiological phenomena may be inappropriately used to support claims of the existence of a vital force (also known as chi/qi, ki, prana, orgone, etheric energy, auric energy, subtle energy, etc.). This paper considers various devices that have been employed to attempt to image vital energy in the light of the physical sciences. Many systems of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) posit the existence of a vital force and consider it to be an agent for the efficacy of these systems. It undermines the credibility of such vitalist CAM systems if evidence cited in support of this vitalist stance can be simply explained using non-vitalist concepts. In such *Tel.: þ 44-161-295-2429; fax: þ 44-161-295-427. E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Duerden).
situations, a credible physical science explanation needs to be offered alongside alternative vitalist explanations if a meaningful dialogue with the physical science community is to be maintained. Images evoke powerful responses and it takes a determined effort to question the validity of visual imageryFstage magicians make full use of this habitual credulity. The Kirlian images illustrating the discussion below are potent, it is difficult not to impose meanings onto them. Potency may reflect culturally derived expectations as in the haloes of light portrayed in religious imagery. Alternatively, physiological phenomena (as discussed in Part 1 of this series) could be mistaken for perceptions of aura, or, perhaps, there is some intuitive resonance with an innate ability to sense auras. Part 1 explored the limited validity and reliability of the human sensory system. Imaging systems offer an apparently objective means to not only extend the range of the sensory system but also to give a
1353-6117/$ - see front matter & 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ctnm.2004.01.002
ARTICLE IN PRESS An aura of confusion Part 2
reproducible, objective record of what has been imaged, so permitting the application of analytical and statistical tools. However, all images are artefacts of the process that creates them and manipulation of these processes will alter the resultant image and its subsequent interpretation. This is particularly true for the devices that generate a coloured output. Light radiation within a very narrow range of electromagnetic frequencies stimulates the colour sensitive cells of the retina. Only artificial sensors that are sensitive to this frequency range can produce images that are representative of human colour visionFcolour photography or video being examples. Sensing devices operating outside this narrow frequency range or operating over only part of this range may have a coloured output. However, these are ‘false-colours’ generated to enhance image interpretation and may not be related to colours generated by visible light radiation. Furthermore, by changing the settings of an imaging device, different colours can be assigned to represent a particular frequency. This means that the colours have no inherent meaning. The following discussion will consider the more frequently encountered imaging devices. This is a difficult area of study as published research is very limited and few are in the English language. Whilst the Internet acts as a forum for many researchers there continue to be validity and reliability issues with data.
Kirlian photography (KP) Kirlian photography is an electrophotography technique named after Semyon and Valentina Kirlian who improved the existing ‘bio-electricity’ photography of their day following a chance discovery in 1939.2,3 They found that by placing an object on a photographic plate which is in a light proof cassette and generating a strong electric field around the photographic plate, they could produce beautiful photographs of the discharge patterns that outlined the object. It seemed that living objects give different patterns when compared to dead objects. The Kirlians noticed that individuals appeared to show differing discharge patterns and they questioned whether the health of an individual affected the discharge pattern. From their work and that of others, there do seem to be differences in the overall patterns of healthy and ill people but the interpretations of these patterns remains controversial and difficult. The majority of KP research has been conducted in Russia and was popularised
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in the 1970s by Thelma Moss in her book The Body Electric4 which explored the ‘human energy field’(HEF). The ‘aura’ seen in KP is due to corona discharge. In a high intensity electric field, the insulation provided by the air breaks down. An electric current flows, exciting air molecules to such a degree that they give off lightFthis is termed corona discharge. On a much grander scale, this process gives rise to lightning bolts. The colour of the light produced is characteristic of the molecules found in air and, as nitrogen is the dominant gas in air, nitrogen’s pale blue discharge colour predominates. Sparks arising from static electricity or from electrical appliances are blue for the same reason. This can be demonstrated by transparent electrode Kirlian photography that allows the blue discharge to be seen with the naked eye.5 KP initially used photographic film to record the images, although the film was not designed for this purpose. KP involves an insulated high voltage electrode upon which a sheet of photographic film is placed. The subject is then connected to earthFthe insulator, film and subject form a barrier to current flow. If the electric field is sufficiently intense, corona discharge will occur between the object and the electrode when the insulation of the air breaks down. The presence of electrolytes (salts) and water in the subject’s body and in the film will offer preferential conduction pathways that can influence the points at which the air insulation breaks down (ionises). As the film is uniform it is variations in the subject’s surface that will change the location and intensity of discharge in the air. Exposure time and voltage must be kept constant to provide comparable images. Colour film comprises, in sequence, blue, green and red sensitive layers backed by a light opaque barrier. See Figs. 1 and 2. The opaque backing is usually orientated in the Kirlian device so that this has the object placed on it. The uppermost blue sensitive layer is therefore against the electrode plate and so corona discharge between the plate and film will produce blue light that the blue emulsion will record. As there is little light of any other colour produced, the green and red layers will not capture any transmitted light passing out of the blue layer into the green and red layers. In addition, the ionisation pathways across the film can directly affect the emulsion and this is most likely to occur in the blue layer as it is this layer that is in close contact with the electrode and so this will also show as a blue image. Thus the blue parts of a Kirlian image are a record of both the
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Figure 1 Representation of corona discharge around finger tip and close-up of the interaction with layers of colour film. Reproduced with permission of the author, after de la Plaza.5
Figure 2 Representation of corona discharge streamers around a thumb as seen through a transparent condenser electrode. Reproduced with permission of the author, after de la Plaza.5
blue light in the coronal discharge and the passage of the electrical discharge through the film. Air gaps between the subject and the film can result in discharge pathways forming between the subject and the back of the filmFthis is most likely to affect the red layer as this is next to the opaque backing layer and this will show as red in the Kirlian image. The green layer is unlikely to be effected and this accounts for the scarcity of green in Kirlian images recorded on standard colour film. Polaroids film is used in some Kirlian devices. It has a very complex structure permitting many colours to be
generated,5 in addition, if pressure is applied to a developing Polaroids image, exceedingly strange coloured shapes can be generated. See, the images in Fig. 3 for examples of Kirlian photographs. It is therefore not possible to place any real value on the colour of Kirlian images. If the film was reversed (and steps taken to prevent light exposure), more red colours would seen. The moisture content of the skin seems to be a major factor in determining the size of the discharge patterns produced, if applied pressure, movement, air humidity and temperature are kept
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! Esteban de Figure 3 Examples of Kirlian Photographs using colour film. Reproduced with the kind permission of Andres la Plaza.5 Colour images and links to de la Plaza’s website are available at http://www.chssc.salford.ac.uk/aura.htm
constantFsweat glands appear to generate more intense discharges and individual discharge lines can frequently be traced back to the pore of a sweat gland. The electrical resistance of the skin (also called galvanic skin resistance), which changes with the amount of salty sweat produced, does not correlate well with the intensity of discharge although changes in KP images with changing health are often ascribed to this.3,6,7 Although the colours are not of interpretive value, the patterns may be. Changes in complexity of patterns may be related to changes in biological activity of tissues. Increased intensity and irregularity of the discharge pattern may relate to reduced tissue function. However, the low reproducibility of KP images causes great difficulty in their use as a reliable investigative tool.3 Some proponents of KP promote differences seen between living and dead organisms. However, all living cells generate an electric field by pumping electrolytes (electrically charged dissolved salts or ions) from one side of the cell membrane to the other. Both the field and the partitioning of electrolytes would be expected to alter the appearance of KP images of living cells in compar-
ison to dead cells in which the field and partitioning are lost. See Fig. 4 that illustrates the changing KP images taken of a dying leaf.
Acupuncture and Kirlian photography There is a wealth of research that shows how electromagnetic fields generated by body cells vary slightly over the body surface.8 These electromagnetic fields have complex relationships to tissue healing and cell signalling.9 Acupuncture points are often associated with a local change to electrical field strength and skin resistanceFa phenomenon used by the electronic acupuncture point stimulators that give an audible alarm when detecting altered skin resistance that may coincide with the traditional acupuncture point. If the concept in Traditional Chinese Medicine of a relationship between acupuncture points and qi is accepted, it could also be argued that changes to qi may change the bio-electrical properties of the skin associated with the acupuncture point and so change resultant KP images. Wan10 suggests that
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Figure 4 Fresh and dying leaf. Reproduced with the kind permission of Rubellus Petrinus.11
Figure 5 The phantom leaf effect. Reproduced with the kind permission of Rubellus Petrinus.11
collagen fibres in the body play an important role in local electric field strength and that acupuncture points tend to lie in regions with lower collagen density. Phantom leaf images are often cited as proof of the ability of Kirlian photography to capture the ‘vital force field’ around living things. In this process a KP image of a leaf is taken, then part of the leaf is removed and a second KP image taken. In a phantom leaf image, the absent area of removed part still shows a discharge trace. This effect has been claimed to have been observed even when a second plate is used for the second image to prevent moisture traces from the leaf in first image. This phenomenon is often cited to support the vitalist stance however images are rarely documented. Fig. 5 represents an example that was apparently obtained after 500 attempts.11 Difficulty in capturing an image is sometimes taken as an indication of the fugitive nature of the auric field. However after so many experiments a random discharge pattern may indeed look something like the lost part of the leaf. Unless the effect
can be reliably demonstrated and replicated, it is probably an experimental artefact.
Healing and Kirlian photography Some individuals and healers claim to be able to influence the shape of a discharge pattern. One explanation for such changes is that blood flow, skin temperature, etc. may alter when a healer focuses on their hands, although some studies refute this.6,7 There have been reports that healers may be able to generate unusually intense bio-magnetic fields and these may alter the Kirlian image.12 There is a complex interaction between healing, biofeedback, autosuggestion and physiological changes that make Kirlian images of healing difficult to evaluate. Healers tend to focus on their hands and can become aware of altered sensations as they do so which may induce changes in physiology as they enter a relaxed and reflective state. Such
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variations are likely to be reflected in a Kirlian image although it is not possible to identify and measure the extent to which a single physiological variable may have altered. Image changes may be the result of many small changes arising from the altered state of the healer and this may affect the Kirlian image.
Frequently fraudulent Kirlian photography In the United Kingdom, alternative health exhibitions often have ‘aura photography’ stalls that utilise a number of devices. For example a Kirlianlike device superimposes a Polaroids picture of a subject’s head with a corona discharge pattern derived from electrodes on which the subject’s fingers are placed. The galvanic skin resistance of the fingers to control the intensity of different lights within the machine produce aura-like fogs that are superimposed over the image of the subject’s head. See Fig. 6. Other devices may produce a random scattering of light unrelated to any biological measure. The fraudulent nature of such images resides in claims that the image shows the aura around the head despite the head in the photograph being unrelated to the apparent aura. Nickell13 offers an entertaining account of his experience of aura photography. Figure 7 illustrates a more recent type of aura imaging supposedly depicting ‘energy centres’ and an oval ‘aura’ around the outline of a human body. The computer generated image is typically based on electrical and temperature information from the subject’s hand.
Figure 7 Computer generated image of the ‘aura’ using hand electrodes. Patterns in centre are meant to represent the chakras. Reproduced with permission of Sylvia Connley.
Where the electrical resistance or temperature of the skin is used to modify colours in Polaroids or computer generated images there may be some relation to health or stress levels. However in uncontrolled conditions such as a health fair, little reliable information would be obtained. As the colours are artefacts of the image generation process no specific meanings can be ascribed to them. Furthermore, operators of these systems often employ cold reading techniques,14 thus clients unwittingly provide the information that the images supposedly reveal.
Gas discharge visualisation (GDV)
Figure 6 Polaroids ‘aura’ imagesFgenerated by contact with hand electrodes, made to look as if an ‘aura’ is around the head. (i) Reproduced with kind permission of Sylvia Connley. (ii) Reproduced with the kind permission of Joan Louizou.
There are now electronic devices that plug into a computer and produce real-time images of corona discharge around small objects (e.g. fingertips) that can be displayed and recorded on-screen. Typically these combine transparent condenser electrode electrophotography with a small video camera. Gas discharge visualisation (GDV) is one example of such a device and was developed by Konstantin Korotkov in the 1990s. Another GDV is the monopulse plasmagraph (MP) developed by Vadim Bondarev. Both approaches lend themselves to research evaluation but concerns about validity and reliability of such devices remain.15
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T. Duerden
Certain proponents of the GDV and MP systems have developed computer based analysis that claim to provide detailed whole-body diagnostic information from variations in fingertip discharge patterns. Whilst an interesting concept, it is difficult to understand how clinically meaningful information can be reliably generated using this technique.
Polychromatic interference photography (PIP) PIP was developed by Harry Oldfield. This technique uses a computer processed video image that claims to highlight the body’s energy field, the acupuncture energy lines (meridians), and mid-line energy centres (chakras). A high-speed digital camera feeds images of the subject into computer software that analyses the image according to light intensity. Different levels of light intensity are assigned false-colours. It is argued that the software is able to highlight interactions between the body’s vital energy field and incident and reflected light, captured by the digital camera. The colours and patterns produced
are then analysed according to their location over or around the body. These are then correlated to the aura, chakras and meridians thus informing diagnosis and treatment.16 However, when it is considered that acupuncture meridians tend to run in natural depressions on the body surface and chakras tend to be associated with natural prominences or depressions, then one might assume that there would be alterations in contrast regardless of the existence or not of meridians or chakras. The colours are chosen by the software designer and so are arbitrary. Zones of contrast are seen in clothing and shadows as much as the subject’s body. It is therefore questionable whether credibility can be given to any diagnosis based on such images (Fig. 8).
Laying on of hands It is claimed that the ‘laying on of hands’ by healers produces a healing effect demonstrated by the colour of an aura lightening in tone. In the PIP image (Fig. 9) this colour change is probably due to
Figure 8 PIP images. Reproduced with the kind permission of Harry Oldfield.16
Figure 9 PIP images of healing: before and during. Reproduced with the kind permission of Harry Oldfield.16
ARTICLE IN PRESS An aura of confusion Part 2
changes in illumination resulting from subject or healer movement or in changes in environmental lighting. Indeed, real-time processed images may show where healers should place their hands. If subjects or operators can see the screen, they may be likely to move into a position that results in the most demonstrable effect on the screen.
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as a visual imageFbut even this would require considerable work in order to develop reliable research methodologies. The final paper in this series will consider the aura of confusion surrounding dowsing, the role of suggestion, ideo-motor response and draw together themes raised across the series.
Conclusion This review has addressed three of the most frequently cited HEF imaging techniques. The questions raised about such techniques in this paper, may be rather dispiriting reading for those seeking evidence for the existence of vital energy. It is however, important to highlight the profusion of pseudo-science, unsubstantiated claims and to question the quality of research conducted in this field to date. Bio-electric phenomena may yet yield useful and extremely valuable diagnostic techniques and treatment in the future. It is vitally important that competent research is funded, conducted, replicated and published in international journals. Until this occurs claims will continue to be perceived as spurious and unsubstantiated. KP or GDV are electrophotographic images of corona dischargeFa physical process. The patterns in the discharge are the likely result of multiple, mutually interacting factors acting over different timescales that would be susceptible to varying degrees of experimental control. These factors would include internal physiological and psychophysiological factors as well as external environmental, operator and instrumentation factors. These factors may all initiate complex effects on corona discharge patterns. If it is accepted that vital energies exist and that they can influence physical properties of matter, then the vital energies would be interacting with some or all of the above factors, further adding to the complexity of the system. It is unlikely, therefore, that electrophotography could ever give a direct measure of vital energyFhow would the influence of variations in vital energy be experimentally isolated from the other variables operating in this complex system? What electrophotography may offer is a means to represent the sum of these complex interactions
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