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An Overview of the Oceans in Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
Marine Pollution Bulh'tin, Volume 25, 1 4, pp. 107-111, 1992. Printed in Great Britain.
0025 32¢iX 92 S5.(10+0.(ltl © I t ~ 2 Pergam~m Press Lid
An Overview of the Oceans in Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ALICIA BARCENA United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 160 Route de Florissant, P.O. Box 80, CH-1231 Conches, Switzerland
This paper describes the issues and recommendations of the Oceans section of Agenda 21 of the 1992 UNCED Conference. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to link activities on various important environmental problems (including those threatening the oceans), to focus on land-based activities, to practice integrated coastal zone management, and to utilize the framework of the Law of the Sea Convention.
In December 1989, the United Nations General Assembly, responding to the report of the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987), decided to hold a conference on environment and development in June 1992. It was decided, further, that nations would be represented at the Conference by their Heads of State or Government. This would make it the first ever 'Earth Summit', otherwise known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Resolution 44/228, which established the mandate of the Conference, made it clear that this was to be a conference on 'environment and development' and that these topics must be dealt with on an integrated basis for every issue considered, from climate change to human settlements. This resolution represented an interesting political balance between developed- and developing-country positions, between environment and development considerations, between national sovereignty and international responsibility, and between past models of development and future needs to achieve sustainable development. A series of concrete measures were expected from the Conference. These included: 1. An 'Earth Charter' or Declaration of basic principles for the conduct of nations and peoples in respect of environment and development to ensure the future viability and integrity of the Earth as a hospitable home for human and other forms of life. 2. An agenda for action, Agenda 21, establishing the agreed work programme of the international community for the period beyond 1992 and into the 21st
century in respect to the issues addressed by the Conference with priorities, targets, cost estimates, modalities, and assignment of responsibilities. 3. Identification of additional financial resources for follow-up action. 4. Procedures for the transfer of technology. 5. Means of strengthening institutional capacities and processes. The Conference also dealt with agreements on specific legal measures, e.g. conventions for the protection of the atmosphere (climate change) and biological diversity. The Conference dealt not only with the environment. It was a Conference on environment and development and rested on the twin propositions that environmental management cannot be secured without addressing the underlying causes of the nature and pattern of development, and equally, that the pursuit of development requires sytematic attention to the environmental basis on which all production depends. Integration is at the very heart of the '92 process. The main task of the Conference was to move environment and development issues into the centre of economic policy and decision-making. Individually, the issues being considered covered a wide range. The Conference provided a forum for discussion of the linkages between issues being considered separately in different fora and for the integration of environmental issues with related developmental problems and vice versa. The Conference also provided an opportunity for drawing together many strands of development in international cooperation. Fortunately, we did not start our journey to Rio de Janeiro in 1992 without a considerable foundation. In preparing the proposals put in front of world leaders, we drew upon a wide range of experience, knowledge and capacity, not only of Governments and international organizations, but of scientists, leaders of business and industry, trade unions, educators and many others (e.g. GESAMP, 1990, 1991; Hinrichsen, 1990; ICOD, 1992; WCED, 1987; WRI, 1992). All these organizations and groups will have a primary, indeed decisive, role in implementing the Conference results. 107
Marine Pollution Bulletin
No single event can be expected, by itself, to resolve the many complex issues that confronted the world community in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. However, the Conference offered a unique opportunity to provide the basis for the major shift required to put us on the pathway to a more secure and sustainable future. At the core of this shift there will be changes in our economic life, a more careful and more caring use of the Earth's resources, and greater co-operation and equity in sharing the benefits as well as the risks of our technological civilization. It was hoped that the conference would provide a new basis for relations between North, South, East and West--a new global partnership based on common interest, mutual need and shared responsibility, including a concerted attack on poverty and population growth as a central priority for the 21st Century.
Problems and Opportunities of Coastal and Ocean Management The oceans cover 71% of the surface of the globe and play a dominant role in the biogeochemical processes of the planet on local, regional and global scales. The global energy budget, climate and weather, the hydrological and carbon cycles, and atmospheric and physical processes are critically influenced by oceanic processes. Most of the Earth's biomass exists within the vast volume of the oceans. The fertility of the seas is reflected by the abundance of phytoplankton. The annual phytoplankton production is estimated at between 15 and 30 billion t of carbon. The annual world fish production is estimated at almost 30 million t of carbon. Yet our understanding of oceanic processes is less well developed than those occurring in the terrestrial environment and atmosphere. Long-term management and sustainable development of the world's resources must be based on sound understanding of the role of the ocean in shaping conditions globally, and on a proper evaluation of the benefits of the marine resource base for development. Uses of oceanic and coastal space are multiple and serve many and diverse purposes. The traditional ones include the production of food, sources of energy, minerals and other raw materials, a base for tourism, recreation, settlement, transport and the location of both aquatic and shoreline farming. During the last 20 yr, offshore oil production has greatly increased and new technological developments have opened greater areas of the sea floor to drilling and production. World seaborne trade in oil and cargo has also grown substantially in past decades. This includes changes in the type of vessels, requiring new port development and major channel dredging. In addition, the oceans have been used as an inexpensive dump for sewage and wastes, without adequate consideration of damages and their economic impacts. Turning to fisheries, the oceans are sources of living and non-living resources which are currently treated as open access goods. The marine catch is close to the maximum production obtainable, over 80 million 108
metric t, of which 90% is estimated to be from 'coastal areas'. Mariculture yields approximately 5 million metric t and by the end of the century should be almost doubled. Increases in marine catches in the last two decades are the result of the discovery of new resources, the introduction of new fishing technologies and changes resulting from law of the sea conventions. Artisanal fisheries are socially important since they contribute significantly to fisheries employment, particularly in developing countries. Aside from some living resources, the high seas seem to be largely unaffected, but the physical and ecological degradation of coastal areas and pollution from landbased sources are greatly increasing (see also Mclntyre, p. 28 and Windom, p. 32, this volume). The root cause of coastal management problems lies in the distribution, absolute size, and rates of growth of human populations. Rapid growth of coastal settlements, expansxon of recreational areas and centres of maritime transport, and concentration of industrial development along the coast all contribute to accelerated coastal degradation. Sixty-five percent of cities with populations above 2.5 million inhabitants are coastal and, at present, 20% of the world population lives in coastal urban centres. Approximately 60% may be living within 60 km of the coast. This illustrates the scale of human impacts on one of the most productive of ecosystems, the shallow marine and brackish water areas. The situation in many enclosed and semi-enclosed seas is of particular concern. The capabilities of most countries to manage current problems are still insufficient and limit future choices for meeting the challenge of sustainable development. Management units for ocean and coastal affairs are generally weak and dispersed. They currently reflect agencies' sectoral responsibilities rather than the boundaries of coastal systems. There is now widespread recognition that sectoral approaches to managing coastal zones fail to resolve conflicts or to be effective. National agencies must integrate their responsibilities for environmental limits of the ecosystems under management with particular sectoral economic interests. Moreover, current patterns of management and exploitation in the marine environment often reflect historical conditions of use which no longer apply. Numbers of people in the coastal areas were low and technologies less advanced so the supply of ocean goods and services was minimally impacted by demand. Free use and open access when demand is low pose no problem. However, when demand nears or exceeds supply, policies of open access on the ocean environment create conflict among users and lead to significant resource and environmental degradation. In general, there is not an efficient user-rights system in the exclusive economic zones at the national level and in open seas at the international level. Historically, ocean legal regimes have been reactive. Few recent legal regimes have been designed to operate in a proactive manner and prevent conflict. Legal instruments need to be more closely correlated with anticipatory environmental planning and management approaches designed to incorporate new perceptions of ocean use. The new perspective on ocean management
Volume 25/Numbers 1-4
must recognize the need for proactive and anticipatory regimes that prevent or minimize conflict and environmental damage and economic loss. This is a preferable alternative to the traditional view centred on reactions to conflicts in resource use, environmental degradation and insufficient remedial actions. Geopolitical and adminstrative boundaries have no meaning in environmental terms as marine living resources and ecosystems do not respect artificial boundaries. The need to maintain the natural functioning of the oceans in the face of increasing uses may result in viewing ocean space in ecosystem terms. The scales of management and the economic and legal regimes must therefore be adjusted to reflect not only political or administrative boundaries, ,but the real physical and biological units being managed, e.g. large marine ecosystems, marine catchment basins and species ranges. Public perception of ocean issues is in transition. Society is gradually appreciating that the impact of intensified human activities no longer permits a casual approach to oceans as an unlimited receptacle for wastes and an endless supply of free and open-access resources. The increasingly active support of several major non-governmental organizations is placing ocean management on centre stage as a significant public policy issue. Broader educational and public awareness programmes are essential to enhancing participation in decision-making debates. In this connection, the value of clean coastal areas for tourism and the role of coastal ecosystems in erosion control and protection against storm and episodic damage are rarely included in economic or social evaluations. Management involves the attempt to provide a balance between and among the various uses of ocean space, and protect the viability of the ocean environment. It encompasses several steps which include: collection, organization and analysis of data; setting of priorities; making choices related to policy directives, laws and regulations; implementation of policies; surveillance and enforcement of rules and evaluation of results. Technical solutions for many problems are relatively well established and action is needed. However, there are still some critical challenges and uncertainties for future ocean management purposes. Significant among them are the availability, incorporation and utilization of scientific and technical information in the policy process, jurisdictional problems, the nature of ocean political constituencies and the costs associated with management efforts. An overall objective for future ocean management lies in utilizing the environmental and economic goods and services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems to meet development objectives, whilst at the same time ensuring the long-term maintenance of marine environmental health, resource quality and ecological integrity. The oceans and coastal areas need to be viewed as a positive asset presenting opportunities for sustainable development. This will only be possible under an holistic and integrated management approach to their utilization. The ocean requires a full evaluation of the marine and coastal resource base and of oppor-
tunities and constraints provided within a given area or country.
Multiple Uses of Coastal Areas Coastal areas provide human settlements with essential life support and economic development opportunities as well as natural shore protection. In coastal rural areas, agriculture, forestry and fisheries (including aquaculture) are the main economic development activities. Coastal areas can provide, naturally, many benefits to local populations, such as: thatching materials, medical oils, firewood, timber, and fish and wildlife as food. In coastal urbanized areas, the most important activities relate to human residential development, industries, recreation and tourism, transport and trade. Harbours are essential centres for national and international trade and transport. In addition, about 90% of the world marine fisheries catch (over 80 million metric t annually) comes from nearshore areas. Coastal areas are also essential to marine life (biodiversity) and productivity, operating as breeding, nursery or feeding grounds for many species. Agriculture utilizes coastal plains, wetlands and lowlands to increase food production and to provide employment. Such conversion may reduce coastal marine productivity and protection against natural hazards (floods and rainstorms), facilitate salt intrusions in the water table, and spread water-borne diseases. Poor agricultural practices release pesticides, fertilizers and silt into coastal waters. The 24 million ha of mangrove forests of the coastal areas of subtropical and tropical countries represent an important resource and their rapid deterioration and toss threatens coastal productivity and biodiversity. Their loss also affects availability of building material, wood, tannins, skin and hides to coastal, usually poor, populations. Upland deforestation increases erosion, sediment loadings of rivers and accelerates fresh water runoff to coastal areas, reducing water transparency and light, increasing flood risks, and affecting riverine and estuarine fisheries, coral reefs and seagrass beds. Marine fisheries provide 16% of the total animal protein available in the world, low cost food for poor people, livelihoods for fishermen and their families, support for related industries as well as social, economic, and political stability in the rural coastal areas, reducing migration to overcrowded cities. However, fishing often directly affects the environment, threatening sensitive species often already affected by coastal nurseries degradation (e.g. turtles, molluscs, ornamental fish). Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and Optimum Sustainable Yield (OSY) have been the explicit objectives of fisheries management for decades but many coastal fisheries have been developed beyond these levels. Marine aquaculture represents one of the fast growing sectors of the coastal zone, providing employment, a valuable supplement to local diets and foreign currency through exports. It requires a clean environment but intensive aquaculture practices may lead to 109
Marine Pollution Bulletin
eutrophication, and the release of pharmaceutical and antifouling products (see Chua, p. 98, this volume). Habitat conversion affects wildlife and biodiversity, as well as introducing non-indigenous cultured species into oceanic ecosystems. Manufacturing industries represent the third largest economic activity in developing countries, after agricultural and service sectors. Much of the pollution they create could be eliminated by applying cleaner technologies and adequate industrial waste treatment techniques. Many degraded coastal habitats could be rehabilitated by the application of the 'polluter pays' and 'user pays' approaches. Extractive industries (for tin, sand, gravel and live coral mining) raise problems which can be serious, especially in island countries where the shoreline is often exposed to erosion and storm surges. Shores are protected against sea storms and erosion by natural systems, such as mangroves and other wetlands, coral reefs, and coastal barrier islands and lagoons, deflecting and absorbing much of the storm energy. Their deterioration exposes human populations to increased threats. Sinking and receding shorelines must be given special attention. Marine transportation may conflict with fisheries, aquaculture or oil and gas extraction. Ports and marine transportation facilities are required by offshore oil and gas development, shipping, fisheries, tourism and the military. Major threats include destruction of mangroves and other wetlands, ecological modification of lagoons through channelling and deterioration of coastal habitats by dredging and filling operations. Waste disposal from ships remains a serious problem. Coastal feeder roads, highways, bridges and airports are essential to development. They also often affect the sea, destroy critical intertidal habitats, and obstruct natural water flows. Careful planning is needed to avoid such problems. Water control and supply projects provide regulated sources of water for irrigation and housing. They also modify the quantity, quality and seasonal flow patterns of streams. This disturbs transport of nutrients and silt to coastal ecosystems. This affects mangrove forests, juvenile fish 'nurseries', colonial waterbirds and other wildlife. Such projects can seriously perturb riverdependent ecosystems, reducing their productivity and diversity. Tourism is one of the fastest growing areas of economic activity, particularly for smaller coastal countries and island countries. Recreational activities are, however, a potential area of conflict, sometimes threatening fishermen's livelihoods. Sewage from tourism also may seriously affect the marine environment. National security activities exist in the coastal zones and coastal seas. Coastal areas reserved for military purposes tend to be well conserved. However, naval ports and harbours, coastal airfields, and special bases of all kinds are sited in the coastal zone, usually with a high priority and intense security, preempting any other use but generating pollution and disturbing habitats. Nature conservation can be considered as a type of use in its own right. Coastal areas are important eco110
logical boundaries with high biological diversity and productivity, providing critical habitats to many species which are important for maintaining the equilibrium of the ecosystem and its capacity to respond to natural changes. The benefits of conservation may be less tangible in the short term but must be considered when allocating space and resources to competing uses. In particular, it is essential to protect some representative samples and unique features of these areas as representatives of the national and global heritage.
Some Linkages with other Topics of Agenda 21 Ocean problems tend to be systemic in both scope and scale. They feature a host of linkages to other sectors, particularly because human activities taking place in marine and coastal areas do not recognize boundaries. The most important environmental linkages include: atmospheric processes, in terms of climate and weather events; effects of ozone depletion and airborne contamination pollution; processes of environmental degradation such as loss of biodiversity; pollution (both sea and land derived) and deterioration of ecosystems. Important linkages of ocean issues with economic :and developmental sectors include: in the primary sector, fisheries, agriculture and forestry, mineral extraction and freshwater supply; in the secondary sector, infrastructure, manufacturing industry and transport and, in the tertiary sector, human settlements, health, tourism, financial services and trade. Population, poverty ;and food security as well as the role of women and indigenous peoples are also important social linkages. However, the analytical response to oceans is typically scientific and technical and the policy approach is generally specialized and categorized, rather than integrative and holistic. Oceans are receiving numerous spiilover effects from land-based activities which rel~tect the lack of attention to these linkages. Precisely because of this disregard for linkages, many marine problems are increasing in size and number. Current attention ought to concentrate on the rational use of the coastal and nearshore areas and their resources, especially in the more vulnerable enclosed and semi-enclosed seas. The impact of sectoral activities includes marine pollution from land-based and sea-based sources. Shipping and mineral extraction, including oil production, is a main source of uncontrolled release of toxic wastes and chemicals, oil spills, and disposal of contaminated water. Human settlements, agricultural practices, and deforestat:ion cause severe contamination as upstream sewage, solid, toxic and hazardous wastes, nutrients and pesticicles flow into nearshore zones, affecting mariculture and critical recruitment areas for fishing. The case of marine fisheries, which relates to a single variety of ocean resources, is a good example of inappropriate biologicaleconomic interactions. The fisheries overexploitation is mainly generated by common property status, high discount rates and demand. These factors encourage poor practices such as habitat destruction, use of disruptive techniques such as dynamite and chemicals or intensive dredging, seining, driftnetting and trawling,
Volume 25/Numbers 1-4 incidental capture and destruction of non-target species, and unselective fishing. Thus there is a fundamental mismatch between the management rationales of resource biologists and market-oriented producers, perpetuated in part by the lack of understanding of the linkages. These multiple linkages require that ocean and coastal management strategies should be geared, at the same time, to produce food, serve as a medium for transportation, and encourage port development, industries, tourism and human settlements. Strategies must also aim to maintain the marine and coastal environmental and resource quality to reflect the interests and needs of future generations. An integrated approach to ocean management calls for coastal zone management; prevention of marine pollution from all sources; management of areas requiring special protection, such as the polar seas; management of shared living resources in the high seas; greater application of the precautionary and ecosystem approaches; addressing critical uncertainties related to climate change; capacity building; exchange of information, technical assistance and strengthening of international and regional arrangements. Oceans have critical importance as a lead sector in international law and in providing a model for management for sustainable development. Ocean management policy must be integrated horizontally, across disciplines, departments and specialized agencies, and between the public and private sectors, as well as vertically, across levels of governance, national, regional and global, within a coherent system. The U N Law of the Sea Convention (see Matthews, this volume) offers the most appropriate framework which effectively integrates the protection of the environment from pollution, whether land-based, oceanic or atmospheric, and economic development of living and non-living resources. Its full implementation requires the application of new approaches that are comprehensive in concept, and precautionary and ancitipatory in design, to ocean and coastal area
management and development, at national, regional and international levels. Negotiation on oceans issues was a m o n g the most difficult in the preparatory process of U N C E D , particularly ,.negotiations related to marine living resources and, more specifically, the ones connected with marine mammals, high-seas fisheries and Antarctica. Fortunately, chapter 17 of A g e n d a 21 reflects a very good p r o g r a m m e of action on oceans. The United Nations family collaborated in a very extensive manner, providing information, ideas and experience, and they will certainly be the most important agents for the implementation of A g e n d a 21. Special mention should be made also to other entities and non-governmental organizations, such as GESAMP, Greenpeace, the International Indigenous Commission, among others, whose contributions were of extreme importance in adequately reflecting the needs of society. The editors revised this paper for final publication and take responsibility for any consequential errors. Chua, T.-E. (1992). Coastal aquaculture development and the environment: the role of coastal area management. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25,98-103. GESAMP (1990). The state of the marine environment. Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 39. (Also publ. by BlackwellScientific Publ., Oxford, 1991.) GESAMP (1991). Global strategies for marine environmental protection. GESAMP Reports and Studies No. 45. Hinrichsen, D. (1990). Our Common Seas: Coasts in Crisis. Earthscan Public. Ltd, London, and UNEE Nairobi. International Centre for Ocean Development(1992). The future of the blue planet: moving the oceans into the centre of the global debate on sustainable development. Proced. Ocean Forum, Halifax, N.S., Nov. 1991. ICOD, Halifax,N.S. Mclntyre, A. D. (1992). The current state of the oceans. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25, 28-31. Matthews, G. T. (1992). International law and policy on marine environmental protection and management. Trends and prospects. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25, 70-73. Windom, H. L. (1992). Contamination of the marine environment from land-based sources. Mat PoUut. Bull. 25, 32-36. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford. World Resources Institute (1992). Worm Resources 1992-93. A report by the Worm Resources- Institute. Oxford UniversityPress, New York.
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0025 32¢iX 92 S5.(10+0.(ltl © I t ~ 2 Pergam~m Press Lid
An Overview of the Oceans in Agenda 21 of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development ALICIA BARCENA United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 160 Route de Florissant, P.O. Box 80, CH-1231 Conches, Switzerland
This paper describes the issues and recommendations of the Oceans section of Agenda 21 of the 1992 UNCED Conference. Particular emphasis is placed on the need to link activities on various important environmental problems (including those threatening the oceans), to focus on land-based activities, to practice integrated coastal zone management, and to utilize the framework of the Law of the Sea Convention.
In December 1989, the United Nations General Assembly, responding to the report of the Brundtland Commission (WCED, 1987), decided to hold a conference on environment and development in June 1992. It was decided, further, that nations would be represented at the Conference by their Heads of State or Government. This would make it the first ever 'Earth Summit', otherwise known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Resolution 44/228, which established the mandate of the Conference, made it clear that this was to be a conference on 'environment and development' and that these topics must be dealt with on an integrated basis for every issue considered, from climate change to human settlements. This resolution represented an interesting political balance between developed- and developing-country positions, between environment and development considerations, between national sovereignty and international responsibility, and between past models of development and future needs to achieve sustainable development. A series of concrete measures were expected from the Conference. These included: 1. An 'Earth Charter' or Declaration of basic principles for the conduct of nations and peoples in respect of environment and development to ensure the future viability and integrity of the Earth as a hospitable home for human and other forms of life. 2. An agenda for action, Agenda 21, establishing the agreed work programme of the international community for the period beyond 1992 and into the 21st
century in respect to the issues addressed by the Conference with priorities, targets, cost estimates, modalities, and assignment of responsibilities. 3. Identification of additional financial resources for follow-up action. 4. Procedures for the transfer of technology. 5. Means of strengthening institutional capacities and processes. The Conference also dealt with agreements on specific legal measures, e.g. conventions for the protection of the atmosphere (climate change) and biological diversity. The Conference dealt not only with the environment. It was a Conference on environment and development and rested on the twin propositions that environmental management cannot be secured without addressing the underlying causes of the nature and pattern of development, and equally, that the pursuit of development requires sytematic attention to the environmental basis on which all production depends. Integration is at the very heart of the '92 process. The main task of the Conference was to move environment and development issues into the centre of economic policy and decision-making. Individually, the issues being considered covered a wide range. The Conference provided a forum for discussion of the linkages between issues being considered separately in different fora and for the integration of environmental issues with related developmental problems and vice versa. The Conference also provided an opportunity for drawing together many strands of development in international cooperation. Fortunately, we did not start our journey to Rio de Janeiro in 1992 without a considerable foundation. In preparing the proposals put in front of world leaders, we drew upon a wide range of experience, knowledge and capacity, not only of Governments and international organizations, but of scientists, leaders of business and industry, trade unions, educators and many others (e.g. GESAMP, 1990, 1991; Hinrichsen, 1990; ICOD, 1992; WCED, 1987; WRI, 1992). All these organizations and groups will have a primary, indeed decisive, role in implementing the Conference results. 107
Marine Pollution Bulletin
No single event can be expected, by itself, to resolve the many complex issues that confronted the world community in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. However, the Conference offered a unique opportunity to provide the basis for the major shift required to put us on the pathway to a more secure and sustainable future. At the core of this shift there will be changes in our economic life, a more careful and more caring use of the Earth's resources, and greater co-operation and equity in sharing the benefits as well as the risks of our technological civilization. It was hoped that the conference would provide a new basis for relations between North, South, East and West--a new global partnership based on common interest, mutual need and shared responsibility, including a concerted attack on poverty and population growth as a central priority for the 21st Century.
Problems and Opportunities of Coastal and Ocean Management The oceans cover 71% of the surface of the globe and play a dominant role in the biogeochemical processes of the planet on local, regional and global scales. The global energy budget, climate and weather, the hydrological and carbon cycles, and atmospheric and physical processes are critically influenced by oceanic processes. Most of the Earth's biomass exists within the vast volume of the oceans. The fertility of the seas is reflected by the abundance of phytoplankton. The annual phytoplankton production is estimated at between 15 and 30 billion t of carbon. The annual world fish production is estimated at almost 30 million t of carbon. Yet our understanding of oceanic processes is less well developed than those occurring in the terrestrial environment and atmosphere. Long-term management and sustainable development of the world's resources must be based on sound understanding of the role of the ocean in shaping conditions globally, and on a proper evaluation of the benefits of the marine resource base for development. Uses of oceanic and coastal space are multiple and serve many and diverse purposes. The traditional ones include the production of food, sources of energy, minerals and other raw materials, a base for tourism, recreation, settlement, transport and the location of both aquatic and shoreline farming. During the last 20 yr, offshore oil production has greatly increased and new technological developments have opened greater areas of the sea floor to drilling and production. World seaborne trade in oil and cargo has also grown substantially in past decades. This includes changes in the type of vessels, requiring new port development and major channel dredging. In addition, the oceans have been used as an inexpensive dump for sewage and wastes, without adequate consideration of damages and their economic impacts. Turning to fisheries, the oceans are sources of living and non-living resources which are currently treated as open access goods. The marine catch is close to the maximum production obtainable, over 80 million 108
metric t, of which 90% is estimated to be from 'coastal areas'. Mariculture yields approximately 5 million metric t and by the end of the century should be almost doubled. Increases in marine catches in the last two decades are the result of the discovery of new resources, the introduction of new fishing technologies and changes resulting from law of the sea conventions. Artisanal fisheries are socially important since they contribute significantly to fisheries employment, particularly in developing countries. Aside from some living resources, the high seas seem to be largely unaffected, but the physical and ecological degradation of coastal areas and pollution from landbased sources are greatly increasing (see also Mclntyre, p. 28 and Windom, p. 32, this volume). The root cause of coastal management problems lies in the distribution, absolute size, and rates of growth of human populations. Rapid growth of coastal settlements, expansxon of recreational areas and centres of maritime transport, and concentration of industrial development along the coast all contribute to accelerated coastal degradation. Sixty-five percent of cities with populations above 2.5 million inhabitants are coastal and, at present, 20% of the world population lives in coastal urban centres. Approximately 60% may be living within 60 km of the coast. This illustrates the scale of human impacts on one of the most productive of ecosystems, the shallow marine and brackish water areas. The situation in many enclosed and semi-enclosed seas is of particular concern. The capabilities of most countries to manage current problems are still insufficient and limit future choices for meeting the challenge of sustainable development. Management units for ocean and coastal affairs are generally weak and dispersed. They currently reflect agencies' sectoral responsibilities rather than the boundaries of coastal systems. There is now widespread recognition that sectoral approaches to managing coastal zones fail to resolve conflicts or to be effective. National agencies must integrate their responsibilities for environmental limits of the ecosystems under management with particular sectoral economic interests. Moreover, current patterns of management and exploitation in the marine environment often reflect historical conditions of use which no longer apply. Numbers of people in the coastal areas were low and technologies less advanced so the supply of ocean goods and services was minimally impacted by demand. Free use and open access when demand is low pose no problem. However, when demand nears or exceeds supply, policies of open access on the ocean environment create conflict among users and lead to significant resource and environmental degradation. In general, there is not an efficient user-rights system in the exclusive economic zones at the national level and in open seas at the international level. Historically, ocean legal regimes have been reactive. Few recent legal regimes have been designed to operate in a proactive manner and prevent conflict. Legal instruments need to be more closely correlated with anticipatory environmental planning and management approaches designed to incorporate new perceptions of ocean use. The new perspective on ocean management
Volume 25/Numbers 1-4
must recognize the need for proactive and anticipatory regimes that prevent or minimize conflict and environmental damage and economic loss. This is a preferable alternative to the traditional view centred on reactions to conflicts in resource use, environmental degradation and insufficient remedial actions. Geopolitical and adminstrative boundaries have no meaning in environmental terms as marine living resources and ecosystems do not respect artificial boundaries. The need to maintain the natural functioning of the oceans in the face of increasing uses may result in viewing ocean space in ecosystem terms. The scales of management and the economic and legal regimes must therefore be adjusted to reflect not only political or administrative boundaries, ,but the real physical and biological units being managed, e.g. large marine ecosystems, marine catchment basins and species ranges. Public perception of ocean issues is in transition. Society is gradually appreciating that the impact of intensified human activities no longer permits a casual approach to oceans as an unlimited receptacle for wastes and an endless supply of free and open-access resources. The increasingly active support of several major non-governmental organizations is placing ocean management on centre stage as a significant public policy issue. Broader educational and public awareness programmes are essential to enhancing participation in decision-making debates. In this connection, the value of clean coastal areas for tourism and the role of coastal ecosystems in erosion control and protection against storm and episodic damage are rarely included in economic or social evaluations. Management involves the attempt to provide a balance between and among the various uses of ocean space, and protect the viability of the ocean environment. It encompasses several steps which include: collection, organization and analysis of data; setting of priorities; making choices related to policy directives, laws and regulations; implementation of policies; surveillance and enforcement of rules and evaluation of results. Technical solutions for many problems are relatively well established and action is needed. However, there are still some critical challenges and uncertainties for future ocean management purposes. Significant among them are the availability, incorporation and utilization of scientific and technical information in the policy process, jurisdictional problems, the nature of ocean political constituencies and the costs associated with management efforts. An overall objective for future ocean management lies in utilizing the environmental and economic goods and services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems to meet development objectives, whilst at the same time ensuring the long-term maintenance of marine environmental health, resource quality and ecological integrity. The oceans and coastal areas need to be viewed as a positive asset presenting opportunities for sustainable development. This will only be possible under an holistic and integrated management approach to their utilization. The ocean requires a full evaluation of the marine and coastal resource base and of oppor-
tunities and constraints provided within a given area or country.
Multiple Uses of Coastal Areas Coastal areas provide human settlements with essential life support and economic development opportunities as well as natural shore protection. In coastal rural areas, agriculture, forestry and fisheries (including aquaculture) are the main economic development activities. Coastal areas can provide, naturally, many benefits to local populations, such as: thatching materials, medical oils, firewood, timber, and fish and wildlife as food. In coastal urbanized areas, the most important activities relate to human residential development, industries, recreation and tourism, transport and trade. Harbours are essential centres for national and international trade and transport. In addition, about 90% of the world marine fisheries catch (over 80 million metric t annually) comes from nearshore areas. Coastal areas are also essential to marine life (biodiversity) and productivity, operating as breeding, nursery or feeding grounds for many species. Agriculture utilizes coastal plains, wetlands and lowlands to increase food production and to provide employment. Such conversion may reduce coastal marine productivity and protection against natural hazards (floods and rainstorms), facilitate salt intrusions in the water table, and spread water-borne diseases. Poor agricultural practices release pesticides, fertilizers and silt into coastal waters. The 24 million ha of mangrove forests of the coastal areas of subtropical and tropical countries represent an important resource and their rapid deterioration and toss threatens coastal productivity and biodiversity. Their loss also affects availability of building material, wood, tannins, skin and hides to coastal, usually poor, populations. Upland deforestation increases erosion, sediment loadings of rivers and accelerates fresh water runoff to coastal areas, reducing water transparency and light, increasing flood risks, and affecting riverine and estuarine fisheries, coral reefs and seagrass beds. Marine fisheries provide 16% of the total animal protein available in the world, low cost food for poor people, livelihoods for fishermen and their families, support for related industries as well as social, economic, and political stability in the rural coastal areas, reducing migration to overcrowded cities. However, fishing often directly affects the environment, threatening sensitive species often already affected by coastal nurseries degradation (e.g. turtles, molluscs, ornamental fish). Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) and Optimum Sustainable Yield (OSY) have been the explicit objectives of fisheries management for decades but many coastal fisheries have been developed beyond these levels. Marine aquaculture represents one of the fast growing sectors of the coastal zone, providing employment, a valuable supplement to local diets and foreign currency through exports. It requires a clean environment but intensive aquaculture practices may lead to 109
Marine Pollution Bulletin
eutrophication, and the release of pharmaceutical and antifouling products (see Chua, p. 98, this volume). Habitat conversion affects wildlife and biodiversity, as well as introducing non-indigenous cultured species into oceanic ecosystems. Manufacturing industries represent the third largest economic activity in developing countries, after agricultural and service sectors. Much of the pollution they create could be eliminated by applying cleaner technologies and adequate industrial waste treatment techniques. Many degraded coastal habitats could be rehabilitated by the application of the 'polluter pays' and 'user pays' approaches. Extractive industries (for tin, sand, gravel and live coral mining) raise problems which can be serious, especially in island countries where the shoreline is often exposed to erosion and storm surges. Shores are protected against sea storms and erosion by natural systems, such as mangroves and other wetlands, coral reefs, and coastal barrier islands and lagoons, deflecting and absorbing much of the storm energy. Their deterioration exposes human populations to increased threats. Sinking and receding shorelines must be given special attention. Marine transportation may conflict with fisheries, aquaculture or oil and gas extraction. Ports and marine transportation facilities are required by offshore oil and gas development, shipping, fisheries, tourism and the military. Major threats include destruction of mangroves and other wetlands, ecological modification of lagoons through channelling and deterioration of coastal habitats by dredging and filling operations. Waste disposal from ships remains a serious problem. Coastal feeder roads, highways, bridges and airports are essential to development. They also often affect the sea, destroy critical intertidal habitats, and obstruct natural water flows. Careful planning is needed to avoid such problems. Water control and supply projects provide regulated sources of water for irrigation and housing. They also modify the quantity, quality and seasonal flow patterns of streams. This disturbs transport of nutrients and silt to coastal ecosystems. This affects mangrove forests, juvenile fish 'nurseries', colonial waterbirds and other wildlife. Such projects can seriously perturb riverdependent ecosystems, reducing their productivity and diversity. Tourism is one of the fastest growing areas of economic activity, particularly for smaller coastal countries and island countries. Recreational activities are, however, a potential area of conflict, sometimes threatening fishermen's livelihoods. Sewage from tourism also may seriously affect the marine environment. National security activities exist in the coastal zones and coastal seas. Coastal areas reserved for military purposes tend to be well conserved. However, naval ports and harbours, coastal airfields, and special bases of all kinds are sited in the coastal zone, usually with a high priority and intense security, preempting any other use but generating pollution and disturbing habitats. Nature conservation can be considered as a type of use in its own right. Coastal areas are important eco110
logical boundaries with high biological diversity and productivity, providing critical habitats to many species which are important for maintaining the equilibrium of the ecosystem and its capacity to respond to natural changes. The benefits of conservation may be less tangible in the short term but must be considered when allocating space and resources to competing uses. In particular, it is essential to protect some representative samples and unique features of these areas as representatives of the national and global heritage.
Some Linkages with other Topics of Agenda 21 Ocean problems tend to be systemic in both scope and scale. They feature a host of linkages to other sectors, particularly because human activities taking place in marine and coastal areas do not recognize boundaries. The most important environmental linkages include: atmospheric processes, in terms of climate and weather events; effects of ozone depletion and airborne contamination pollution; processes of environmental degradation such as loss of biodiversity; pollution (both sea and land derived) and deterioration of ecosystems. Important linkages of ocean issues with economic :and developmental sectors include: in the primary sector, fisheries, agriculture and forestry, mineral extraction and freshwater supply; in the secondary sector, infrastructure, manufacturing industry and transport and, in the tertiary sector, human settlements, health, tourism, financial services and trade. Population, poverty ;and food security as well as the role of women and indigenous peoples are also important social linkages. However, the analytical response to oceans is typically scientific and technical and the policy approach is generally specialized and categorized, rather than integrative and holistic. Oceans are receiving numerous spiilover effects from land-based activities which rel~tect the lack of attention to these linkages. Precisely because of this disregard for linkages, many marine problems are increasing in size and number. Current attention ought to concentrate on the rational use of the coastal and nearshore areas and their resources, especially in the more vulnerable enclosed and semi-enclosed seas. The impact of sectoral activities includes marine pollution from land-based and sea-based sources. Shipping and mineral extraction, including oil production, is a main source of uncontrolled release of toxic wastes and chemicals, oil spills, and disposal of contaminated water. Human settlements, agricultural practices, and deforestat:ion cause severe contamination as upstream sewage, solid, toxic and hazardous wastes, nutrients and pesticicles flow into nearshore zones, affecting mariculture and critical recruitment areas for fishing. The case of marine fisheries, which relates to a single variety of ocean resources, is a good example of inappropriate biologicaleconomic interactions. The fisheries overexploitation is mainly generated by common property status, high discount rates and demand. These factors encourage poor practices such as habitat destruction, use of disruptive techniques such as dynamite and chemicals or intensive dredging, seining, driftnetting and trawling,
Volume 25/Numbers 1-4 incidental capture and destruction of non-target species, and unselective fishing. Thus there is a fundamental mismatch between the management rationales of resource biologists and market-oriented producers, perpetuated in part by the lack of understanding of the linkages. These multiple linkages require that ocean and coastal management strategies should be geared, at the same time, to produce food, serve as a medium for transportation, and encourage port development, industries, tourism and human settlements. Strategies must also aim to maintain the marine and coastal environmental and resource quality to reflect the interests and needs of future generations. An integrated approach to ocean management calls for coastal zone management; prevention of marine pollution from all sources; management of areas requiring special protection, such as the polar seas; management of shared living resources in the high seas; greater application of the precautionary and ecosystem approaches; addressing critical uncertainties related to climate change; capacity building; exchange of information, technical assistance and strengthening of international and regional arrangements. Oceans have critical importance as a lead sector in international law and in providing a model for management for sustainable development. Ocean management policy must be integrated horizontally, across disciplines, departments and specialized agencies, and between the public and private sectors, as well as vertically, across levels of governance, national, regional and global, within a coherent system. The U N Law of the Sea Convention (see Matthews, this volume) offers the most appropriate framework which effectively integrates the protection of the environment from pollution, whether land-based, oceanic or atmospheric, and economic development of living and non-living resources. Its full implementation requires the application of new approaches that are comprehensive in concept, and precautionary and ancitipatory in design, to ocean and coastal area
management and development, at national, regional and international levels. Negotiation on oceans issues was a m o n g the most difficult in the preparatory process of U N C E D , particularly ,.negotiations related to marine living resources and, more specifically, the ones connected with marine mammals, high-seas fisheries and Antarctica. Fortunately, chapter 17 of A g e n d a 21 reflects a very good p r o g r a m m e of action on oceans. The United Nations family collaborated in a very extensive manner, providing information, ideas and experience, and they will certainly be the most important agents for the implementation of A g e n d a 21. Special mention should be made also to other entities and non-governmental organizations, such as GESAMP, Greenpeace, the International Indigenous Commission, among others, whose contributions were of extreme importance in adequately reflecting the needs of society. The editors revised this paper for final publication and take responsibility for any consequential errors. Chua, T.-E. (1992). Coastal aquaculture development and the environment: the role of coastal area management. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25,98-103. GESAMP (1990). The state of the marine environment. Rep. Stud. GESAMP No. 39. (Also publ. by BlackwellScientific Publ., Oxford, 1991.) GESAMP (1991). Global strategies for marine environmental protection. GESAMP Reports and Studies No. 45. Hinrichsen, D. (1990). Our Common Seas: Coasts in Crisis. Earthscan Public. Ltd, London, and UNEE Nairobi. International Centre for Ocean Development(1992). The future of the blue planet: moving the oceans into the centre of the global debate on sustainable development. Proced. Ocean Forum, Halifax, N.S., Nov. 1991. ICOD, Halifax,N.S. Mclntyre, A. D. (1992). The current state of the oceans. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25, 28-31. Matthews, G. T. (1992). International law and policy on marine environmental protection and management. Trends and prospects. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 25, 70-73. Windom, H. L. (1992). Contamination of the marine environment from land-based sources. Mat PoUut. Bull. 25, 32-36. World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. Oxford University Press, Oxford. World Resources Institute (1992). Worm Resources 1992-93. A report by the Worm Resources- Institute. Oxford UniversityPress, New York.
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