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An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen, southern China
Journal Pre-proofs An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen, southern China Liang Zhang, Li-Qiang Yang, David I. Groves, Si-Chen Sun, Yu Liu, Jiu-Yi Wang, Rong-Hua Li, Sheng-Gang Wu, Lei Gao, Jin-Long Guo, Xiao-Gang Chen, Jun-Hui Chen PII: DOI: Reference:
S0169-1368(19)30652-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103173 OREGEO 103173
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Ore Geology Reviews
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
18 July 2019 1 October 2019 9 October 2019
Please cite this article as: L. Zhang, L-Q. Yang, D.I. Groves, S-C. Sun, Y. Liu, J-Y. Wang, R-H. Li, S-G. Wu, L. Gao, J-L. Guo, X-G. Chen, J-H. Chen, An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen, southern China, Ore Geology Reviews (2019), doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103173
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1
An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-
2
antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen,
3
southern China
4 5
Liang Zhang a, Li-Qiang Yang
6
c,
7
Xiao-Gang Chen d, Jun-Hui Chen d
a *,
David I. Groves
a, b,
Si-Chen Sun a, Yu Liu
Jiu-Yi Wang a, Rong-Hua Li a, Sheng-Gang Wu d, Lei Gao d, Jin-Long Guo d,
8 9
a
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China
10
University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
11
b Centre
12
Australia
13
c College
14
d Hunan
for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009,
of Resources, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang 050031, China
Huangjindong Mining Co. Ltd., Hunan 414507, China
15 16
Revised manuscript submitted to Ore Geology Reviews (1-Oct-2019)
17 18 19
a,
*Corresponding author: Li-Qiang Yang State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources
20
China University of Geosciences
21
29# Xue-Yuan Road, Haidian District
22
Beijing 100083, China
23
Phone: (+86-10) 8232 1937 (O)
24
Fax: (+86-10) 8232 1006
25
Email: [email protected] 1 / 77
26
Abstract
27
The Jiangnan Orogen, located between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks
28
in southern China, hosts significant gold and antimony resources. Long-
29
standing controversies over the number and precise timing of gold, gold-
30
antimony and antimony mineralization event(s), and the genesis of these
31
deposits, limit the understanding and exploration of this giant gold and antimony
32
system. Together with geological evidence, a critical review of the published
33
geochronological data of these deposits suggest that there were two gold
34
events in the Triassic (~235 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (~142-130 Ma), two
35
gold-antimony events in the Early Devonian (~402 Ma) and Late Triassic-
36
Middle Jurassic (~224-163 Ma: possibly equivalent to the two gold events), and
37
one antimony event in the Early Cretaceous (~130 Ma). There are other
38
possible gold events in the Neoproterozoic or at an even older age, and
39
Ordovician to Early Devonian, which are constrained only by limited geological
40
evidence and a few non-robust isotopic ages. The regional distribution of the
41
gold, gold-antimony and antimony districts, and deposits therein, reveal a first-
42
order control on the mineralization by crustal scale faults which acted as ore-
43
forming fluid pathways connected to deep fluid and metal source areas.
44
Second- and third-order faults that are situated along the jogs of the first-order
45
faults, especially fault corridors defined by NNE-NE-trending second-order
46
faults and third-order NW to E-W-trending discontinuous oblique faults,
47
provided favorable locations for Pre-Cretaceous gold-(antimony) mineralization. 2 / 77
48
In addition, NE-trending open anticlines, linked to deep crustal levels by first-
49
order faults, host significant antimony and minor gold mineralization, and the
50
curvilinear Fanjingshan detachment Fault hosts some minor gold and antimony
51
deposits. Locally, at deposit to orebody-scales, pre-ore barren quartz veins and
52
magmatic dikes were the loci for mineralization in some gold-antimony deposits.
53
The structural geometry of the pre-Cretaceous gold and gold-antimony deposits
54
suggests an Early Devonian orogenic gold-antimony mineralization event
55
during a transpressional tectonic regime related to coeval intracontinental
56
orogeny between the Yangtze and Cathaysian Blocks. In contrast, Triassic
57
orogenic gold and Triassic-Middle Jurassic orogenic gold-antimony events are
58
interpreted to relate to distal effects of the collision between the North and
59
South China blocks. The structurally-contrasting major Early Cretaceous
60
epizonal antimony mineralization event, together with contemporaneous minor
61
hydrothermal gold mineralization, is interpreted to have been controlled by
62
normal faults and pre-ore open folds in an extensional tectonic regime related
63
to the distal effects of rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate after ~135 Ma. For
64
future geoscience-based exploration in the Orogen, documentation and
65
interpretation of critical structural geometries of gold, gold-antimony and
66
antimony deposits is a vital step towards successful target generation.
67
Key words: Structural geometry; Geochronology; Orogenic gold-(antimony)
68
deposits; Antimony deposits; Jiangnan Orogen
69 3 / 77
70
1. Introduction
71
The Jiangnan Orogen, located between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks
72
in southern China, hosts significant gold (hereafter Au) and antimony (hereafter
73
Sb) resources (Fig. 1; Deng et al., 2017a; Xu et al., 2017; Hu and Peng, 2018).
74
This well-endowed orogen ranks as the largest Sb resource in the world and
75
the third largest Au resource in China (Wu, 1993; Zhou et al., 2014; Deng and
76
Wang, 2016). The Au and Sb deposits in the orogen are dominated by both
77
lode-Au and lode-Au-Sb deposits, and contrasting stratabound Sb deposits
78
(Mao et al., 1997; Peng et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a).
79
Most Au and Au-Sb deposits are hosted in Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks,
80
whereas the majority of the Sb deposits are hosted in Paleozoic sedimentary
81
rocks, with only a few hosted in Neoproterozoic slates (Fig. 1). Tungsten, mainly
82
in the form of scheelite, is a common by-product in processing of the Au and
83
Au-Sb ores. Most Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits are small and scattered
84
throughout the orogen, but there are also world-class deposits such as the
85
Jinshan Au deposit and Xikuangshan Sb deposit, the largest Sb deposit globally
86
(Zhao et al., 2013; Hu and Peng, 2018). All Au and Sb deposits are controlled
87
by fold-fault systems that have no consistent spatial relationships with granitic
88
intrusions that are widespread in the orogen.
89
Despite decades of research, there are very few studies concerned with
90
the structural control on the regional distribution of the Au, Au-Sb and Sb
91
deposits, which is the key for regional exploration in the Orogen. However, the 4 / 77
92
structural geometries and controls on several individual deposits have been
93
documented (e.g., He et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2016). The
94
timing of all mineralization styles also has been very poorly constrained, with
95
highly variable ages of ~900 Ma to 70 Ma derived from many different
96
radiogenic isotope methods (Table 1; Mao et al., 1997; Dong et al., 2008; Han
97
et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2017b; Fu et al., 2019a, b; Zhang
98
et al., 2018a, 2019a). This has resulted in historical controversy on the genesis
99
of both Au and Au-Sb deposits and the Sb deposits and on the nature of the
100
temporal relationship between them. Descriptive terminology includes the
101
classification of Au and Au-Sb deposits as stratabound, syngenetic,
102
intracontinental tectonic reactivation, magmatic-hydrothermal, SEDEX-type or
103
orogenic Au deposits (Luo, 1988; Ma and Liu, 1992; Hu et al., 1998; Gu et al.,
104
2005; Jia and Peng, 2005; Deng et al., 2017b; Zhang et al., 2018b), and the Sb
105
deposits as stratabound, magmatic-hydrothermal, epizonal, epithermal,
106
mesothermal, syngenetic or SEDEX-type deposits (Zhan et al., 1993; Yi and
107
Shan, 1994; Hu, 1995; Liu et al., 2002; Hu and Peng, 2018). Clearly, a critical
108
overview of data at the orogen scale is required to bring clarity to the
109
metallogenesis of the Jiangnan Orogen.
110
In this study, a critical review of published geological maps has resulted in
111
the generation of a new regional-scale geological interpretation of the Jiangnan
112
Orogen. Within this context, structural timing and structural geometry of the ore-
113
controlling fold-fault systems are combined with geochronological data from the 5 / 77
114
ores in an attempt to understand the structural controls on Au, Au-Sb and Sb
115
mineralization at regional- to deposit- scales. This allows the formulation of a
116
genetic model for Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization in relation to the major
117
geological events within the context of the geodynamic setting at the time that
118
each deposit type was formed. The potential significance of this new
119
metallogenic model to regional exploration philosophy is also discussed.
120 121
2. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Jiangnan Orogen
122
2.1. Definition, extent and general evolution of the orogen
123
The Jiangnan Orogen is one of the most remarkable orogens in eastern
124
Asia. This NE-ENE-trending orogen was formed by Neoproterozoic accretion
125
and subsequent collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks in
126
southern China (Fig. 1; Shu, 2012). Spatially, the extent of the orogen is defined
127
by the exposures of Neoproterozoic metamorphosed sedimentary and minor
128
mafic rocks and widespread granite (used sensu lato throughout) intrusions
129
(Wang et al., 2017). The orogen is clearly bordered by the Jiangshan-Shaoxing
130
(Jiangshao) Fault to the southeast, whereas its indistinct boundaries to the
131
southwest, west and northwest are defined by the limit of exposure of
132
Neoproterozoic strata without clear structural boundaries, due to a combination
133
of the extended tectonic evolution of the orogeny and the thick Quaternary
134
sediment and forest cover.
135
The orogen had a complex evolution within the context of that of the whole 6 / 77
136
south China Block (Fig. 2) as summarized by Shu (2006, 2012), Wang et al.
137
(2012) and Zhang et al. (2013). This included: (1) an Early Neoproterozoic (1.0-
138
0.8 Ga) history, from subduction of the Paleo-South China Ocean plate
139
(Cathaysian) under the Jiuling Terrain (Yangtze) to continental collision
140
between the Yangtze and Cathaysian Blocks; (2) Late Neoproterozoic (800-
141
680 Ma) continental break-up and intracontinental sedimentation; (3) Early
142
Paleozoic intracontinental orogeny and final convergence of the Yangtze and
143
Cathaysian blocks; (4) Early Mesozoic folding and thrusting related to the
144
continental collision between the North China Block and South China Block;
145
and (5) Late Mesozoic formation of the Basin-and-Range-like topography after
146
the transition from Tethyan to paleo-Pacific tectonic domains.
147
2.2. Lithostratigraphy
148
The basement of the orogen is dominated by Neoproterozoic slates and
149
other metasedimentary rocks (Fig. 1). The Neoproterozoic strata can be further
150
divided into a lower segment comprising the slates of the Lengjiaxi,
151
Shuangqiaoshan, Shangxi, Xikou, Fanjingshan and Sibao Groups, an
152
intermediate segment composed of slates and metasedimentary rocks of the
153
Banxi Group, and an upper segment of Late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran)
154
formations, such as the Changtan, Guanyintian, Heling and Nantuo formations.
155
All strata have been folded, with lower strata defined by tight folds whereas the
156
intermediate and upper strata have been affected by more open folding.
157
The
sedimentary
cover
of
the 7 / 77
Neoproterozoic
rocks
comprises
158
Phanerozoic oceanic and continental sedimentary rocks which are typically
159
unmetamorphosed, excluding local contact metamorphism around granite
160
intrusions (e.g. Wang et al., 2016).
161
2.3. Granite intrusions
162
A number of granite intrusions are exposed in the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig.
163
1), including: (1) Neoproterozoic granites, such as the Jiuling Massif (Zhong et
164
al., 2005); (2) Late Silurian to Early Devonian intrusions, such as the
165
Banshanpu and Hongxiaqiao granites (Li et al., 2015); (3) Triassic intrusions,
166
including the Ziyunshan and Xiema granites (Peng et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2017a);
167
(4) Early-Middle Jurassic granites, such as the Dexing granodiorite-porphyries
168
(Wang et al., 2004); and (5) Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous intrusions that
169
include the Lianyunshan granite (Wang et al., 2016).
170
Some of these granites, such as the Dexing granodiorite-porphyries and
171
Lianyunshan granites are genetically related to copper-polymetallic porphyry
172
deposits and a few small Au occurrences, such as Dayan near Lianyunshan
173
(Guo et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2017b; Yuan et al., 2018). In addition, a few small
174
Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits, such as the Au and Sb deposits in the Fanjingshan
175
area and Au deposits around the Ziyunshan, Xiema and Baimashan intrusions,
176
show a close spatial relationship to granite intrusions (Wang et al., 2006; Li et
177
al., 2018). In contrast, most granite intrusions have no spatial association with
178
Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits at either regional or deposit scales (Figs. 1 and 3-
179
10). 8 / 77
180
2.4. Structural framework
181
Structures developed in the Jiangnan Orogen commonly include folds,
182
shear zones and faults (Figs. 1, 3, 4 and 5). Basement structures are dominated
183
by folds with WNW to E-W-trending axial surfaces and related faults and some
184
NE-trending folds and faults. Some tight WNW to E-W-trending folds in rocks
185
of the lower segment of the Neoproterozoic strata initially formed during the
186
collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks and were subsequently
187
refolded during Early Palaeozoic intracontinental orogeny under a similar N-S-
188
trending compressive stress field (HBGMR, 1988), while many other folds were
189
initiated during Early Palaeozoic intracontinental orogeny (HBGMR, 1988; Shu,
190
2012).
191
ENE- to E-W- and NE-trending ductile shear zones, such as the E-W-
192
trending Jinshan and NE-trending Bashiyuan-Tongchang ductile shear zones
193
in the eastern part of the Orogen, and the Jiuling-Qingshui, Lianyunshan-
194
Changsha and Qingcao-Zhuzhou ductile shear zone in the central part of the
195
Orogen, are well developed in the Jiangnan basement rocks. Some shear
196
zones control the location of the Au ores, such as at the Jinshan deposit, in the
197
eastern part of the Orogen.
198
The dominant fault framework is defined by NE-ENE-trending regional
199
faults, such as the Changsha-Pingjiang (Chang-Ping) and Xinning-Huitang
200
(Xin-Hui) faults, which separate Cretaceous basins from Pre-Cretaceous
201
massifs, forming Basin-and-Range-like topography (Wen et al., 2016; Xu et al., 9 / 77
202
2017). These faults crosscut the earlier WNW- to E-trending folds and fold-
203
related faults, and ENE-trending ductile shear zones. These regional faults
204
commonly have a long-lived history with a complex evolution, which can be
205
tracked back to the Caledonian (Silurian) (HBGMR, 1988). Generally, these
206
regional faults underwent Caledonian sinistral strike-slip under Tethyan tectonic
207
stress conditions, followed by Yanshanian (Jurassic) early sinistral and late
208
dextral movement, and then Cretaceous normal faulting under paleo-Pacific
209
tectonic stress conditions (HBGMR, 1988; Li et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2017). In
210
addition, rare NW-trending faults crosscut the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 1).
211
2.5. Metamorphic evolution
212
Metamorphism in the Jiangnan Orogen is dominated by greenschist and
213
even subgreenschist-facies metamorphism, with rarely reported high-grade
214
metamorphism up to amphibolite-facies, or anomalous high-pressure
215
metamorphism (Shu et al., 1994; Guo et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2017). In
216
chronological order, rare Paleoproterozoic amphibolite-facies metamorphism
217
formed the schist, amphibolite, gneiss, and migmatite of the Lianyunshan
218
Group along the Chang-Ping Fault (Guo et al., 2003). Blueschists, formed by
219
high-pressure metamorphism in the eastern part of the Orogen yield a K-Ar age
220
of 866±16 Ma (Shu et al., 1994). The widespread lower segment of the
221
Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks underwent the overprint of at least two
222
generations of metamorphism under conditions not exceeding upper-
223
greenschist-facies during the Late Neoproterozoic and Silurian to Early 10 / 77
224
Devonian (Zhang et al., 2013). The intermediate and upper segments of the
225
Neoproterozoic rocks only underwent lower-greenschist-facies metamorphism
226
during Silurian to Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny (Shu et al., 2008;
227
Shu, 2012).
228 229 230
3. Province-scale structural control 3.1. The paleo-suture zone
231
The paleo-suture zone in this area, which is marked by sporadically
232
distributed ophiolite suites, is generally located along the Jiangshao Fault. The
233
spatial distribution of the Au, Au-Sb, and Sb deposits is partly, but not exactly,
234
parallel to the paleo-suture zone (Fig. 1). This indicates an important, but not
235
exclusive, relationship to this long-lived structure for the Jiangnan Au, Au-Sb
236
and Sb deposits.
237
3.2. Basin-and-Range-like topography
238
Most of the Au deposits are distributed in the uplifts composed of
239
Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks, whereas most Au-Sb and Sb deposits
240
are in the Devonian to Triassic basins (Figs. 1 and 5). It is unclear whether this
241
broad spatial distribution of the deposit types reflects the depth of ore formation
242
and subsequent tectonic uplift and exhumation, or a fundamental genetic
243
control with the Au deposits specifically related in some way to the evolution of
244
the Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks, and the Au-Sb and Sb deposits
245
forming in a younger event. 11 / 77
246
3.3. Regional first-order faults
247
Most Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits are broadly distributed along the NE- to
248
ENE-trending first-order fault zones, such as the Anhua-Liping, Anhua-Xupu,
249
Xupu-Jingxian and Chang-Ping faults, within the Orogen, illustrating the first-
250
order structural control on these deposits (Figs. 1, 3, 4 and 5). Gold endowment
251
shows significant variability along these regional NNE-NE-trending first-order
252
faults. For example, the goldfields along the Chang-Ping Fault are commonly
253
situated along curvilinear segments of the Fault where the orientation of the
254
fault segment changes significantly (Fig. 3). Some Au-Sb and Sb deposits show
255
a relatively complex control with both NE- and NW-trending faults influencing
256
the location of the deposits (Fig. 1).
257
The distance between the two individual NE-trending Au belts is about 20-
258
30 km in the western Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 4), whereas that between the Xin-
259
Hui, Chang-Ping and Li-Heng faults in the central part of the Orogen is ~60 km
260
(Fig. 3). Along the Chang-Ping Fault, the distance between the Huangjindong
261
and Liling goldfields is also ~60 km (Fig. 3).
262 263 264
4. District-scale structural control 4.1. Gold-hosting second- or third-order faults
265
Although most Au and Au-Sb deposits are aligned along the regional NNE-
266
NE-trending first-order faults, or more rarely E-W-trending faults, they are
267
typically located along second- or third-order faults (Figs. 3 and 4). This 12 / 77
268
structural geometry resembles that of most lode-Au-(Sb) deposits globally
269
(Groves et al., 2018). These second- and third-order faults are mainly NNE-NE-
270
trending or WNW-E-W-trending structures (Fig. 6). Most of the oblique WNW-
271
E-W-trending faults are related to thrust faulting during or after a pre-ore folding
272
event, while some of the NNE-NE-trending faults are also related to folding,
273
such as those in the Tonggu-Huaqiao Au district (Fig. 4; Wang et al., 2006;
274
Zhang et al., 2018b, 2019b).
275
4.2. Antimony-hosting folds linked to first-order faults
276
Antimony mineralization in the Xikuangshan district, rather than being in
277
the early fold-related second- or third-order faults, is mainly controlled by a
278
relatively open anticline with a NE- striking axial surface which is connected to
279
the deep crust by a regional first-order NE-trending fault (Fig. 7; Hu, 1995; Hu
280
and Peng, 2018).
281
4.3. Gold in fault corridors
282
In goldfields, such as Huangjindong and Wangu along the Chang-Ping
283
Fault zone, central Jiangnan Orogen, Au orebodies are controlled by E-W- to
284
NW-trending third-order bedding-subparallel thrust faults associated with
285
isoclinal “locked-up” folds within corridors defined by NNE- to NE-trending
286
second-order brittle faults (Fig. 6; Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018b,
287
2019b). Similarly, in the ductile shear-zone-controlled Jinshan goldfield,
288
eastern Jiangnan Orogen, individual orebodies are controlled by third-order
289
ENE-E-trending shear zones within corridors defined by the second-order NNE13 / 77
290
trending Baishiyuan-Tongchang and Jiangguang-Fujiawu shear zones (Fig. 8).
291
There are similar corridor-related structural geometries exhibited by many other
292
Au and a few Au-Sb deposits across the Orogen, such as the Jinkengchong-
293
Baojinshan and Chanziping Au deposits, and Anshan Au-Sb deposit at
294
Huangjindong in the central Jiangnan Orogen (Luo, 1993; Zhao and Chen,
295
2006; Zhang et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2019b).
296
4.4. Gold- and antimony-hosting detachment faults
297
In the Fanjingshan area in the southwestern part of the Jiangnan Orogen,
298
many Au and a few Sb deposits are distributed along the curvilinear detachment
299
Fanjingshan Fault, with a few Au and many Sb deposits situated in the footwall
300
of the Fault (Wang et al., 2006; Fig. 9). The Fanjingshan Fault is generally
301
developed along the unconformity between the metasedimentary rocks of the
302
Neoproterozoic Fanjingshan and Banxi Groups (Fig. 9). This illustrates the
303
primary district-scale structural control on the distribution of these deposits in
304
contrast to the dominant control of most deposits by linear structures as
305
presented above. Given that there are no published isotopic ages or
306
descriptions of deposit-scale structural geology work, they are not discussed
307
further.
308 309
5. Deposit-scale structural control
310
5.1. Shear and extension veins
311
Individual orebodies in many Au-(Sb) deposits, such as at Huangjindong 14 / 77
312
and Wangu, comprise both shear and extension veins. For example, in the
313
Huangjindong Au deposit, the major south-dipping orebody 3 comprises
314
relatively steep shear veins with “crack-seal” structures and flat extension veins
315
on both the hangingwall and footwall of the shear veins (Zhang et al., 2019b).
316
In contrast, the north-dipping orebody 1 has relatively flat shear veins and steep
317
extension veins. The slate around the shear and extension veins, together with
318
breccias composed of slate blocks in the quartz veins are typically gold
319
mineralized.
320
The major shear veins at deposit scale typically form subparallel arrays,
321
such as those in the Huangjindong and Wangu Au deposits (Fig. 6a). En
322
echelon veins are also developed in some Sb deposits, such as that in the Banxi
323
Sb deposit (Hu, 1991).
324
In some deposits, there are individual shear and extensional veins with
325
different orientations. For instance, both thick NW-NNW-trending extension
326
veins and narrow sub-economic NNE-trending shear veins are developed in the
327
Zhengchong Au deposit, along the central-south segment of the Chang-Ping
328
Fault (fig. 2 in Sun et al., 2019). However, there is no indication of similar
329
geometries of veins with variable orientation in the relatively well-described
330
NW- and NE-trending Au-Sb veins at the Longshan and Woxi deposits, or the
331
NW-E-W- and NE-ENE-trending Sb veins at the Banxi deposit (Zeng et al.,
332
1998; Liang et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018).
333
5.2. Jogs along both strike and dip 15 / 77
334
For many deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen, the thickness of orebodies
335
changes abruptly along both strike and dip, although the ore-controlling faults
336
and barren alteration zones are still present (Li, 1995; Wang et al., 2006; Zhang
337
et al., 2019b). In the Huangjindong Au deposit, thick orebodies are typically
338
located on relatively flat fault segments for the north-dipping orebodies (Fig. 6b),
339
while the grade and thickness of orebodies show significant variations typically
340
over 30 meters (Zhang et al., 2019b). There are similar relationships in many
341
deposits, such as the Zhengchong Au deposit (Sun et al., 2019), the Longshan
342
Au-Sb deposit (Bao and Chen, 1995; Kang, 2002; Liu et al., 2008), and the
343
Banxi Sb deposit (Luo, 1995; Zeng et al., 1998; Yu, 2006).
344 345
5.3. Anticlinal folds Anticlines represent one of the most important structural controls on the Au,
346
Au-Sb and Sb mineralization in the Orogen. For example, Groves et al. (2018)
347
and Zhang et al. (2018b) demonstrated that the Huangjindong Au deposits are
348
controlled by thrust faults related to failure of “locked up” tight anticlinal folds
349
with apical angles of 30° (Fig. 6b). Similarly, at the Mobin Au deposit in the
350
western Jiangnan Orogen, orebodies are developed along layer-parallel thrust
351
faults on both limbs of overturned tight anticlinal folds with apical angles of 30°
352
(fig. 4.4 in Wang et al., 2006).
353
In contrast, ore bodies at some Au deposits, such as the Tongluoping,
354
Kengtou and Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposits, are controlled by more open folds
355
with apical angles of 100-120° (Fig. 10; Wu and Yu, 1998; Wang et al., 2006). 16 / 77
356 357 358
At the Xikuangshan Sb deposit, anticlines with apical angles of 90-100° host the majority of the Sb resources (Fig. 7). 5.4. Physical nature of host rocks
359
The physical properties of the host rocks to the ore bodies play an
360
important role in the siting of Au, Au-Sb and Sb ores in the Jiangnan Orogen.
361
At the Huangjindong Au deposit, pre-gold barren quartz veins provided
362
favorable competent hosts for later gold mineralization (Zhang et al., 2019b).
363
The contacts between granite-porphyry dikes with relative high competence
364
and slate with low competence provide favorable locations for faults, and thus
365
for related gold mineralization at the Xiangtan Au occurrence (Liu, 2017), the
366
Fuzhuxi Au deposit and many other deposits in the central and northwestern
367
part of the Orogen (Bao et al., 2002). At the Xikuangshan Sb deposit, shales
368
with low strength and related low fracture-permeability acted as barrier layers
369
to focus ingress of ore-forming fluids (Fig. 7; Liu, 1992; Hu and Peng, 2018).
370 371
6. Geological constraints on timing of Au, Au-Sb, and Sb mineralization
372
6.1. Geological constraints on major early pre-Late Triassic or Jurassic events
373
Most Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen are hosted by
374
Neoproterozoic slate, with a few hosted in Devonian to Triassic strata. In
375
addition, most paleoplacer Au deposits are pre-Mesozoic in age. These
376
deposits are described in the order of the timing constraints they provide.
377
In the western and north-western Jiangnan Orogen, there is paleoplacer 17 / 77
378
Au in both the Neoproterozoic basal conglomerates of the Banxi Group, that
379
overlie slate of the Lengjiaxi Group, and late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran)
380
conglomerates, that overlie slate of the Banxi Group around the Woxi Au-Sb-W
381
deposit, implicating a Neoproterozoic or older Au event (Luo et al., 1996).
382
In the south-western Jiangnan Orogen, many Au and Au-Sb deposits are
383
controlled by Caledonian (Ordovician to Early Devonian) folds and faults (Lu et
384
al., 2005). Rare auriferous quartz veins at the Tonggu-Huaqiao deposit are
385
crosscut by cleavages formed during Caledonian metamorphism (Wang et al.,
386
2006). These relationships implicate pre-Early Devonian Au mineralization.
387
In the central southern Jiangnan Orogen, there are several paleoplacer Au
388
occurrences that have been mined in the Devonian conglomerates of the
389
Tiaomajian Formation that overlie slate of the Lengjiaxi Group (Luo et al., 1996).
390
These implicate a pre-Devonian Au event. However, in the central-western part
391
of the Orogen, rare auriferous quartz veins in small Au occurrences crosscut
392
the Late Silurian to Early Devonian granite intrusions (Luo et al., 1996),
393
implicating post-Early Devonian Au mineralization.
394
In the eastern Jiangnan Orogen, the Jinshan Au deposit, near the Middle
395
Jurassic Dexing porphyry-copper deposit (Guo et al., 2012), is strictly controlled
396
by a combination of WNW-trending ductile shear zones and NE-trending brittle-
397
ductile shear zones (Zhao et al., 2013; Fig. 8). The close spatial co-existence
398
of both lode Au deposits, formed at relative deep crustal levels, and the more
399
shallowly-formed Late Jurassic Dexing porphyry-copper polymetallic deposit, is 18 / 77
400
best interpreted to indicate that later porphyry mineralization occurred in an
401
uplifted and exhumed terrane that hosted pre-Jurassic Au mineralization (Guo
402
et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2013; Fig. 8).
403
Along the Chang-Ping Fault zone in the central Jiangnan Orogen, the Late
404
Cretaceous sandstone and siltstone, overlying the Au-hosting Neoproterozoic
405
slate, are everywhere barren of Au lode deposits, but host paleoplacer Au
406
occurrences in places (Li, 1995), suggesting that the Au mineralization is at
407
least pre-Cretaceous. As with Jinshan and Dexing, the close spatial co-
408
existence of both deeper lode-Au deposits and shallower Late Jurassic
409
porphyry-copper polymetallic deposit along the Chang-Ping Fault zone (Fig. 3)
410
is indicative of a pre-Late Jurassic Au mineralization event (Yuan et al., 2018;
411
Zhang et al., 2018b, 2019b).
412
6.2. Geological constraints on later events
413 414
Despite strong evidence for pre-Jurassic Au mineralization, there is also evidence for late Au and Sb mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen.
415
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, sub-economic Au mineralization and
416
alteration in places crosscut the Late Jurassic granites, such as at Dayan along
417
the Chang-Ping Fault (Deng et al., 2017b).
418
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, Au veins and the Late Triassic granite-
419
porphyry dikes at the Baojinshan - Jinkengchong deposit crosscut each other,
420
implicating a Late Triassic Au event (Sun and He, 1993; Chen et al., 2016;
421
Huang et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2017b). Nearby, the Sb orebodies at the 19 / 77
422
Xikuangshan deposit are strictly controlled by a combined NNE-NE-trending
423
fault and fold system (Peng et al., 2002). The youngest folded units are Late
424
Triassic, indicating that the Sb mineralization at Xikuangshan post-dated the
425
Late Triassic.
426
Locally, auriferous stibnite-quartz veins at the Fuzhuxi and Hexinqiao Au-
427
Sb deposits and stibnite-quartz veins at the Banxi Sb deposit crosscut, and
428
hence postdate, Jurassic acid dikes (Luo, 1989).
429
6.3. Summary of geological constraints
430
In summary, the geological relationships at different locations in the
431
Jiangnan Orogen provide only general constraints on the number and timing of
432
Au-(Sb) mineralization event(s). The numbers of mineralization event(s), their
433
proportion and precise timing rely on more geological work and particularly
434
geochronological constraints from robust isotopic systems.
435 436
7. Isotopic ages of Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization
437
7.1. Samples and isotopic methods used to determine mineralization ages
438
By application of radio-isotope dating methods, such as K-Ar, 40Ar/39Ar, Rb-
439
Sr, Re-Os, (U-Th)/He and electron spin resonance (ESR), more than 100
440
isotopic ages, ranging from ~900 Ma to 70 Ma for Au, Au-Sb, and Sb
441
mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen have been generated (Table 1; Mao et
442
al., 1997; Dong et al., 2008; Han et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Deng et al.,
443
2017b; Fu et al., 2019a, b; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a and references therein). 20 / 77
444
Lead-Pb dating of pyrite, which is widely recognized as unreliable, particularly
445
in low-Pb systems such as those in the Jiangnan Orogen, is not considered
446
here, whereas the other 80 isotopic ages of 838±110－71±2 Ma are shown in
447
Table 1.
448
Rubidium-Sr dating of fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz is the most
449
common method used to date deposits in the Orogen (Table 1). Given the
450
ubiquitous appearance of different generations of quartz and abundance of
451
secondary fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz in the Orogen (e.g., Zhao et
452
al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017) and similar deposits around the world (Goldfarb and
453
Groves, 2015), the measured Rb and Sr isotopic compositions most likely
454
reflect the composition of a mixture of ore-forming and post-ore secondary
455
fluids. Thus, the quality of the Rb-Sr dating of fluid inclusions is suspect. Similar
456
concerns apply to the Rb-Sb dating of ore-related sulfides, such as stibnite and
457
arsenopyrite, with very low Rb and Sr contents and unknown volumes of
458
secondary fluid inclusions (Zhao et al., 2013), although it is possible to generate
459
reliable ages from sulfides with relatively high Rb-Sr contents. In addition, the
460
Rb-Sr, K-Ar and
461
and sulfide-quartz veins with slate breccias are interpreted to be mixed ages
462
due to the complex pre- and syn-mineralization history of mineral growth and
463
crystallization.
40Ar/39Ar
ages of whole-rock powders from mineralized slate
464
By progressively releasing argon and measuring the resultant isotopic
465
ratios from a sample, 40Ar/39Ar dating overcomes the shortcomings of the K-Ar 21 / 77
466
method related to sample heterogeneity and argon loss/gain (McDougall and
467
Harrison, 1999). Benefitting from this,
468
muscovite/sericite grains with diameters >100 μm has become one of the most
469
robust methods in dating of hydrothermal ore deposits (Philips et al., 2012;
470
Yang et al., 2014a, 2017; Fairmaid et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019c). The quality
471
of results yielded by this method is highly dependent on the quality of the
472
sample, especially the geological significance (e.g. representativeness),
473
genesis of the muscovite (e.g. hydrothermal or metamorphic) and purity of the
474
separations. From this point of view, with clear geological relationships and
475
supporting petrographic evidence, the
476
muscovite in ores at the Gutaishan and Longshan Au-Sb deposits (Wen et al.,
477
2016; Li et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018a) and muscovite from post-
478
mineralization granitic dikes at the Dayan Au prospect are considered reliable
479
(Deng et al., 2017b). Other
480
without reported original data and errors, are considered non-robust (Table 1).
481
Typically, only trace amounts of K occur in hydrothermal quartz, and thus
482
40Ar/39Ar
483
inclusions in quartz, which may be both pre-and syn-gold mineralization.
40Ar/39Ar
40Ar/39Ar
40Ar/39Ar
dating of pure hydrothermal
plateau ages of hydrothermal
ages of muscovite with large errors, or
dating of hydrothermal quartz reflects mixed ages of the K-rich mineral
484
Samarium–Nd isochron dating of scheelite, stibnite and calcite has been
485
used to date hydrothermal deposits, such as the Xikuangshan Sb deposit in the
486
Jiangnan Orogen (Peng et al., 2002, 2003). Ages derived from this isotopic
487
system for scheelite and stibnite with relatively high contents of Sm and Nd are 22 / 77
488
considered generally robust with calcite less certain as it can have both a late-
489
and post paragenetic position.
490
In terms of other methodologies, application of the ESR dating method for
491
quartz is not yet proven for robust dating of hydrothermal deposits. Additionally,
492
the occurrence of different generations of quartz in the Au deposits (e.g., Zhang
493
et al., 2019b) can also result in uncertainty of results (Table 1). Zircon (U-Th)/He
494
ages could provide general constraints on the timing of mineralization if a
495
deposit underwent relatively fast and simple post-ore cooling history (Fu et al.,
496
2019a, b), but this is unlikely given the complex evolution of the Jiangnan
497
Orogen.
498
Arsenopyrites and pyrite with low Re and Os contents yield ages with
499
relatively large errors (Table 1), with only those with relatively high Re and Os
500
contents considered potentially robust ages.
501
7.2. Overview of mineralization ages of Au deposits
502
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, the Au mineralization at the Dayan
503
prospect formed at 142±2 Ma to 130±1 Ma, as relatively well-constrained by a
504
pre-ore zircon U-Pb age and a post-ore muscovite
505
2017b). Arsenopyrites with relatively high Re (14.5-1.3 ng/g) and
506
0.006 ng/g) contents constrain the timing of Au mineralization at the Pingqiu
507
deposit to 235±3 Ma (Gu et al., 2016), whereas a Re-Os age of 400±24 Ma has
508
been derived from arsenopyrites with low Re (0.6-0.2 ng/g with one exception
509
of 2.6 ng/g) and
187Os
40Ar/39Ar
age (Deng et al., 187Os
(0.04-
(0.003-0.002 ng/g) contents (Wang et al., 2011). 23 / 77
510
Rhenium-Os ages of 410±52 Ma for the Bake Au deposit and 174±15 Ma for
511
the Jinjing Au deposit have been generated from arsenopyrites with relatively
512
low Re (Bake, 1.5-0.4 ng/g; Jinjing, 2.2-0.2 ng/g) and 187Os (Bake, 0.007-0.002
513
ng/g; Jinjing, 0.005-0.002 ng/g) contents (Wang et al., 2011; Gu et al., 2016).
514
The other non- or less-robust ages for the Au deposits have a much wider
515
range of 838±110 Ma to 70.7±2.2 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 11). Although many ages
516
are of uncertain reliability, collectively, these geochronological data provide a
517
broad picture of Au mineralization events in the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 11). As
518
shown in Figure. 11, the less or non-robust ages show five peaks, from old to
519
young: (1) ~440-380 Ma (Late Silurian to Early Devonian); (2) ~360-340 Ma
520
(mainly Early Carboniferous); (3) ~240-200 Ma (mainly Late Triassic); (4) ~180-
521
140 Ma (mainly Jurassic); and (5) ~120-80 Ma (Cretaceous), with a few ages
522
between them and also minor Precambrian ages.
523
Combined with the geological evidence for multiple Au events, these
524
isotopic age data are considered to indicate at least two Au events in the
525
Triassic and Early Cretaceous. However further geochronology using robust
526
methods on minerals with suitable compositions is required to provide robust
527
ages of the Au mineralization events.
528
7.3. Overview of mineralization ages of Au-Sb deposits
529
A Sm–Nd isochron age of 402±6 Ma of scheelite, with relative high
530
contents of Sm (6.2-0.9 μg/g) and Nd (0.6-4.5 μg/g), associated with Au and Sb
531
mineralization is taken to represent the timing of mineralization at the Woxi Au24 / 77
532
Sb-W deposit, north-western Jiangnan Orogen (Peng et al., 2003). The Au-Sb
533
mineralization at the Longshan deposit in the central Jiangnan Orogen most
534
likely occurred somewhere in the range between 210±2 Ma, based a Sm–Nd
535
isochron age of scheelite with relatively high contents of Sm (7.5-2.2 μg/g) and
536
Nd (11.5-4.8 μg/g), 195±36 Ma for a Re-Os isochron age of pyrite with relatively
537
low contents of Re (1.4-0.4 ng/g with an exception of 4.4 ng/g), and 187Os (0.01-
538
0.002 ng/g), and 163±2 Ma for a hydrothermal muscovite
539
al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a). The Gutaishan Au-Sb deposit formed at
540
224±5 Ma based on a hydrothermal 40Ar/39Ar age (Li et al., 2018).
541
40Ar/39Ar
age (Fu et
Other less or non-robust ages can be divided into 435±9 Ma to 414±19 Ma
542
(two quartz
543
quartz), 281 Ma (a K-Ar age of altered rock), and 175±9 Ma-145±12 Ma (two
544
Rb-Sr isochron ages of fluid inclusions in quartz) (Table 1; Fig. 11).
40Ar/39Ar
ages and one Rb-Sr isochron age of fluid inclusions in
545
In summary, these data reveal Early Devonian and Late Triassic-Middle
546
Jurassic Au-Sb mineralization events, whereas further robust geochronology is
547
required to confirm the Early Permian Au-Sb and possible undated event(s).
548
The auriferous stibnite-quartz veins at the Fuzhuxi and Hexinqiao Au-Sb
549
deposits, which crosscut Jurassic acid dikes, may be a part of the Late Triassic-
550
Middle Jurassic mineralization event defined by other isotopic ages or a later
551
undated event.
552
7.4. Mineralization ages of Sb deposits
553
Two less robust
40Ar/39Ar
ages of 422±1 Ma and 397±1 Ma hydrothermal 25 / 77
554
quartz from the Banxi Sb deposit (Peng et al., 2003) contrast with a Sm-Nd
555
isochron age of 130±2 Ma from stibnite with relatively high contents of Sm (2.5-
556
1.2 ppm) and Nd (10.8-1.5 ppm), a Rb-Sr isochron age of 129±2 Ma from
557
stibnite and arsenopyrite with relatively high contents of Rb (7 stibnite
558
separations, 35.3-4.0 ppm; 3 arsenopyrite separations, 1.3-0.7 ppm) and Sr (7
559
stibnite separations, 110.2-3.8 ppm; 3 arsenopyrite separations, 8.0-1.7 ppm)
560
and three detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages of 129 ± 3 – 121 ± 12 Ma (Li et al., 2018;
561
Fu et al., 2019b). Four less robust Sm-Nd isochron ages of calcite and stibnite,
562
calcite, and quartz and six (U-Th)/He ages for inherited zircon from altered
563
rocks constrain the timing of the Xikuangshan Sb deposit at 156-117 Ma (Hu,
564
1995; Hu et al., 1996; Peng et al., 2002; Fu et al., 2019a). Combined with the
565
evidence that the Xikuangshan deposit is controlled by post-Triassic folds and
566
that Sb mineralization at Banxi post-dates Jurassic dikes (Luo, 1989; Peng et
567
al., 2002), these data are best interpreted to indicate an Early Cretaceous Sb
568
mineralization event. This contrasts with evidence from Au-Sb deposits that
569
suggests formation during earlier events.
570 571
8. Discussion
572
8.1. Interpretation of the structural geometries of the Au-(Sb) mineralization
573
In the Jiangnan Orogen, the Au and Au-Sb deposits are typically distributed
574
along first-order crustal scale faults. This is interpreted to mean that these faults
575
were connected to deep fluid and metal source areas, and focused fluid flux in 26 / 77
576
the fault zone and transferred fluid to higher crustal levels at suitable P-T
577
conditions for metal deposition. Jogs along these first-order faults commonly
578
are favorable locations for focusing high auriferous ore-fluid flux and deposition
579
of gold (Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019b), not only in this Orogen but
580
also for many Au districts in the world, such as the orogenic goldfields in the
581
Yilgarn Craton, Australia (Weinberg et al., 2004) and the Jiaodong Peninsula,
582
China (Deng et al., 2003, 2015, 2019; Yang et al., 2014b, 2016; Guo et al.,
583
2014, 2017).
584
The low strain conditions, high inferred permeability and large surface
585
areas for fluid-rock reactions in the subparallel or oblique second- and third-
586
order fault zones along the jogs in the first-order faults make them favorable
587
locations for Au-(Sb) mineralization. Again, this is also common in lode Au-(Sb)
588
deposit worldwide (Groves et al., 1987, 2018; Robert et al., 2005). The
589
equivalent strike-slip movement on pairs of the NNE- to NE-trending second-
590
order brittle faults caused rotation and torsional forces within blocks between
591
them (Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018b) at Pre-Cretaceous deposits like
592
Huangjindong and Wangu. In combination with thrust faults of the NW-E-W-
593
trending third-order faults, these second-order faults resulted in mineralized
594
corridors oblique to the strike of the Au-(Sb) ore bodies (Figs. 6a and 12).
595
The association of NW-E-W-trending shear veins and extension veins on
596
their hangingwall, the striations on the fault plane, and the drag folds associated
597
with the veins indicate a thrust-faulting control on the Au mineralization in the 27 / 77
598
Pre-Cretaceous Huangjindong, Wangu and similar goldfields in the Orogen
599
(e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b). Many of these trust faults were formed by the
600
reactivation of pre-ore faults or flexural bedding-plane slip during a tight folding
601
event. A combination of these NW-E-W-trending ore-controlling thrust faults
602
and NNE-NE-trending sinistral strike-slip faults indicates a general N-S-
603
trending regional maximum stress (e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b).
604
A few Au deposits with unknown mineralization ages in the western part of
605
the Orogen (eastern Guizhou), such as the Bake, Kengtou, Tongluoping and
606
Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposits (Fig. 9), that are controlled by open folds show
607
similar structural geometries to those of Carlin-type gold deposits, such as the
608
Taipingdong and Shuiyindong deposits, in southwestern Guizhou, 550
609
kilometers away, that formed during continent-scale post-orogenic extension
610
(Peng et al., 2014; Hou et al., 2016; Wang and Groves, 2018). However, Wu
611
and Yu (1998) and Wang et al. (2006) argued that the gold veins at the Tonggu-
612
Huaqiao (Fig. 10) and Bake Au deposits were controlled by thrust faults which
613
formed during or after a pre-ore folding event.
614
In contrast, Au and Sb deposits with unknown mineralization ages at
615
Fanjingshan in the southwestern Jiangnan Orogen, which are controlled by the
616
curvilinear detachment Fanjingshan Fault (Fig. 9), are most likely formed at an
617
extensional environment, although further confirmation by detailed structural
618
geology research at district- to deposit-scales is required.
619
Locally, the pre-ore barren quartz veins provided competent hosts for later 28 / 77
620
Au mineralization like many other competent geological units in other lode-Au
621
deposits, such as that in in the South Island of New Zealand (Christie and
622
Brathwaite, 2003; Craw et al., 2006; Groves et al., 2018). The contacts between
623
competent magmatic dikes and less competent rocks played a similar role in
624
some Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen, such as at the Xiangtan
625
Au occurrence and Fuzhuxi Au-Sb deposit (Bao et al., 2002; Liu, 2017), and
626
worldwide (Groves et al., 2000; Robert, 2001).
627
The currently known structural geometries of Pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-
628
Sb deposits, such as the Huangjindong and Wangu Au deposits, and the
629
Longshan Au-Sb deposit, indicate a transpressional structural environment for
630
the mineralization, which resembles that of typical orogenic deposits (Cox et
631
al., 1995; Groves et al., 2018). In contrast, Au and Au-Sb deposits at
632
Fanjingshan are interpreted to indicate an extensional setting for mineralization,
633
like many Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits related to metamorphic core
634
complexes in eastern China (Yang et al., 2016 and references therein). The
635
structural environment for the Early Cretaceous (pre-ore granite zircon U-Pb
636
age of 142 Ma and post-ore granitic dikes
637
al., 2017b) Dayan Au prospect is to be determined as there is little structural
638
work reported.
639
8.2. Interpretation of the structural geometries of Sb mineralization
40Ar/39Ar
ages of 130 Ma; Deng et
640
As for the Au and Au-Sb deposits, the Sb deposits are distributed along
641
regional first-order faults (Fig. 1). However, first-order ore-controlling faults host 29 / 77
642
some Sb deposits in contrast to the lack of a direct association with Au and Au-
643
Sb deposits. Instead of an association with the second or third-order faults, a
644
significant amount of the Sb mineralization at the giant Xikuangshan Sb deposit
645
formed in pre-ore anticlines (Fig. 7a, b). The relatively flat Sb orebodies are
646
hosted by anticlines, but themselves show no obvious signals for
647
compressional deformation (Fig. 7a, b). Together with geological evidence that
648
normal faults either host mineralization or restrict its extent, these features
649
indicate that the Xikuangshan deposit formed in an extensional regime (Yi and
650
Shan, 1994; Fig. 13). Interestingly, the Xikuangshan Sb deposit also has a
651
similar structural geometry to that of contemporaneous (Early Cretaceous) or
652
earlier (Late Triassic) Carlin-type gold deposits from southwestern Guizhou that
653
formed in an extensional environment (Hu et al., 2016; Wang and Groves, 2018
654
and references therein). Although, in plan view, the complex vein system of the
655
broadly contemporaneous Banxi Sb deposit appears to be formed in
656
compression, the veins are dominantly vertical and hence more compatible with
657
formation under an extensional regime. Incidentally, the broadly coeval (~142-
658
130 Ma; Deng et al., 2017b) Dayan Au prospect may also form under extension.
659
Although the mineralization ages of Sb deposits along the Fanjingshan Fault
660
are unknown, they are also best interpreted to have formed in an extensional
661
setting, as for the Xikuangshan and Banxi deposits (Fig. 9).
662
8.3. Geodynamic setting and related significant geological events
663
Geological and robust geochronological data presented above suggest two 30 / 77
664
main Au events in the Triassic (~235 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (~142-130 Ma),
665
two main Au-Sb events in the Early Devonian (~402 Ma) and Late Triassic-
666
Middle Jurassic (~224-163 Ma: possibly equivalent to the two Au events), and
667
one Sb event in the Early Cretaceous (~130 Ma). There are other possible Au
668
events in the Neoproterozoic or even older, and Ordovician to Early Devonian,
669
but these are constrained only by limited geological evidence and a few non-
670
robust mineralization ages (Figs. 2 and 14).
671
The possible Neoproterozoic or older Au events may relate to pre-
672
Neoproterozoic metamorphism or Neoproterozoic accretionary and collisional
673
orogeny between the Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks (Figs. 2 and 14a). This is
674
not discussed further as, currently, there are no economic deposits related to
675
these events defined in the Jiangnan Orogen.
676
The structural geometries of the pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-Sb orebodies
677
all indicate a transpressional environment with general N-S-trending regional
678
principal stress (e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b). Thus, the Ordovician to Early
679
Devonian Au mineralization, that is poorly constrained by both geological and
680
less reliable isotope ages ranging from ~440-380 Ma, and the Early Devonian
681
(~402 Ma) Au-Sb event indicated by a Sm–Nd isochron age of scheelite, could
682
be linked to the contemporaneous intracontinental orogeny between the
683
Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks (Figs. 2 and 14b). The better-constrained
684
Triassic Au and Au-Sb events are best interpreted to relate to distal effects of
685
the collision between the North and South China blocks (Figs. 2 and 14c). 31 / 77
686
In contrast, the extensional Early Cretaceous Au (Dayan) and Sb
687
(Xikuangshan and Banxi) mineralization events are most likely to relate to the
688
distal effects of rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate since ~135 Ma (Figs. 2 and
689
14d; Li et al., 2013), which also overlapped with the time of formation of the
690
Basin-and-Range-like topography in the Orogen, which controls the present
691
distribution of the deposits. It is possible the extensional Fanjingshan Au, Au-
692
Sb and Sb mineralization events relate to the same geodynamic event, but
693
there a no reliable isotopic ages to confirm this.
694
8.4. Structural constraints on genesis of the Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits
695
With few exceptions, the pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-Sb deposits in the
696
Jiangnan Orogen show no spatial association with granite intrusions (Figs. 1,
697
3, 4 and 5). In addition, geological and geochemical features of typical granite-
698
related deposits, such as zoned alteration and metal zonation, from proximal
699
Au-Bi-Te to distal Ag-Pb-Zn assemblages (Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998; Lang
700
et al., 2000; Zu et al., 2015, 2016; Qiu et al., 2016, 2017), are lacking in these
701
pre-Cretaceous deposits. Furthermore, the fluid inclusion thermometry data,
702
alteration mineral assemblages and mineralogical thermometers indicate
703
mineralization temperatures over a range of 350-200 °C (e.g., Zhao et al., 2013;
704
Liu et al., 2017; Deng et al., 2017b; Sun et al., 2018, 2019), significantly lower
705
than magmatic-hydrothermal temperatures (>500 °C). Therefore, an intrusion-
706
related origin can be discounted for these pre-Cretaceous Au-(Sb) deposits in
707
the Jiangnan Orogen. The late structural control on the Au and Au-Sb deposits 32 / 77
708
clearly precludes previously-suggested stratabound, syngenetic and SEDEX-
709
type models for these deposits. The new term of intracontinental tectonic
710
reactivation type deposit, which is rarely used in the literature, reflects the
711
complex histories of the ore-controlling structures and the complex sources of
712
the gold (Xu et al., 2017).
713
Furthermore, the geochemical features of these pre-Cretaceous Au and
714
Au-Sb deposits, such as their C-H-O-S-Pb isotopic compositions, resemble that
715
of orogenic Au-(Sb) deposits (Dong et al., 2008; Dong, 2014; Liu, 2017; Zhang
716
et al., 2018b), as originally defined by Groves et al. (1998).
717
Together with these geological and geochemical features, the repetitive
718
structural geometries that control the pre-Cretaceous Au-(Sb) mineralization
719
constrain genetic models for the deposits. The transpressional ore-forming
720
structural environment and the geodynamic setting of the deposits confirm an
721
orogenic model for these deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen in terms of the
722
classification of Groves et al. (1998) and the critical characteristics described
723
by Goldfarb et al. (2005).
724
The Early Cretaceous Dayan Au prospect, close to the Late Jurassic to
725
Early Cretaceous Lianyunshan granite intrusion (Deng et al., 2017b), is an
726
exception as it formed in an extensional environment and may be a rare
727
intrusion-related gold deposit. The coeval Sb deposits that formed in the same
728
geodynamic setting can be classified as epizonal, rather than epithermal
729
deposits because of their strong structural control and lack of coeval granite 33 / 77
730
intrusions or volcanic rocks that could have been the heat source to drive an
731
epithermal system (Simmons et al., 2005). The genesis of the poorly
732
documented Fanjingshan Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits is unknown.
733
8.5. Significance to regional Au and Sb exploration
734
Based on the new understanding of the structural controls on Au-(Sb)
735
mineralization in the Orogen, documentation and interpretation of critical
736
structural geometries is important for future exploration in the Jiangnan Orogen.
737
Critical criteria for future exploration and targeting of pre-Cretaceous orogenic
738
Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen include: (1) jogs along crustal-
739
scale strike-slip faults; (2) fault corridors defined by NNE- to NE-trending
740
second-order faults that contain discontinuous oblique WNW to E-W-trending
741
thrust-asymmetrical fold deformation zones and related faults; (3) intersections
742
of NNE- to NE-trending faults with NW to E-W-trending thrust faults or folds;
743
and (4) competent quartz veins and contacts between dikes and less-
744
competent host rocks that may host superimposed Au-Sb mineralization. More
745
Au resources are also expected beneath known relatively-shallow Au-Sb
746
mineralization based on the crustal continuum model of orogenic deposits
747
proposed by Groves (1993). This has been verified for several deposits in this
748
region, such as the Anshan Au-Sb deposit in the Huangjindong goldfield (Liu,
749
2017) and the Zhazixi Sb deposit in central part of the Orogen (Kang et al.,
750
2018).
751
Targets for Au formed in extensional environments include: (1) external 34 / 77
752
contact zones of Early Cretaceous granite intrusions, such as the Lianyunshan
753
granite around the Dayan Au prospect, that may contain contemporaneous
754
small magmatic-hydrothermal Au deposits; and (2) detachment faults along
755
unconformities between different strata, such as that in Fanjingshan area.
756
Based on understanding of the structural controls on Sb mineralization in
757
the Jiangnan Orogen, future exploration should focus on the open anticlinal
758
folds in Devonian to Triassic sedimentary rocks where they are cut by late
759
regional faults linked to deep crustal-level detachment faults and there is
760
evidence for vertical quartz veins in slate or similar host rocks.
761 762
9. Conclusions
763
The Jiangnan Orogen, southern China, hosts significant gold and antimony
764
resources. An overview of the published geological maps, cross sections and
765
geochronological data of this region has resulted in the generation of a new
766
province- to deposit-scale interpretation of the mineralization in the Orogen.
767
During Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny between the Yangtze and
768
Cathaysian Blocks, contemporaneous (~402 Ma) orogenic gold-antimony
769
mineralization and possible gold mineralization occurred in second- to third-
770
order faults in jogs along the first-order regional faults in a transpressional
771
tectonic setting. Thereafter, due to the distal effects of the Triassic collision
772
between the North and South China blocks, ~235 Ma orogenic gold and ~224-
773
163 Ma orogenic gold-antimony deposits occurred in similar structural 35 / 77
774
environments in a transpressional regime. In the Early Cretaceous, with the
775
rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate, early Cretaceous (~130 Ma) epizonal
776
antimony mineralization and coeval gold mineralization were controlled by
777
normal faults and pre-ore open folds in an extensional tectonic regime.
778
Based on better understanding of the structural controls on mineralization
779
in the Orogen, future exploration and targeting for pre-Cretaceous orogenic
780
gold and gold-antimony mineralization should be focused on the definition of
781
critical structural geometries, such as jogs along crustal-scale strike-slip faults,
782
mineralized fault corridors defined by subparallel and oblique subsidiary faults,
783
and intersections between faults and faults/folds. Pre-ore competent geological
784
units, including pre-existing quartz veins, are particularly suitable targets within
785
these structural geometries. The potentially deeper extensions of known
786
relatively-shallow epizonal gold-antimony deposits provide additional drill
787
targets for deeper gold mineralization.
788
For antimony deposits formed in extensional environments, future
789
exploration should focus on open anticlinal folds in sedimentary rocks where
790
they are cut by late regional faults linked to deep crustal levels and there is
791
evidence for vertical quartz veins. For gold deposits formed in extensional
792
regimes, external contact zones of Early Cretaceous granite intrusions, such as
793
those of the Lianyunshan granite around the Dayan gold prospect, may contain
794
contemporaneous intrusion-related gold deposits, but these are likely to be
795
small. Detachment faults along unconformities between different strata provide 36 / 77
796
additional targets for gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization.
797 798
Acknowledgements
799
We thank Drs Jun Deng, Richard Goldfarb, Franco Pirajno, Roberto
800
Weinberg, Yu-Cai Song, Kun-Feng Qiu, Yu Wang, Dan-Ping Yan and Liang Qiu
801
for their comments and suggestions for this project. We also acknowledge Peng
802
Qi for the draft of Figure 1, mine geologists Li-Qun Zou, Lan-Ling Yuan, Peng
803
Fan, Zi-Wen Ning, Yue-Guang Li, Xi-Wen Zheng, Ting Wen, Zhi-Qi Li, Fu
804
Zhang and Xue-Jun Zhang for their help in the field and Professor M. Santosh
805
for his editorial handling. This work was financially supported by National
806
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41702070), MOST Special
807
Fund from the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral
808
Resources, China University of Geosciences (Grant No. MSFGPMR201804),
809
and the 111 Project of the Ministry of Science and Technology, China (Grant
810
No. BP0719021).
811 812
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1322 1323
Table captions 60 / 77
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Table 1. Isotopic ages of Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization. An indication of the
1325
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1326
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1327 1328
Figure captions
1329
Fig. 1. (a) Location of Jiangnan Orogen; (b) Geological map of the Jiangnan
1330
Orogen showing the distribution of the regional structures, strata, granites and
1331
the location of Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits. Abbreviation: NCB, North China
1332
Block. Abbreviations for regional faults: ALF, Anhua-Liping; AXF, Anhua-Xupu;
1333
CPF, Changsha-Pingjiang (Chang-Ping) Fault; DYF, Dayong Fault; JSF,
1334
Jiangshan-Shaoxing (Jiaoshao) Fault; LHF, Liling-Hengdong Fault; TCF,
1335
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1336
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1337 1338
Fig. 2. An interpretation of the evolution of sedimentation, tectonics, magmatism
1339
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1340
Block, based on the studies in Shu (2006, 2012), YQ Zhang et al. (2012); Zhang
1341
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1342 1343
Fig. 3. Geological map of the Chang-Ping Fault Zone in the central Jiangnan
1344
Orogen showing the distribution of goldfields and Au deposits therein.
1345
Abbreviations for granites: BSP, Banshanpu; CSB, Changsanbei; DWS, 61 / 77
1346
Daweishan; GTL, Getengling; HXQ, Hongxiaqiao; JJ, Jinjing; JXL, Jiaoxiling;
1347
LYS, Lianyunshan; MFS, Mufushan; QBS, Qibaoshan; WX, Wangxiang; ZF,
1348
Zhangfang. Modified from Xu et al. (2017).
1349 1350
Fig. 4. Geological map of the Anhua-Liping and Anhua-Xupu fault zones in the
1351
western Jiangnan Orogen showing the distribution of goldfields and Au deposits
1352
therein. Modified from Wang et al. (2006).
1353 1354
Fig. 5. Geological map of the central to north-western Jiangnan Orogen
1355
showing the distribution of goldfields and Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits therein.
1356
Modified from Li et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2018a). Abbreviations for
1357
granites: BMS, Baimashan; HMY, Huangmaoyuan; GDM, Guandimiao; WS,
1358
Weishan; WWT, Wawutang; XM, Xiema; ZYS, Ziyunshan.
1359 1360
Fig. 6. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Huangjindong goldfield
1361
along the Chang-Ping Fault showing the distribution of the Au and Au-Sb
1362
deposits and orebodies therein in the context of folds and faults. Modified from
1363
Zhang et al. (2018b).
1364 1365
Fig. 7. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Xikuangshan Sb deposit
1366
in the central Jiangnan Orogen. Modified from Liu and Jian (1983) and Hu and
1367
Peng (2018). 62 / 77
1368 1369
Fig. 8. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Jinshan goldfield in the
1370
eastern Jiangnan Orogen showing the distribution of the Au orebodies. Modified
1371
from Wei (1996), Li et al. (2010) and Zhao et al. (2013).
1372 1373
Fig. 9. Geological map of the Fanjingshan district in southwestern Jiangnan
1374
Orogen showing the distribution of Au and Sb deposits therein. Modified from
1375
Wang et al. (2006).
1376 1377
Fig. 10. Cross section of the Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposit in the western
1378
Jiangnan Orogen showing an ore-controlling anticline. Modified from Wu and
1379
Yu (1998).
1380 1381
Fig. 11. Histograms of isotopic ages of Au (a), Au-Sb (b) and Sb deposits (c) in
1382
the Jiangnan Orogen. Data sources are referenced in Table 1. This histogram
1383
emphasizes the lack of reliable and robust isotopic ages for Jiangnan
1384
mineralization events.
1385 1386
Fig. 12. A geological model showing the formation of typical pre-Cretaceous
1387
Au-(Sb) deposits at deposit scale. Modified from Zhang et al. (2018b, 2019b).
1388 1389
Fig. 13. A geological model showing the formation of typical Early Cretaceous 63 / 77
1390
Sb deposits at deposit scale. Modified from Hu and Peng. (2018).
1391 1392
Fig. 14. A simplified plate-tectonic model showing the evolution of the Jiangnan
1393
Orogen and the formation of the Au, Au-Sb, and Sb mineralization. (a) an Early
1394
Neoproterozoic continental collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysian
1395
blocks, and a related poorly-defined and relatively unimportant Au
1396
mineralization event; (b) Early Paleozoic intracontinental orogeny between the
1397
Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks, and related Au (?) and Au-Sb mineralization
1398
event; (c) continental collision between the North China and South China blocks
1399
with related, but distal, Au and Au-Sb mineralization event(s); (d) Early
1400
Cretaceous distal rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate, and related Sb
1401
mineralization and minor Au mineralization. Modified from Shu (2012); Li et al.
1402
(2013); Zhang et al. (2013).
1403 1404
Highlights
1405
Multiple Au, Au-Sb and Sb events related to complex tectonic evolution of Orogen.
1406 1407
Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny and related Au-Sb mineralization.
1408 64 / 77
1409
Triassic distal effect of collisional orogeny and related Au-Sb event.
1410 1411
Early Cretaceous Sb and Au events linked to rollback of paleo-Pacific Plate.
1412 1413
Definition of structural geometries is critical for future exploration targeting.
1414 1415
1416
65 / 77
1417
1418
66 / 77
1419
1420 67 / 77
1421
68 / 77
1422
1423
69 / 77
1424
1425
70 / 77
1426
71 / 77
1427
1428
72 / 77
1429
Table 1
1430 N o.
Regio n
Occur rence
Material Analyzed
Method
73 / 77
Age (Ma)
Err or (Ma
Reference s
, 2σ) Pings hui
1 2 3 4 5
Zhejia ng (Easte rn Jiangn an Oroge n)
Huan gshan
6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5
Jiangxi (Easte rn Jiangn an Oroge n)
Jinsha n
Huan gjindo ng Northe astern Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge n)
Wang u Dado ng Daya n Tuans hanbe i Yanlin si
Mineralization ages for gold deposits Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 450. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 396. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Rb–Sr 358. Gold ores isochron 0 Muscovite in auriferous 40 39 345. Ar/ Ar quartz vein 0 Muscovite in auriferous 343. K-Ar quartz vein 0 Muscovite in auriferous 325. K-Ar quartz vein 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 754. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 751. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 406. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 379. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Ultramylonite with Rb–Sr 717. quartz veins isochron 0 Rb–Sr 167. Ilite isochron 9 660. 040 39 Hydrothermal sericite Ar/ Ar 560. 0 317. Illite K-Ar 9 299. Illite K-Ar 5 269. Illite K-Ar 9 Rb–Sr 838. Pyrite isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 462. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 152. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 425. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 70.7 hydrothermal quartz isochron Hydrothermal 130. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 0 Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz
21. 0 34. 0 22. 0 / / / 62. 0 98. 0 25. 0 49. 0 6.0 / / 1.8 2.7 1.7 110 .0 18. 0 13. 0 33. 0 2.2 1.4
Ni et al. (2015) Chen and Xu (1996) Chen and Xu (1996) Ye et al. (1993) Ye et al. (1993) Ye et al. (1993) Wang et al. (2018) Zhao (2013) Wang et al. (1999) Mao et al. (2008) Zhang (1994) Wu and Liu (1989) Li et al. (2007) Li et al. (2002) Li et al. (2002) Li et al. (2002) Mao et al. (2008) Han et al. (2010) Dong et al. (2008) Han et al. (2010) Dong et al. (2008) Deng et al. (2017b)
Rb–Sr isochron
222. 4
9.4
Han et al. (2010)
Electron Spin Resonance Electron Spin Resonance
214. 2 177. 4
21. 0 17. 0
Huang et al. (2012) Huang et al. (2012)
74 / 77
2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1
4 2
Hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz
South wester n Hunan (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0
South easter n Guizh ou (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
176. 5 155. 0 115. 8 107. 4 108. 2 160. 7
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
98.0
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron
244. 0 205. 6 204. 8
K-feldspar
K-Ar
Mobin
K-feldspar
K-Ar
Fuzhu xi
Mineralized graniteporphyry
K-Ar
Pingji angLiuya ng
Weste rn Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n)
Electron Spin Resonance Electron Spin Resonance
Chanz iping Dapin g Shenji aya Liulinc hai
90.6 412. 5 404. 2 209. 9 418. 0 412. 0
17. 0 16. 0 17. 3 19. 5 16. 8 24. 8 20. 3 7.0 9.4 6.3 3.2 / / 3.4
Huang et al. (2012) Huang et al. (2012) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Ma et al. (2016) Li et al. (2008) Li et al. (2008) Chen et al. (2008) Wang et al. (1999) Wang et al. (1999) Yao and Zhu (1993) Peng and Dai (1998) Peng and Dai (1998)
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron
Yang watua n
Hydrothermal quartz
40Ar/39Ar
381. 0
1.0
Peng et al. (2003)
Bake
Arsenopyrite
Re-Os isochron
410. 0
52. 0
Gu et al. (2016)
Shuiyi nchan g
Whole rock
Rb–Sr isochron
406. 0
29. 0
Jia et al. (1993)
Rb–Sr isochron Re-Os isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Re–Os isochron Re-Os isochron
340. 0 174. 0 477. 0 425. 0 400. 0 235. 3
16. 0 15. 0 14. 0 16. 0 24. 0
Zhu et al. (2006) Wang et al. (2011) Zhu et al. (2006) Zhu et al. (2006) Wang et al. (2011) Gu et al. (2016)
Xiaoji a
Jinjing
Whole rock
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Arsenopyrite
Pingq iu
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Arsenopyrite Arsenopyrite
75 / 77
4.0 33. 0
3.4
5 1
5 2
5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3
6 4
6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8
Northe rn Guang xi (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
Centra l Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge n) North wester n Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n) South wester n Hunan (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n) Centra l Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge
Jintou
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
430. 0
44. 0
Zhu et al. (2006)
Fensh uiao
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
166. 4
25. 7
Wang and Zhang (1997)
Mineralization ages for gold-antimony deposits Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 175. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Sm–Nd 210. Scheelite isochron 0 Long shan Re-Os 195. Pyrite isochron 0 Hydrothermal 162. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 5 331. Hydrothermal sericite K-Ar 0 Gutai shan Hydrothermal 223. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 6 420. 40 39 Hydrothermal quartz Ar/ Ar 0 414. 40Ar/39A Hydrothermal quartz 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 144. Woxi hydrothermal quartz isochron 8 281. Altered rocks K-Ar 0 Sm–Nd 402. Scheelite isochron 0
Pingc ha
Xikua ngsha n
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
435. 0
Mineralization ages for antimony deposits Hydrothermal calcite, Sm–Nd 156. stibnite isochron 3 Sm–Nd 155. Hydrothermal calcite isochron 5 Sm–Nd 124. Hydrothermal calcite isochron 1 155. Zircon in altered rocks (U-Th)/He 9 76 / 77
27. 0
20. 0 19. 0 11. 7
Shi et al. (1993) Zhang et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2016) Zhang et al. (2018a) Peng and Dai (1998) Li et al. (2018) Peng et al. (2003) Peng et al. (2003) Shi et al. (1993)
/
Luo (1989)
6.0
Peng et al. (2003)
9.0
Peng and Dai (1998)
2.0 36. 0 1.8 / 5.3
12. 0 1.1 3.7 12. 6
Hu et al. (1996) Peng et al. (2002) Peng et al. (2002) Fu et al. (2019a)
6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3
n)
7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He 40Ar/39Ar
7 4 7 5
Zircon in altered rocks
Hydrothermal quartz North wester n Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n)
Hydrothermal quartz Stibnite Banxi Arsenopyrite, stibnite
(youngest apparent age) 40Ar/40Ar (youngest apparent age) Sm–Nd isochron Rb-Sr isochron
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
142. 6 135. 6 131. 7 126. 0 117. 2
17. 8 9.4 11. 2 12. 0 14. 0
Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a)
422. 2
0.2
Peng et al. (2003)
397. 4
0.4
Peng et al. (2003)
130. 4 129. 4 129. 0 125. 0 121. 0
1.9 2.4 3.0 10. 0 12. 0
Li et al. (2018) Li et al. (2018) Fu et al. (2019b) Fu et al. (2019b) Fu et al. (2019b)
1431 1432 1433 1434
Conflict of interest
1435
No conflict of interest exits in the submission of this manuscript, and the
1436
manuscript is approved by all authors for publication. I would like to declare on
1437
behalf of my co-authors that the work described is original research that has
1438
not been published previously, and is not under consideration for publication
1439
elsewhere, in whole or in part.
1440
77 / 77
S0169-1368(19)30652-3 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103173 OREGEO 103173
To appear in:
Ore Geology Reviews
Received Date: Revised Date: Accepted Date:
18 July 2019 1 October 2019 9 October 2019
Please cite this article as: L. Zhang, L-Q. Yang, D.I. Groves, S-C. Sun, Y. Liu, J-Y. Wang, R-H. Li, S-G. Wu, L. Gao, J-L. Guo, X-G. Chen, J-H. Chen, An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen, southern China, Ore Geology Reviews (2019), doi: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.oregeorev.2019.103173
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© 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1
An overview of timing and structural geometry of gold, gold-
2
antimony and antimony mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen,
3
southern China
4 5
Liang Zhang a, Li-Qiang Yang
6
c,
7
Xiao-Gang Chen d, Jun-Hui Chen d
a *,
David I. Groves
a, b,
Si-Chen Sun a, Yu Liu
Jiu-Yi Wang a, Rong-Hua Li a, Sheng-Gang Wu d, Lei Gao d, Jin-Long Guo d,
8 9
a
State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China
10
University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
11
b Centre
12
Australia
13
c College
14
d Hunan
for Exploration Targeting, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009,
of Resources, Hebei GEO University, Shijiazhuang 050031, China
Huangjindong Mining Co. Ltd., Hunan 414507, China
15 16
Revised manuscript submitted to Ore Geology Reviews (1-Oct-2019)
17 18 19
a,
*Corresponding author: Li-Qiang Yang State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources
20
China University of Geosciences
21
29# Xue-Yuan Road, Haidian District
22
Beijing 100083, China
23
Phone: (+86-10) 8232 1937 (O)
24
Fax: (+86-10) 8232 1006
25
Email: [email protected] 1 / 77
26
Abstract
27
The Jiangnan Orogen, located between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks
28
in southern China, hosts significant gold and antimony resources. Long-
29
standing controversies over the number and precise timing of gold, gold-
30
antimony and antimony mineralization event(s), and the genesis of these
31
deposits, limit the understanding and exploration of this giant gold and antimony
32
system. Together with geological evidence, a critical review of the published
33
geochronological data of these deposits suggest that there were two gold
34
events in the Triassic (~235 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (~142-130 Ma), two
35
gold-antimony events in the Early Devonian (~402 Ma) and Late Triassic-
36
Middle Jurassic (~224-163 Ma: possibly equivalent to the two gold events), and
37
one antimony event in the Early Cretaceous (~130 Ma). There are other
38
possible gold events in the Neoproterozoic or at an even older age, and
39
Ordovician to Early Devonian, which are constrained only by limited geological
40
evidence and a few non-robust isotopic ages. The regional distribution of the
41
gold, gold-antimony and antimony districts, and deposits therein, reveal a first-
42
order control on the mineralization by crustal scale faults which acted as ore-
43
forming fluid pathways connected to deep fluid and metal source areas.
44
Second- and third-order faults that are situated along the jogs of the first-order
45
faults, especially fault corridors defined by NNE-NE-trending second-order
46
faults and third-order NW to E-W-trending discontinuous oblique faults,
47
provided favorable locations for Pre-Cretaceous gold-(antimony) mineralization. 2 / 77
48
In addition, NE-trending open anticlines, linked to deep crustal levels by first-
49
order faults, host significant antimony and minor gold mineralization, and the
50
curvilinear Fanjingshan detachment Fault hosts some minor gold and antimony
51
deposits. Locally, at deposit to orebody-scales, pre-ore barren quartz veins and
52
magmatic dikes were the loci for mineralization in some gold-antimony deposits.
53
The structural geometry of the pre-Cretaceous gold and gold-antimony deposits
54
suggests an Early Devonian orogenic gold-antimony mineralization event
55
during a transpressional tectonic regime related to coeval intracontinental
56
orogeny between the Yangtze and Cathaysian Blocks. In contrast, Triassic
57
orogenic gold and Triassic-Middle Jurassic orogenic gold-antimony events are
58
interpreted to relate to distal effects of the collision between the North and
59
South China blocks. The structurally-contrasting major Early Cretaceous
60
epizonal antimony mineralization event, together with contemporaneous minor
61
hydrothermal gold mineralization, is interpreted to have been controlled by
62
normal faults and pre-ore open folds in an extensional tectonic regime related
63
to the distal effects of rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate after ~135 Ma. For
64
future geoscience-based exploration in the Orogen, documentation and
65
interpretation of critical structural geometries of gold, gold-antimony and
66
antimony deposits is a vital step towards successful target generation.
67
Key words: Structural geometry; Geochronology; Orogenic gold-(antimony)
68
deposits; Antimony deposits; Jiangnan Orogen
69 3 / 77
70
1. Introduction
71
The Jiangnan Orogen, located between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks
72
in southern China, hosts significant gold (hereafter Au) and antimony (hereafter
73
Sb) resources (Fig. 1; Deng et al., 2017a; Xu et al., 2017; Hu and Peng, 2018).
74
This well-endowed orogen ranks as the largest Sb resource in the world and
75
the third largest Au resource in China (Wu, 1993; Zhou et al., 2014; Deng and
76
Wang, 2016). The Au and Sb deposits in the orogen are dominated by both
77
lode-Au and lode-Au-Sb deposits, and contrasting stratabound Sb deposits
78
(Mao et al., 1997; Peng et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a).
79
Most Au and Au-Sb deposits are hosted in Neoproterozoic metamorphic rocks,
80
whereas the majority of the Sb deposits are hosted in Paleozoic sedimentary
81
rocks, with only a few hosted in Neoproterozoic slates (Fig. 1). Tungsten, mainly
82
in the form of scheelite, is a common by-product in processing of the Au and
83
Au-Sb ores. Most Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits are small and scattered
84
throughout the orogen, but there are also world-class deposits such as the
85
Jinshan Au deposit and Xikuangshan Sb deposit, the largest Sb deposit globally
86
(Zhao et al., 2013; Hu and Peng, 2018). All Au and Sb deposits are controlled
87
by fold-fault systems that have no consistent spatial relationships with granitic
88
intrusions that are widespread in the orogen.
89
Despite decades of research, there are very few studies concerned with
90
the structural control on the regional distribution of the Au, Au-Sb and Sb
91
deposits, which is the key for regional exploration in the Orogen. However, the 4 / 77
92
structural geometries and controls on several individual deposits have been
93
documented (e.g., He et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2015; Wen et al., 2016). The
94
timing of all mineralization styles also has been very poorly constrained, with
95
highly variable ages of ~900 Ma to 70 Ma derived from many different
96
radiogenic isotope methods (Table 1; Mao et al., 1997; Dong et al., 2008; Han
97
et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2017b; Fu et al., 2019a, b; Zhang
98
et al., 2018a, 2019a). This has resulted in historical controversy on the genesis
99
of both Au and Au-Sb deposits and the Sb deposits and on the nature of the
100
temporal relationship between them. Descriptive terminology includes the
101
classification of Au and Au-Sb deposits as stratabound, syngenetic,
102
intracontinental tectonic reactivation, magmatic-hydrothermal, SEDEX-type or
103
orogenic Au deposits (Luo, 1988; Ma and Liu, 1992; Hu et al., 1998; Gu et al.,
104
2005; Jia and Peng, 2005; Deng et al., 2017b; Zhang et al., 2018b), and the Sb
105
deposits as stratabound, magmatic-hydrothermal, epizonal, epithermal,
106
mesothermal, syngenetic or SEDEX-type deposits (Zhan et al., 1993; Yi and
107
Shan, 1994; Hu, 1995; Liu et al., 2002; Hu and Peng, 2018). Clearly, a critical
108
overview of data at the orogen scale is required to bring clarity to the
109
metallogenesis of the Jiangnan Orogen.
110
In this study, a critical review of published geological maps has resulted in
111
the generation of a new regional-scale geological interpretation of the Jiangnan
112
Orogen. Within this context, structural timing and structural geometry of the ore-
113
controlling fold-fault systems are combined with geochronological data from the 5 / 77
114
ores in an attempt to understand the structural controls on Au, Au-Sb and Sb
115
mineralization at regional- to deposit- scales. This allows the formulation of a
116
genetic model for Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization in relation to the major
117
geological events within the context of the geodynamic setting at the time that
118
each deposit type was formed. The potential significance of this new
119
metallogenic model to regional exploration philosophy is also discussed.
120 121
2. Geology and tectonic evolution of the Jiangnan Orogen
122
2.1. Definition, extent and general evolution of the orogen
123
The Jiangnan Orogen is one of the most remarkable orogens in eastern
124
Asia. This NE-ENE-trending orogen was formed by Neoproterozoic accretion
125
and subsequent collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysia Blocks in
126
southern China (Fig. 1; Shu, 2012). Spatially, the extent of the orogen is defined
127
by the exposures of Neoproterozoic metamorphosed sedimentary and minor
128
mafic rocks and widespread granite (used sensu lato throughout) intrusions
129
(Wang et al., 2017). The orogen is clearly bordered by the Jiangshan-Shaoxing
130
(Jiangshao) Fault to the southeast, whereas its indistinct boundaries to the
131
southwest, west and northwest are defined by the limit of exposure of
132
Neoproterozoic strata without clear structural boundaries, due to a combination
133
of the extended tectonic evolution of the orogeny and the thick Quaternary
134
sediment and forest cover.
135
The orogen had a complex evolution within the context of that of the whole 6 / 77
136
south China Block (Fig. 2) as summarized by Shu (2006, 2012), Wang et al.
137
(2012) and Zhang et al. (2013). This included: (1) an Early Neoproterozoic (1.0-
138
0.8 Ga) history, from subduction of the Paleo-South China Ocean plate
139
(Cathaysian) under the Jiuling Terrain (Yangtze) to continental collision
140
between the Yangtze and Cathaysian Blocks; (2) Late Neoproterozoic (800-
141
680 Ma) continental break-up and intracontinental sedimentation; (3) Early
142
Paleozoic intracontinental orogeny and final convergence of the Yangtze and
143
Cathaysian blocks; (4) Early Mesozoic folding and thrusting related to the
144
continental collision between the North China Block and South China Block;
145
and (5) Late Mesozoic formation of the Basin-and-Range-like topography after
146
the transition from Tethyan to paleo-Pacific tectonic domains.
147
2.2. Lithostratigraphy
148
The basement of the orogen is dominated by Neoproterozoic slates and
149
other metasedimentary rocks (Fig. 1). The Neoproterozoic strata can be further
150
divided into a lower segment comprising the slates of the Lengjiaxi,
151
Shuangqiaoshan, Shangxi, Xikou, Fanjingshan and Sibao Groups, an
152
intermediate segment composed of slates and metasedimentary rocks of the
153
Banxi Group, and an upper segment of Late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran)
154
formations, such as the Changtan, Guanyintian, Heling and Nantuo formations.
155
All strata have been folded, with lower strata defined by tight folds whereas the
156
intermediate and upper strata have been affected by more open folding.
157
The
sedimentary
cover
of
the 7 / 77
Neoproterozoic
rocks
comprises
158
Phanerozoic oceanic and continental sedimentary rocks which are typically
159
unmetamorphosed, excluding local contact metamorphism around granite
160
intrusions (e.g. Wang et al., 2016).
161
2.3. Granite intrusions
162
A number of granite intrusions are exposed in the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig.
163
1), including: (1) Neoproterozoic granites, such as the Jiuling Massif (Zhong et
164
al., 2005); (2) Late Silurian to Early Devonian intrusions, such as the
165
Banshanpu and Hongxiaqiao granites (Li et al., 2015); (3) Triassic intrusions,
166
including the Ziyunshan and Xiema granites (Peng et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2017a);
167
(4) Early-Middle Jurassic granites, such as the Dexing granodiorite-porphyries
168
(Wang et al., 2004); and (5) Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous intrusions that
169
include the Lianyunshan granite (Wang et al., 2016).
170
Some of these granites, such as the Dexing granodiorite-porphyries and
171
Lianyunshan granites are genetically related to copper-polymetallic porphyry
172
deposits and a few small Au occurrences, such as Dayan near Lianyunshan
173
(Guo et al., 2012; Deng et al., 2017b; Yuan et al., 2018). In addition, a few small
174
Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits, such as the Au and Sb deposits in the Fanjingshan
175
area and Au deposits around the Ziyunshan, Xiema and Baimashan intrusions,
176
show a close spatial relationship to granite intrusions (Wang et al., 2006; Li et
177
al., 2018). In contrast, most granite intrusions have no spatial association with
178
Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits at either regional or deposit scales (Figs. 1 and 3-
179
10). 8 / 77
180
2.4. Structural framework
181
Structures developed in the Jiangnan Orogen commonly include folds,
182
shear zones and faults (Figs. 1, 3, 4 and 5). Basement structures are dominated
183
by folds with WNW to E-W-trending axial surfaces and related faults and some
184
NE-trending folds and faults. Some tight WNW to E-W-trending folds in rocks
185
of the lower segment of the Neoproterozoic strata initially formed during the
186
collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysia blocks and were subsequently
187
refolded during Early Palaeozoic intracontinental orogeny under a similar N-S-
188
trending compressive stress field (HBGMR, 1988), while many other folds were
189
initiated during Early Palaeozoic intracontinental orogeny (HBGMR, 1988; Shu,
190
2012).
191
ENE- to E-W- and NE-trending ductile shear zones, such as the E-W-
192
trending Jinshan and NE-trending Bashiyuan-Tongchang ductile shear zones
193
in the eastern part of the Orogen, and the Jiuling-Qingshui, Lianyunshan-
194
Changsha and Qingcao-Zhuzhou ductile shear zone in the central part of the
195
Orogen, are well developed in the Jiangnan basement rocks. Some shear
196
zones control the location of the Au ores, such as at the Jinshan deposit, in the
197
eastern part of the Orogen.
198
The dominant fault framework is defined by NE-ENE-trending regional
199
faults, such as the Changsha-Pingjiang (Chang-Ping) and Xinning-Huitang
200
(Xin-Hui) faults, which separate Cretaceous basins from Pre-Cretaceous
201
massifs, forming Basin-and-Range-like topography (Wen et al., 2016; Xu et al., 9 / 77
202
2017). These faults crosscut the earlier WNW- to E-trending folds and fold-
203
related faults, and ENE-trending ductile shear zones. These regional faults
204
commonly have a long-lived history with a complex evolution, which can be
205
tracked back to the Caledonian (Silurian) (HBGMR, 1988). Generally, these
206
regional faults underwent Caledonian sinistral strike-slip under Tethyan tectonic
207
stress conditions, followed by Yanshanian (Jurassic) early sinistral and late
208
dextral movement, and then Cretaceous normal faulting under paleo-Pacific
209
tectonic stress conditions (HBGMR, 1988; Li et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2017). In
210
addition, rare NW-trending faults crosscut the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 1).
211
2.5. Metamorphic evolution
212
Metamorphism in the Jiangnan Orogen is dominated by greenschist and
213
even subgreenschist-facies metamorphism, with rarely reported high-grade
214
metamorphism up to amphibolite-facies, or anomalous high-pressure
215
metamorphism (Shu et al., 1994; Guo et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2017). In
216
chronological order, rare Paleoproterozoic amphibolite-facies metamorphism
217
formed the schist, amphibolite, gneiss, and migmatite of the Lianyunshan
218
Group along the Chang-Ping Fault (Guo et al., 2003). Blueschists, formed by
219
high-pressure metamorphism in the eastern part of the Orogen yield a K-Ar age
220
of 866±16 Ma (Shu et al., 1994). The widespread lower segment of the
221
Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks underwent the overprint of at least two
222
generations of metamorphism under conditions not exceeding upper-
223
greenschist-facies during the Late Neoproterozoic and Silurian to Early 10 / 77
224
Devonian (Zhang et al., 2013). The intermediate and upper segments of the
225
Neoproterozoic rocks only underwent lower-greenschist-facies metamorphism
226
during Silurian to Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny (Shu et al., 2008;
227
Shu, 2012).
228 229 230
3. Province-scale structural control 3.1. The paleo-suture zone
231
The paleo-suture zone in this area, which is marked by sporadically
232
distributed ophiolite suites, is generally located along the Jiangshao Fault. The
233
spatial distribution of the Au, Au-Sb, and Sb deposits is partly, but not exactly,
234
parallel to the paleo-suture zone (Fig. 1). This indicates an important, but not
235
exclusive, relationship to this long-lived structure for the Jiangnan Au, Au-Sb
236
and Sb deposits.
237
3.2. Basin-and-Range-like topography
238
Most of the Au deposits are distributed in the uplifts composed of
239
Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks, whereas most Au-Sb and Sb deposits
240
are in the Devonian to Triassic basins (Figs. 1 and 5). It is unclear whether this
241
broad spatial distribution of the deposit types reflects the depth of ore formation
242
and subsequent tectonic uplift and exhumation, or a fundamental genetic
243
control with the Au deposits specifically related in some way to the evolution of
244
the Neoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks, and the Au-Sb and Sb deposits
245
forming in a younger event. 11 / 77
246
3.3. Regional first-order faults
247
Most Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits are broadly distributed along the NE- to
248
ENE-trending first-order fault zones, such as the Anhua-Liping, Anhua-Xupu,
249
Xupu-Jingxian and Chang-Ping faults, within the Orogen, illustrating the first-
250
order structural control on these deposits (Figs. 1, 3, 4 and 5). Gold endowment
251
shows significant variability along these regional NNE-NE-trending first-order
252
faults. For example, the goldfields along the Chang-Ping Fault are commonly
253
situated along curvilinear segments of the Fault where the orientation of the
254
fault segment changes significantly (Fig. 3). Some Au-Sb and Sb deposits show
255
a relatively complex control with both NE- and NW-trending faults influencing
256
the location of the deposits (Fig. 1).
257
The distance between the two individual NE-trending Au belts is about 20-
258
30 km in the western Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 4), whereas that between the Xin-
259
Hui, Chang-Ping and Li-Heng faults in the central part of the Orogen is ~60 km
260
(Fig. 3). Along the Chang-Ping Fault, the distance between the Huangjindong
261
and Liling goldfields is also ~60 km (Fig. 3).
262 263 264
4. District-scale structural control 4.1. Gold-hosting second- or third-order faults
265
Although most Au and Au-Sb deposits are aligned along the regional NNE-
266
NE-trending first-order faults, or more rarely E-W-trending faults, they are
267
typically located along second- or third-order faults (Figs. 3 and 4). This 12 / 77
268
structural geometry resembles that of most lode-Au-(Sb) deposits globally
269
(Groves et al., 2018). These second- and third-order faults are mainly NNE-NE-
270
trending or WNW-E-W-trending structures (Fig. 6). Most of the oblique WNW-
271
E-W-trending faults are related to thrust faulting during or after a pre-ore folding
272
event, while some of the NNE-NE-trending faults are also related to folding,
273
such as those in the Tonggu-Huaqiao Au district (Fig. 4; Wang et al., 2006;
274
Zhang et al., 2018b, 2019b).
275
4.2. Antimony-hosting folds linked to first-order faults
276
Antimony mineralization in the Xikuangshan district, rather than being in
277
the early fold-related second- or third-order faults, is mainly controlled by a
278
relatively open anticline with a NE- striking axial surface which is connected to
279
the deep crust by a regional first-order NE-trending fault (Fig. 7; Hu, 1995; Hu
280
and Peng, 2018).
281
4.3. Gold in fault corridors
282
In goldfields, such as Huangjindong and Wangu along the Chang-Ping
283
Fault zone, central Jiangnan Orogen, Au orebodies are controlled by E-W- to
284
NW-trending third-order bedding-subparallel thrust faults associated with
285
isoclinal “locked-up” folds within corridors defined by NNE- to NE-trending
286
second-order brittle faults (Fig. 6; Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018b,
287
2019b). Similarly, in the ductile shear-zone-controlled Jinshan goldfield,
288
eastern Jiangnan Orogen, individual orebodies are controlled by third-order
289
ENE-E-trending shear zones within corridors defined by the second-order NNE13 / 77
290
trending Baishiyuan-Tongchang and Jiangguang-Fujiawu shear zones (Fig. 8).
291
There are similar corridor-related structural geometries exhibited by many other
292
Au and a few Au-Sb deposits across the Orogen, such as the Jinkengchong-
293
Baojinshan and Chanziping Au deposits, and Anshan Au-Sb deposit at
294
Huangjindong in the central Jiangnan Orogen (Luo, 1993; Zhao and Chen,
295
2006; Zhang et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2019b).
296
4.4. Gold- and antimony-hosting detachment faults
297
In the Fanjingshan area in the southwestern part of the Jiangnan Orogen,
298
many Au and a few Sb deposits are distributed along the curvilinear detachment
299
Fanjingshan Fault, with a few Au and many Sb deposits situated in the footwall
300
of the Fault (Wang et al., 2006; Fig. 9). The Fanjingshan Fault is generally
301
developed along the unconformity between the metasedimentary rocks of the
302
Neoproterozoic Fanjingshan and Banxi Groups (Fig. 9). This illustrates the
303
primary district-scale structural control on the distribution of these deposits in
304
contrast to the dominant control of most deposits by linear structures as
305
presented above. Given that there are no published isotopic ages or
306
descriptions of deposit-scale structural geology work, they are not discussed
307
further.
308 309
5. Deposit-scale structural control
310
5.1. Shear and extension veins
311
Individual orebodies in many Au-(Sb) deposits, such as at Huangjindong 14 / 77
312
and Wangu, comprise both shear and extension veins. For example, in the
313
Huangjindong Au deposit, the major south-dipping orebody 3 comprises
314
relatively steep shear veins with “crack-seal” structures and flat extension veins
315
on both the hangingwall and footwall of the shear veins (Zhang et al., 2019b).
316
In contrast, the north-dipping orebody 1 has relatively flat shear veins and steep
317
extension veins. The slate around the shear and extension veins, together with
318
breccias composed of slate blocks in the quartz veins are typically gold
319
mineralized.
320
The major shear veins at deposit scale typically form subparallel arrays,
321
such as those in the Huangjindong and Wangu Au deposits (Fig. 6a). En
322
echelon veins are also developed in some Sb deposits, such as that in the Banxi
323
Sb deposit (Hu, 1991).
324
In some deposits, there are individual shear and extensional veins with
325
different orientations. For instance, both thick NW-NNW-trending extension
326
veins and narrow sub-economic NNE-trending shear veins are developed in the
327
Zhengchong Au deposit, along the central-south segment of the Chang-Ping
328
Fault (fig. 2 in Sun et al., 2019). However, there is no indication of similar
329
geometries of veins with variable orientation in the relatively well-described
330
NW- and NE-trending Au-Sb veins at the Longshan and Woxi deposits, or the
331
NW-E-W- and NE-ENE-trending Sb veins at the Banxi deposit (Zeng et al.,
332
1998; Liang et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2017; Li et al., 2018).
333
5.2. Jogs along both strike and dip 15 / 77
334
For many deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen, the thickness of orebodies
335
changes abruptly along both strike and dip, although the ore-controlling faults
336
and barren alteration zones are still present (Li, 1995; Wang et al., 2006; Zhang
337
et al., 2019b). In the Huangjindong Au deposit, thick orebodies are typically
338
located on relatively flat fault segments for the north-dipping orebodies (Fig. 6b),
339
while the grade and thickness of orebodies show significant variations typically
340
over 30 meters (Zhang et al., 2019b). There are similar relationships in many
341
deposits, such as the Zhengchong Au deposit (Sun et al., 2019), the Longshan
342
Au-Sb deposit (Bao and Chen, 1995; Kang, 2002; Liu et al., 2008), and the
343
Banxi Sb deposit (Luo, 1995; Zeng et al., 1998; Yu, 2006).
344 345
5.3. Anticlinal folds Anticlines represent one of the most important structural controls on the Au,
346
Au-Sb and Sb mineralization in the Orogen. For example, Groves et al. (2018)
347
and Zhang et al. (2018b) demonstrated that the Huangjindong Au deposits are
348
controlled by thrust faults related to failure of “locked up” tight anticlinal folds
349
with apical angles of 30° (Fig. 6b). Similarly, at the Mobin Au deposit in the
350
western Jiangnan Orogen, orebodies are developed along layer-parallel thrust
351
faults on both limbs of overturned tight anticlinal folds with apical angles of 30°
352
(fig. 4.4 in Wang et al., 2006).
353
In contrast, ore bodies at some Au deposits, such as the Tongluoping,
354
Kengtou and Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposits, are controlled by more open folds
355
with apical angles of 100-120° (Fig. 10; Wu and Yu, 1998; Wang et al., 2006). 16 / 77
356 357 358
At the Xikuangshan Sb deposit, anticlines with apical angles of 90-100° host the majority of the Sb resources (Fig. 7). 5.4. Physical nature of host rocks
359
The physical properties of the host rocks to the ore bodies play an
360
important role in the siting of Au, Au-Sb and Sb ores in the Jiangnan Orogen.
361
At the Huangjindong Au deposit, pre-gold barren quartz veins provided
362
favorable competent hosts for later gold mineralization (Zhang et al., 2019b).
363
The contacts between granite-porphyry dikes with relative high competence
364
and slate with low competence provide favorable locations for faults, and thus
365
for related gold mineralization at the Xiangtan Au occurrence (Liu, 2017), the
366
Fuzhuxi Au deposit and many other deposits in the central and northwestern
367
part of the Orogen (Bao et al., 2002). At the Xikuangshan Sb deposit, shales
368
with low strength and related low fracture-permeability acted as barrier layers
369
to focus ingress of ore-forming fluids (Fig. 7; Liu, 1992; Hu and Peng, 2018).
370 371
6. Geological constraints on timing of Au, Au-Sb, and Sb mineralization
372
6.1. Geological constraints on major early pre-Late Triassic or Jurassic events
373
Most Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen are hosted by
374
Neoproterozoic slate, with a few hosted in Devonian to Triassic strata. In
375
addition, most paleoplacer Au deposits are pre-Mesozoic in age. These
376
deposits are described in the order of the timing constraints they provide.
377
In the western and north-western Jiangnan Orogen, there is paleoplacer 17 / 77
378
Au in both the Neoproterozoic basal conglomerates of the Banxi Group, that
379
overlie slate of the Lengjiaxi Group, and late Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran)
380
conglomerates, that overlie slate of the Banxi Group around the Woxi Au-Sb-W
381
deposit, implicating a Neoproterozoic or older Au event (Luo et al., 1996).
382
In the south-western Jiangnan Orogen, many Au and Au-Sb deposits are
383
controlled by Caledonian (Ordovician to Early Devonian) folds and faults (Lu et
384
al., 2005). Rare auriferous quartz veins at the Tonggu-Huaqiao deposit are
385
crosscut by cleavages formed during Caledonian metamorphism (Wang et al.,
386
2006). These relationships implicate pre-Early Devonian Au mineralization.
387
In the central southern Jiangnan Orogen, there are several paleoplacer Au
388
occurrences that have been mined in the Devonian conglomerates of the
389
Tiaomajian Formation that overlie slate of the Lengjiaxi Group (Luo et al., 1996).
390
These implicate a pre-Devonian Au event. However, in the central-western part
391
of the Orogen, rare auriferous quartz veins in small Au occurrences crosscut
392
the Late Silurian to Early Devonian granite intrusions (Luo et al., 1996),
393
implicating post-Early Devonian Au mineralization.
394
In the eastern Jiangnan Orogen, the Jinshan Au deposit, near the Middle
395
Jurassic Dexing porphyry-copper deposit (Guo et al., 2012), is strictly controlled
396
by a combination of WNW-trending ductile shear zones and NE-trending brittle-
397
ductile shear zones (Zhao et al., 2013; Fig. 8). The close spatial co-existence
398
of both lode Au deposits, formed at relative deep crustal levels, and the more
399
shallowly-formed Late Jurassic Dexing porphyry-copper polymetallic deposit, is 18 / 77
400
best interpreted to indicate that later porphyry mineralization occurred in an
401
uplifted and exhumed terrane that hosted pre-Jurassic Au mineralization (Guo
402
et al., 2012; Zhao et al., 2013; Fig. 8).
403
Along the Chang-Ping Fault zone in the central Jiangnan Orogen, the Late
404
Cretaceous sandstone and siltstone, overlying the Au-hosting Neoproterozoic
405
slate, are everywhere barren of Au lode deposits, but host paleoplacer Au
406
occurrences in places (Li, 1995), suggesting that the Au mineralization is at
407
least pre-Cretaceous. As with Jinshan and Dexing, the close spatial co-
408
existence of both deeper lode-Au deposits and shallower Late Jurassic
409
porphyry-copper polymetallic deposit along the Chang-Ping Fault zone (Fig. 3)
410
is indicative of a pre-Late Jurassic Au mineralization event (Yuan et al., 2018;
411
Zhang et al., 2018b, 2019b).
412
6.2. Geological constraints on later events
413 414
Despite strong evidence for pre-Jurassic Au mineralization, there is also evidence for late Au and Sb mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen.
415
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, sub-economic Au mineralization and
416
alteration in places crosscut the Late Jurassic granites, such as at Dayan along
417
the Chang-Ping Fault (Deng et al., 2017b).
418
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, Au veins and the Late Triassic granite-
419
porphyry dikes at the Baojinshan - Jinkengchong deposit crosscut each other,
420
implicating a Late Triassic Au event (Sun and He, 1993; Chen et al., 2016;
421
Huang et al., 2016; Lu et al., 2017b). Nearby, the Sb orebodies at the 19 / 77
422
Xikuangshan deposit are strictly controlled by a combined NNE-NE-trending
423
fault and fold system (Peng et al., 2002). The youngest folded units are Late
424
Triassic, indicating that the Sb mineralization at Xikuangshan post-dated the
425
Late Triassic.
426
Locally, auriferous stibnite-quartz veins at the Fuzhuxi and Hexinqiao Au-
427
Sb deposits and stibnite-quartz veins at the Banxi Sb deposit crosscut, and
428
hence postdate, Jurassic acid dikes (Luo, 1989).
429
6.3. Summary of geological constraints
430
In summary, the geological relationships at different locations in the
431
Jiangnan Orogen provide only general constraints on the number and timing of
432
Au-(Sb) mineralization event(s). The numbers of mineralization event(s), their
433
proportion and precise timing rely on more geological work and particularly
434
geochronological constraints from robust isotopic systems.
435 436
7. Isotopic ages of Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization
437
7.1. Samples and isotopic methods used to determine mineralization ages
438
By application of radio-isotope dating methods, such as K-Ar, 40Ar/39Ar, Rb-
439
Sr, Re-Os, (U-Th)/He and electron spin resonance (ESR), more than 100
440
isotopic ages, ranging from ~900 Ma to 70 Ma for Au, Au-Sb, and Sb
441
mineralization in the Jiangnan Orogen have been generated (Table 1; Mao et
442
al., 1997; Dong et al., 2008; Han et al., 2010; Huang et al., 2012; Deng et al.,
443
2017b; Fu et al., 2019a, b; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a and references therein). 20 / 77
444
Lead-Pb dating of pyrite, which is widely recognized as unreliable, particularly
445
in low-Pb systems such as those in the Jiangnan Orogen, is not considered
446
here, whereas the other 80 isotopic ages of 838±110－71±2 Ma are shown in
447
Table 1.
448
Rubidium-Sr dating of fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz is the most
449
common method used to date deposits in the Orogen (Table 1). Given the
450
ubiquitous appearance of different generations of quartz and abundance of
451
secondary fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz in the Orogen (e.g., Zhao et
452
al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017) and similar deposits around the world (Goldfarb and
453
Groves, 2015), the measured Rb and Sr isotopic compositions most likely
454
reflect the composition of a mixture of ore-forming and post-ore secondary
455
fluids. Thus, the quality of the Rb-Sr dating of fluid inclusions is suspect. Similar
456
concerns apply to the Rb-Sb dating of ore-related sulfides, such as stibnite and
457
arsenopyrite, with very low Rb and Sr contents and unknown volumes of
458
secondary fluid inclusions (Zhao et al., 2013), although it is possible to generate
459
reliable ages from sulfides with relatively high Rb-Sr contents. In addition, the
460
Rb-Sr, K-Ar and
461
and sulfide-quartz veins with slate breccias are interpreted to be mixed ages
462
due to the complex pre- and syn-mineralization history of mineral growth and
463
crystallization.
40Ar/39Ar
ages of whole-rock powders from mineralized slate
464
By progressively releasing argon and measuring the resultant isotopic
465
ratios from a sample, 40Ar/39Ar dating overcomes the shortcomings of the K-Ar 21 / 77
466
method related to sample heterogeneity and argon loss/gain (McDougall and
467
Harrison, 1999). Benefitting from this,
468
muscovite/sericite grains with diameters >100 μm has become one of the most
469
robust methods in dating of hydrothermal ore deposits (Philips et al., 2012;
470
Yang et al., 2014a, 2017; Fairmaid et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2019c). The quality
471
of results yielded by this method is highly dependent on the quality of the
472
sample, especially the geological significance (e.g. representativeness),
473
genesis of the muscovite (e.g. hydrothermal or metamorphic) and purity of the
474
separations. From this point of view, with clear geological relationships and
475
supporting petrographic evidence, the
476
muscovite in ores at the Gutaishan and Longshan Au-Sb deposits (Wen et al.,
477
2016; Li et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018a) and muscovite from post-
478
mineralization granitic dikes at the Dayan Au prospect are considered reliable
479
(Deng et al., 2017b). Other
480
without reported original data and errors, are considered non-robust (Table 1).
481
Typically, only trace amounts of K occur in hydrothermal quartz, and thus
482
40Ar/39Ar
483
inclusions in quartz, which may be both pre-and syn-gold mineralization.
40Ar/39Ar
40Ar/39Ar
40Ar/39Ar
dating of pure hydrothermal
plateau ages of hydrothermal
ages of muscovite with large errors, or
dating of hydrothermal quartz reflects mixed ages of the K-rich mineral
484
Samarium–Nd isochron dating of scheelite, stibnite and calcite has been
485
used to date hydrothermal deposits, such as the Xikuangshan Sb deposit in the
486
Jiangnan Orogen (Peng et al., 2002, 2003). Ages derived from this isotopic
487
system for scheelite and stibnite with relatively high contents of Sm and Nd are 22 / 77
488
considered generally robust with calcite less certain as it can have both a late-
489
and post paragenetic position.
490
In terms of other methodologies, application of the ESR dating method for
491
quartz is not yet proven for robust dating of hydrothermal deposits. Additionally,
492
the occurrence of different generations of quartz in the Au deposits (e.g., Zhang
493
et al., 2019b) can also result in uncertainty of results (Table 1). Zircon (U-Th)/He
494
ages could provide general constraints on the timing of mineralization if a
495
deposit underwent relatively fast and simple post-ore cooling history (Fu et al.,
496
2019a, b), but this is unlikely given the complex evolution of the Jiangnan
497
Orogen.
498
Arsenopyrites and pyrite with low Re and Os contents yield ages with
499
relatively large errors (Table 1), with only those with relatively high Re and Os
500
contents considered potentially robust ages.
501
7.2. Overview of mineralization ages of Au deposits
502
In the central Jiangnan Orogen, the Au mineralization at the Dayan
503
prospect formed at 142±2 Ma to 130±1 Ma, as relatively well-constrained by a
504
pre-ore zircon U-Pb age and a post-ore muscovite
505
2017b). Arsenopyrites with relatively high Re (14.5-1.3 ng/g) and
506
0.006 ng/g) contents constrain the timing of Au mineralization at the Pingqiu
507
deposit to 235±3 Ma (Gu et al., 2016), whereas a Re-Os age of 400±24 Ma has
508
been derived from arsenopyrites with low Re (0.6-0.2 ng/g with one exception
509
of 2.6 ng/g) and
187Os
40Ar/39Ar
age (Deng et al., 187Os
(0.04-
(0.003-0.002 ng/g) contents (Wang et al., 2011). 23 / 77
510
Rhenium-Os ages of 410±52 Ma for the Bake Au deposit and 174±15 Ma for
511
the Jinjing Au deposit have been generated from arsenopyrites with relatively
512
low Re (Bake, 1.5-0.4 ng/g; Jinjing, 2.2-0.2 ng/g) and 187Os (Bake, 0.007-0.002
513
ng/g; Jinjing, 0.005-0.002 ng/g) contents (Wang et al., 2011; Gu et al., 2016).
514
The other non- or less-robust ages for the Au deposits have a much wider
515
range of 838±110 Ma to 70.7±2.2 Ma (Table 1; Fig. 11). Although many ages
516
are of uncertain reliability, collectively, these geochronological data provide a
517
broad picture of Au mineralization events in the Jiangnan Orogen (Fig. 11). As
518
shown in Figure. 11, the less or non-robust ages show five peaks, from old to
519
young: (1) ~440-380 Ma (Late Silurian to Early Devonian); (2) ~360-340 Ma
520
(mainly Early Carboniferous); (3) ~240-200 Ma (mainly Late Triassic); (4) ~180-
521
140 Ma (mainly Jurassic); and (5) ~120-80 Ma (Cretaceous), with a few ages
522
between them and also minor Precambrian ages.
523
Combined with the geological evidence for multiple Au events, these
524
isotopic age data are considered to indicate at least two Au events in the
525
Triassic and Early Cretaceous. However further geochronology using robust
526
methods on minerals with suitable compositions is required to provide robust
527
ages of the Au mineralization events.
528
7.3. Overview of mineralization ages of Au-Sb deposits
529
A Sm–Nd isochron age of 402±6 Ma of scheelite, with relative high
530
contents of Sm (6.2-0.9 μg/g) and Nd (0.6-4.5 μg/g), associated with Au and Sb
531
mineralization is taken to represent the timing of mineralization at the Woxi Au24 / 77
532
Sb-W deposit, north-western Jiangnan Orogen (Peng et al., 2003). The Au-Sb
533
mineralization at the Longshan deposit in the central Jiangnan Orogen most
534
likely occurred somewhere in the range between 210±2 Ma, based a Sm–Nd
535
isochron age of scheelite with relatively high contents of Sm (7.5-2.2 μg/g) and
536
Nd (11.5-4.8 μg/g), 195±36 Ma for a Re-Os isochron age of pyrite with relatively
537
low contents of Re (1.4-0.4 ng/g with an exception of 4.4 ng/g), and 187Os (0.01-
538
0.002 ng/g), and 163±2 Ma for a hydrothermal muscovite
539
al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2018a, 2019a). The Gutaishan Au-Sb deposit formed at
540
224±5 Ma based on a hydrothermal 40Ar/39Ar age (Li et al., 2018).
541
40Ar/39Ar
age (Fu et
Other less or non-robust ages can be divided into 435±9 Ma to 414±19 Ma
542
(two quartz
543
quartz), 281 Ma (a K-Ar age of altered rock), and 175±9 Ma-145±12 Ma (two
544
Rb-Sr isochron ages of fluid inclusions in quartz) (Table 1; Fig. 11).
40Ar/39Ar
ages and one Rb-Sr isochron age of fluid inclusions in
545
In summary, these data reveal Early Devonian and Late Triassic-Middle
546
Jurassic Au-Sb mineralization events, whereas further robust geochronology is
547
required to confirm the Early Permian Au-Sb and possible undated event(s).
548
The auriferous stibnite-quartz veins at the Fuzhuxi and Hexinqiao Au-Sb
549
deposits, which crosscut Jurassic acid dikes, may be a part of the Late Triassic-
550
Middle Jurassic mineralization event defined by other isotopic ages or a later
551
undated event.
552
7.4. Mineralization ages of Sb deposits
553
Two less robust
40Ar/39Ar
ages of 422±1 Ma and 397±1 Ma hydrothermal 25 / 77
554
quartz from the Banxi Sb deposit (Peng et al., 2003) contrast with a Sm-Nd
555
isochron age of 130±2 Ma from stibnite with relatively high contents of Sm (2.5-
556
1.2 ppm) and Nd (10.8-1.5 ppm), a Rb-Sr isochron age of 129±2 Ma from
557
stibnite and arsenopyrite with relatively high contents of Rb (7 stibnite
558
separations, 35.3-4.0 ppm; 3 arsenopyrite separations, 1.3-0.7 ppm) and Sr (7
559
stibnite separations, 110.2-3.8 ppm; 3 arsenopyrite separations, 8.0-1.7 ppm)
560
and three detrital zircon (U-Th)/He ages of 129 ± 3 – 121 ± 12 Ma (Li et al., 2018;
561
Fu et al., 2019b). Four less robust Sm-Nd isochron ages of calcite and stibnite,
562
calcite, and quartz and six (U-Th)/He ages for inherited zircon from altered
563
rocks constrain the timing of the Xikuangshan Sb deposit at 156-117 Ma (Hu,
564
1995; Hu et al., 1996; Peng et al., 2002; Fu et al., 2019a). Combined with the
565
evidence that the Xikuangshan deposit is controlled by post-Triassic folds and
566
that Sb mineralization at Banxi post-dates Jurassic dikes (Luo, 1989; Peng et
567
al., 2002), these data are best interpreted to indicate an Early Cretaceous Sb
568
mineralization event. This contrasts with evidence from Au-Sb deposits that
569
suggests formation during earlier events.
570 571
8. Discussion
572
8.1. Interpretation of the structural geometries of the Au-(Sb) mineralization
573
In the Jiangnan Orogen, the Au and Au-Sb deposits are typically distributed
574
along first-order crustal scale faults. This is interpreted to mean that these faults
575
were connected to deep fluid and metal source areas, and focused fluid flux in 26 / 77
576
the fault zone and transferred fluid to higher crustal levels at suitable P-T
577
conditions for metal deposition. Jogs along these first-order faults commonly
578
are favorable locations for focusing high auriferous ore-fluid flux and deposition
579
of gold (Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019b), not only in this Orogen but
580
also for many Au districts in the world, such as the orogenic goldfields in the
581
Yilgarn Craton, Australia (Weinberg et al., 2004) and the Jiaodong Peninsula,
582
China (Deng et al., 2003, 2015, 2019; Yang et al., 2014b, 2016; Guo et al.,
583
2014, 2017).
584
The low strain conditions, high inferred permeability and large surface
585
areas for fluid-rock reactions in the subparallel or oblique second- and third-
586
order fault zones along the jogs in the first-order faults make them favorable
587
locations for Au-(Sb) mineralization. Again, this is also common in lode Au-(Sb)
588
deposit worldwide (Groves et al., 1987, 2018; Robert et al., 2005). The
589
equivalent strike-slip movement on pairs of the NNE- to NE-trending second-
590
order brittle faults caused rotation and torsional forces within blocks between
591
them (Groves et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2018b) at Pre-Cretaceous deposits like
592
Huangjindong and Wangu. In combination with thrust faults of the NW-E-W-
593
trending third-order faults, these second-order faults resulted in mineralized
594
corridors oblique to the strike of the Au-(Sb) ore bodies (Figs. 6a and 12).
595
The association of NW-E-W-trending shear veins and extension veins on
596
their hangingwall, the striations on the fault plane, and the drag folds associated
597
with the veins indicate a thrust-faulting control on the Au mineralization in the 27 / 77
598
Pre-Cretaceous Huangjindong, Wangu and similar goldfields in the Orogen
599
(e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b). Many of these trust faults were formed by the
600
reactivation of pre-ore faults or flexural bedding-plane slip during a tight folding
601
event. A combination of these NW-E-W-trending ore-controlling thrust faults
602
and NNE-NE-trending sinistral strike-slip faults indicates a general N-S-
603
trending regional maximum stress (e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b).
604
A few Au deposits with unknown mineralization ages in the western part of
605
the Orogen (eastern Guizhou), such as the Bake, Kengtou, Tongluoping and
606
Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposits (Fig. 9), that are controlled by open folds show
607
similar structural geometries to those of Carlin-type gold deposits, such as the
608
Taipingdong and Shuiyindong deposits, in southwestern Guizhou, 550
609
kilometers away, that formed during continent-scale post-orogenic extension
610
(Peng et al., 2014; Hou et al., 2016; Wang and Groves, 2018). However, Wu
611
and Yu (1998) and Wang et al. (2006) argued that the gold veins at the Tonggu-
612
Huaqiao (Fig. 10) and Bake Au deposits were controlled by thrust faults which
613
formed during or after a pre-ore folding event.
614
In contrast, Au and Sb deposits with unknown mineralization ages at
615
Fanjingshan in the southwestern Jiangnan Orogen, which are controlled by the
616
curvilinear detachment Fanjingshan Fault (Fig. 9), are most likely formed at an
617
extensional environment, although further confirmation by detailed structural
618
geology research at district- to deposit-scales is required.
619
Locally, the pre-ore barren quartz veins provided competent hosts for later 28 / 77
620
Au mineralization like many other competent geological units in other lode-Au
621
deposits, such as that in in the South Island of New Zealand (Christie and
622
Brathwaite, 2003; Craw et al., 2006; Groves et al., 2018). The contacts between
623
competent magmatic dikes and less competent rocks played a similar role in
624
some Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen, such as at the Xiangtan
625
Au occurrence and Fuzhuxi Au-Sb deposit (Bao et al., 2002; Liu, 2017), and
626
worldwide (Groves et al., 2000; Robert, 2001).
627
The currently known structural geometries of Pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-
628
Sb deposits, such as the Huangjindong and Wangu Au deposits, and the
629
Longshan Au-Sb deposit, indicate a transpressional structural environment for
630
the mineralization, which resembles that of typical orogenic deposits (Cox et
631
al., 1995; Groves et al., 2018). In contrast, Au and Au-Sb deposits at
632
Fanjingshan are interpreted to indicate an extensional setting for mineralization,
633
like many Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits related to metamorphic core
634
complexes in eastern China (Yang et al., 2016 and references therein). The
635
structural environment for the Early Cretaceous (pre-ore granite zircon U-Pb
636
age of 142 Ma and post-ore granitic dikes
637
al., 2017b) Dayan Au prospect is to be determined as there is little structural
638
work reported.
639
8.2. Interpretation of the structural geometries of Sb mineralization
40Ar/39Ar
ages of 130 Ma; Deng et
640
As for the Au and Au-Sb deposits, the Sb deposits are distributed along
641
regional first-order faults (Fig. 1). However, first-order ore-controlling faults host 29 / 77
642
some Sb deposits in contrast to the lack of a direct association with Au and Au-
643
Sb deposits. Instead of an association with the second or third-order faults, a
644
significant amount of the Sb mineralization at the giant Xikuangshan Sb deposit
645
formed in pre-ore anticlines (Fig. 7a, b). The relatively flat Sb orebodies are
646
hosted by anticlines, but themselves show no obvious signals for
647
compressional deformation (Fig. 7a, b). Together with geological evidence that
648
normal faults either host mineralization or restrict its extent, these features
649
indicate that the Xikuangshan deposit formed in an extensional regime (Yi and
650
Shan, 1994; Fig. 13). Interestingly, the Xikuangshan Sb deposit also has a
651
similar structural geometry to that of contemporaneous (Early Cretaceous) or
652
earlier (Late Triassic) Carlin-type gold deposits from southwestern Guizhou that
653
formed in an extensional environment (Hu et al., 2016; Wang and Groves, 2018
654
and references therein). Although, in plan view, the complex vein system of the
655
broadly contemporaneous Banxi Sb deposit appears to be formed in
656
compression, the veins are dominantly vertical and hence more compatible with
657
formation under an extensional regime. Incidentally, the broadly coeval (~142-
658
130 Ma; Deng et al., 2017b) Dayan Au prospect may also form under extension.
659
Although the mineralization ages of Sb deposits along the Fanjingshan Fault
660
are unknown, they are also best interpreted to have formed in an extensional
661
setting, as for the Xikuangshan and Banxi deposits (Fig. 9).
662
8.3. Geodynamic setting and related significant geological events
663
Geological and robust geochronological data presented above suggest two 30 / 77
664
main Au events in the Triassic (~235 Ma) and Early Cretaceous (~142-130 Ma),
665
two main Au-Sb events in the Early Devonian (~402 Ma) and Late Triassic-
666
Middle Jurassic (~224-163 Ma: possibly equivalent to the two Au events), and
667
one Sb event in the Early Cretaceous (~130 Ma). There are other possible Au
668
events in the Neoproterozoic or even older, and Ordovician to Early Devonian,
669
but these are constrained only by limited geological evidence and a few non-
670
robust mineralization ages (Figs. 2 and 14).
671
The possible Neoproterozoic or older Au events may relate to pre-
672
Neoproterozoic metamorphism or Neoproterozoic accretionary and collisional
673
orogeny between the Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks (Figs. 2 and 14a). This is
674
not discussed further as, currently, there are no economic deposits related to
675
these events defined in the Jiangnan Orogen.
676
The structural geometries of the pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-Sb orebodies
677
all indicate a transpressional environment with general N-S-trending regional
678
principal stress (e.g., Zhang et al., 2019b). Thus, the Ordovician to Early
679
Devonian Au mineralization, that is poorly constrained by both geological and
680
less reliable isotope ages ranging from ~440-380 Ma, and the Early Devonian
681
(~402 Ma) Au-Sb event indicated by a Sm–Nd isochron age of scheelite, could
682
be linked to the contemporaneous intracontinental orogeny between the
683
Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks (Figs. 2 and 14b). The better-constrained
684
Triassic Au and Au-Sb events are best interpreted to relate to distal effects of
685
the collision between the North and South China blocks (Figs. 2 and 14c). 31 / 77
686
In contrast, the extensional Early Cretaceous Au (Dayan) and Sb
687
(Xikuangshan and Banxi) mineralization events are most likely to relate to the
688
distal effects of rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate since ~135 Ma (Figs. 2 and
689
14d; Li et al., 2013), which also overlapped with the time of formation of the
690
Basin-and-Range-like topography in the Orogen, which controls the present
691
distribution of the deposits. It is possible the extensional Fanjingshan Au, Au-
692
Sb and Sb mineralization events relate to the same geodynamic event, but
693
there a no reliable isotopic ages to confirm this.
694
8.4. Structural constraints on genesis of the Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits
695
With few exceptions, the pre-Cretaceous Au and Au-Sb deposits in the
696
Jiangnan Orogen show no spatial association with granite intrusions (Figs. 1,
697
3, 4 and 5). In addition, geological and geochemical features of typical granite-
698
related deposits, such as zoned alteration and metal zonation, from proximal
699
Au-Bi-Te to distal Ag-Pb-Zn assemblages (Sillitoe and Thompson, 1998; Lang
700
et al., 2000; Zu et al., 2015, 2016; Qiu et al., 2016, 2017), are lacking in these
701
pre-Cretaceous deposits. Furthermore, the fluid inclusion thermometry data,
702
alteration mineral assemblages and mineralogical thermometers indicate
703
mineralization temperatures over a range of 350-200 °C (e.g., Zhao et al., 2013;
704
Liu et al., 2017; Deng et al., 2017b; Sun et al., 2018, 2019), significantly lower
705
than magmatic-hydrothermal temperatures (>500 °C). Therefore, an intrusion-
706
related origin can be discounted for these pre-Cretaceous Au-(Sb) deposits in
707
the Jiangnan Orogen. The late structural control on the Au and Au-Sb deposits 32 / 77
708
clearly precludes previously-suggested stratabound, syngenetic and SEDEX-
709
type models for these deposits. The new term of intracontinental tectonic
710
reactivation type deposit, which is rarely used in the literature, reflects the
711
complex histories of the ore-controlling structures and the complex sources of
712
the gold (Xu et al., 2017).
713
Furthermore, the geochemical features of these pre-Cretaceous Au and
714
Au-Sb deposits, such as their C-H-O-S-Pb isotopic compositions, resemble that
715
of orogenic Au-(Sb) deposits (Dong et al., 2008; Dong, 2014; Liu, 2017; Zhang
716
et al., 2018b), as originally defined by Groves et al. (1998).
717
Together with these geological and geochemical features, the repetitive
718
structural geometries that control the pre-Cretaceous Au-(Sb) mineralization
719
constrain genetic models for the deposits. The transpressional ore-forming
720
structural environment and the geodynamic setting of the deposits confirm an
721
orogenic model for these deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen in terms of the
722
classification of Groves et al. (1998) and the critical characteristics described
723
by Goldfarb et al. (2005).
724
The Early Cretaceous Dayan Au prospect, close to the Late Jurassic to
725
Early Cretaceous Lianyunshan granite intrusion (Deng et al., 2017b), is an
726
exception as it formed in an extensional environment and may be a rare
727
intrusion-related gold deposit. The coeval Sb deposits that formed in the same
728
geodynamic setting can be classified as epizonal, rather than epithermal
729
deposits because of their strong structural control and lack of coeval granite 33 / 77
730
intrusions or volcanic rocks that could have been the heat source to drive an
731
epithermal system (Simmons et al., 2005). The genesis of the poorly
732
documented Fanjingshan Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits is unknown.
733
8.5. Significance to regional Au and Sb exploration
734
Based on the new understanding of the structural controls on Au-(Sb)
735
mineralization in the Orogen, documentation and interpretation of critical
736
structural geometries is important for future exploration in the Jiangnan Orogen.
737
Critical criteria for future exploration and targeting of pre-Cretaceous orogenic
738
Au and Au-Sb deposits in the Jiangnan Orogen include: (1) jogs along crustal-
739
scale strike-slip faults; (2) fault corridors defined by NNE- to NE-trending
740
second-order faults that contain discontinuous oblique WNW to E-W-trending
741
thrust-asymmetrical fold deformation zones and related faults; (3) intersections
742
of NNE- to NE-trending faults with NW to E-W-trending thrust faults or folds;
743
and (4) competent quartz veins and contacts between dikes and less-
744
competent host rocks that may host superimposed Au-Sb mineralization. More
745
Au resources are also expected beneath known relatively-shallow Au-Sb
746
mineralization based on the crustal continuum model of orogenic deposits
747
proposed by Groves (1993). This has been verified for several deposits in this
748
region, such as the Anshan Au-Sb deposit in the Huangjindong goldfield (Liu,
749
2017) and the Zhazixi Sb deposit in central part of the Orogen (Kang et al.,
750
2018).
751
Targets for Au formed in extensional environments include: (1) external 34 / 77
752
contact zones of Early Cretaceous granite intrusions, such as the Lianyunshan
753
granite around the Dayan Au prospect, that may contain contemporaneous
754
small magmatic-hydrothermal Au deposits; and (2) detachment faults along
755
unconformities between different strata, such as that in Fanjingshan area.
756
Based on understanding of the structural controls on Sb mineralization in
757
the Jiangnan Orogen, future exploration should focus on the open anticlinal
758
folds in Devonian to Triassic sedimentary rocks where they are cut by late
759
regional faults linked to deep crustal-level detachment faults and there is
760
evidence for vertical quartz veins in slate or similar host rocks.
761 762
9. Conclusions
763
The Jiangnan Orogen, southern China, hosts significant gold and antimony
764
resources. An overview of the published geological maps, cross sections and
765
geochronological data of this region has resulted in the generation of a new
766
province- to deposit-scale interpretation of the mineralization in the Orogen.
767
During Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny between the Yangtze and
768
Cathaysian Blocks, contemporaneous (~402 Ma) orogenic gold-antimony
769
mineralization and possible gold mineralization occurred in second- to third-
770
order faults in jogs along the first-order regional faults in a transpressional
771
tectonic setting. Thereafter, due to the distal effects of the Triassic collision
772
between the North and South China blocks, ~235 Ma orogenic gold and ~224-
773
163 Ma orogenic gold-antimony deposits occurred in similar structural 35 / 77
774
environments in a transpressional regime. In the Early Cretaceous, with the
775
rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate, early Cretaceous (~130 Ma) epizonal
776
antimony mineralization and coeval gold mineralization were controlled by
777
normal faults and pre-ore open folds in an extensional tectonic regime.
778
Based on better understanding of the structural controls on mineralization
779
in the Orogen, future exploration and targeting for pre-Cretaceous orogenic
780
gold and gold-antimony mineralization should be focused on the definition of
781
critical structural geometries, such as jogs along crustal-scale strike-slip faults,
782
mineralized fault corridors defined by subparallel and oblique subsidiary faults,
783
and intersections between faults and faults/folds. Pre-ore competent geological
784
units, including pre-existing quartz veins, are particularly suitable targets within
785
these structural geometries. The potentially deeper extensions of known
786
relatively-shallow epizonal gold-antimony deposits provide additional drill
787
targets for deeper gold mineralization.
788
For antimony deposits formed in extensional environments, future
789
exploration should focus on open anticlinal folds in sedimentary rocks where
790
they are cut by late regional faults linked to deep crustal levels and there is
791
evidence for vertical quartz veins. For gold deposits formed in extensional
792
regimes, external contact zones of Early Cretaceous granite intrusions, such as
793
those of the Lianyunshan granite around the Dayan gold prospect, may contain
794
contemporaneous intrusion-related gold deposits, but these are likely to be
795
small. Detachment faults along unconformities between different strata provide 36 / 77
796
additional targets for gold, gold-antimony and antimony mineralization.
797 798
Acknowledgements
799
We thank Drs Jun Deng, Richard Goldfarb, Franco Pirajno, Roberto
800
Weinberg, Yu-Cai Song, Kun-Feng Qiu, Yu Wang, Dan-Ping Yan and Liang Qiu
801
for their comments and suggestions for this project. We also acknowledge Peng
802
Qi for the draft of Figure 1, mine geologists Li-Qun Zou, Lan-Ling Yuan, Peng
803
Fan, Zi-Wen Ning, Yue-Guang Li, Xi-Wen Zheng, Ting Wen, Zhi-Qi Li, Fu
804
Zhang and Xue-Jun Zhang for their help in the field and Professor M. Santosh
805
for his editorial handling. This work was financially supported by National
806
Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41702070), MOST Special
807
Fund from the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral
808
Resources, China University of Geosciences (Grant No. MSFGPMR201804),
809
and the 111 Project of the Ministry of Science and Technology, China (Grant
810
No. BP0719021).
811 812
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1184
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1185
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1187
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1189
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1194 1195
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1211
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1212
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1216
hydrothermal activity in the Jiaodong gold province, China: Gondwana
1217
Res. 25, 1469–1483.
40Ar/39Ar
geochronological constraints on the formation of the
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1219
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1220
evolution of the Linglong Metamorphic Core Complex and implications
1221
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1222
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1223
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1225
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1226
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1227
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1228
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1229
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1232
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1235
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Yi JB, Shan YH, 1994, New understanding about the genesis of
1238
Xikuangshan antimony deposit – control of extensional structure on the
1239
superlarge antimony mineralization. Hunan Geol. 13, 147–151 (in
1240
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1241 1242
Yu, C.S., 2006. Geological features of Banxi antimony deposit and further prospecting direction. Mining Tech. 6, 588–590 (in Chinese).
1243
Yuan, S.D., Mao, J.W, Zhao, P.L., Yuan, Y.B., 2018. Geochronology and
1244
petrogenesis of the Qibaoshan Cu-polymetallic deposit, northeastern
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1246
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1247
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1249
metallogenic structure in Banxi Sb-deposit, Taojiang. Geotect. Metal.
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1251
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1252
origin of the Xikuangshan antimony deposit in Hunan. Geol. Rev. 29,
1253
486–493 (in Chinese with English abstract).
1254
Zhang, G.W., Guo, A.L., Wang, Y.J., Li, S.Z., Dong, Y.P., Liu, S.F., He, D.F.,
1255
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1256
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1259
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1260
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1261
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1262
Wu, S.G., Gao, L., Yuan, L.L., Li, R.H., 2019b. Utilization of pre-existing
1263
competent and barren quartz veins as hosts to later orogenic gold ores
1264
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1265
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1266
Zhang, L., Yang, L.Q., Groves, D.I., Liu, Y., Sun, S.C., Qi, P., Wu, S.G.,
1267
Peng, J.S., 2018b. Geological and isotopic constraints on ore genesis,
1268
Huangjindong gold deposit, Jiangnan Orogen, southern China. Ore
1269
Geol. Rev. 99, 264–281.
1270
Zhang, L., Yang, L.Q., Weinberg, R.F., Groves, D.I., Wang, Z.L., Li, G.W.,
1271
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1272
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1273
of the Xincheng gold deposit, Jiaodong Peninsula, eastern China.
1274
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1275
Zhang, L.J., Shao, Y.J., Lai, J.Q., Shi, J., Xu, Z.B., 2015. Analysis on ore-
1276
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1277
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1278
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1279
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1280
The new progress in the study of Mesozoic tectonics of South China.
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Acta Geosci. Sin. 33, 257-279 (in Chinese with English abstract).
1282
Zhang, Z.Y., Xie, G.Q., Li, H.C., Li, W., 2018a. Preliminary study on
1283
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1284
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1285
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1286
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1287
Dating and In-Situ LA-ICP-MS Trace Element Analyses of Scheelite
1288
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1289
South China. Minerals 9(2), 87.
1290
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1291
metallogenic model of the Jinshan gold deposit, Jiangxi province. PhD
1292
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1293
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1294
Xu, Y.F., 2013. Geology, fluid inclusion, and isotope constraints on ore
1295
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1296
China. Geofluids 13, 506–527.
1297
Zhao, J.G., Chen, Q.C., 2006. Geology, geophysics, geochemistry and
1298
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1301
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1302
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1303
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1304
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Zhou, Y.J., Li, J.W., Wang, G.S., Xia, Y., Qiu, N.P., 2014. Distribution and
1306
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1308
Zhu, X.Q., Wang, G.L., Lu, H.Z., Wu, X.Y., Chen, W.Y., 2006. Determination
1309
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1310
of the Caledonian Hunan–Guizhou gold ore belt. Geol. China 33, 1093–
1311
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1312
Zu, B., Xue, C.J., Zhao, Y., Qu, W.J., Li, C., Symons, D.T., Du, A.D., 2015.
1313
Late Cretaceous metallogeny in the Zhongdian area: Constraints from
1314
Re–Os dating of molybdenite and pyrrhotite from the Hongshan Cu
1315
deposit, Yunnan, China. Ore Geol. Rev. 64, 1–12.
1316
Zu, B., Xue, C.J., Chi, G.X., Zhao, X.B., Li, C., Zhao, Y., Yalikun, Y., Zhao,
1317
Y., 2016. Geology, geochronology and geochemistry of granitic
1318
intrusions and the related ores at the Hongshan Cu-polymetallic deposit:
1319
Insights into the Late Cretaceous post-collisional porphyry-related
1320
mineralization systems in the southern Yidun arc, SW China. Ore Geol.
1321
Rev. 77, 25–42.
1322 1323
Table captions 60 / 77
1324
Table 1. Isotopic ages of Au, Au-Sb and Sb mineralization. An indication of the
1325
robustness of the various ages is provided: ages with bold text are considered
1326
robust.
1327 1328
Figure captions
1329
Fig. 1. (a) Location of Jiangnan Orogen; (b) Geological map of the Jiangnan
1330
Orogen showing the distribution of the regional structures, strata, granites and
1331
the location of Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits. Abbreviation: NCB, North China
1332
Block. Abbreviations for regional faults: ALF, Anhua-Liping; AXF, Anhua-Xupu;
1333
CPF, Changsha-Pingjiang (Chang-Ping) Fault; DYF, Dayong Fault; JSF,
1334
Jiangshan-Shaoxing (Jiaoshao) Fault; LHF, Liling-Hengdong Fault; TCF,
1335
Taojiang-Chengbu Fault; XHF, Xinning-Huitang Fault; XJF, Xupu-Jingxian.
1336
This new map is generated based on the geological maps in Ma et al. (2002).
1337 1338
Fig. 2. An interpretation of the evolution of sedimentation, tectonics, magmatism
1339
and mineralization events in the context of the evolution of the South China
1340
Block, based on the studies in Shu (2006, 2012), YQ Zhang et al. (2012); Zhang
1341
et al. (2013), Wang et al. (2017).
1342 1343
Fig. 3. Geological map of the Chang-Ping Fault Zone in the central Jiangnan
1344
Orogen showing the distribution of goldfields and Au deposits therein.
1345
Abbreviations for granites: BSP, Banshanpu; CSB, Changsanbei; DWS, 61 / 77
1346
Daweishan; GTL, Getengling; HXQ, Hongxiaqiao; JJ, Jinjing; JXL, Jiaoxiling;
1347
LYS, Lianyunshan; MFS, Mufushan; QBS, Qibaoshan; WX, Wangxiang; ZF,
1348
Zhangfang. Modified from Xu et al. (2017).
1349 1350
Fig. 4. Geological map of the Anhua-Liping and Anhua-Xupu fault zones in the
1351
western Jiangnan Orogen showing the distribution of goldfields and Au deposits
1352
therein. Modified from Wang et al. (2006).
1353 1354
Fig. 5. Geological map of the central to north-western Jiangnan Orogen
1355
showing the distribution of goldfields and Au, Au-Sb and Sb deposits therein.
1356
Modified from Li et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2018a). Abbreviations for
1357
granites: BMS, Baimashan; HMY, Huangmaoyuan; GDM, Guandimiao; WS,
1358
Weishan; WWT, Wawutang; XM, Xiema; ZYS, Ziyunshan.
1359 1360
Fig. 6. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Huangjindong goldfield
1361
along the Chang-Ping Fault showing the distribution of the Au and Au-Sb
1362
deposits and orebodies therein in the context of folds and faults. Modified from
1363
Zhang et al. (2018b).
1364 1365
Fig. 7. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Xikuangshan Sb deposit
1366
in the central Jiangnan Orogen. Modified from Liu and Jian (1983) and Hu and
1367
Peng (2018). 62 / 77
1368 1369
Fig. 8. Geological map (a) and cross section (b) of the Jinshan goldfield in the
1370
eastern Jiangnan Orogen showing the distribution of the Au orebodies. Modified
1371
from Wei (1996), Li et al. (2010) and Zhao et al. (2013).
1372 1373
Fig. 9. Geological map of the Fanjingshan district in southwestern Jiangnan
1374
Orogen showing the distribution of Au and Sb deposits therein. Modified from
1375
Wang et al. (2006).
1376 1377
Fig. 10. Cross section of the Tonggu-Huaqiao Au deposit in the western
1378
Jiangnan Orogen showing an ore-controlling anticline. Modified from Wu and
1379
Yu (1998).
1380 1381
Fig. 11. Histograms of isotopic ages of Au (a), Au-Sb (b) and Sb deposits (c) in
1382
the Jiangnan Orogen. Data sources are referenced in Table 1. This histogram
1383
emphasizes the lack of reliable and robust isotopic ages for Jiangnan
1384
mineralization events.
1385 1386
Fig. 12. A geological model showing the formation of typical pre-Cretaceous
1387
Au-(Sb) deposits at deposit scale. Modified from Zhang et al. (2018b, 2019b).
1388 1389
Fig. 13. A geological model showing the formation of typical Early Cretaceous 63 / 77
1390
Sb deposits at deposit scale. Modified from Hu and Peng. (2018).
1391 1392
Fig. 14. A simplified plate-tectonic model showing the evolution of the Jiangnan
1393
Orogen and the formation of the Au, Au-Sb, and Sb mineralization. (a) an Early
1394
Neoproterozoic continental collision between the Yangtze and Cathaysian
1395
blocks, and a related poorly-defined and relatively unimportant Au
1396
mineralization event; (b) Early Paleozoic intracontinental orogeny between the
1397
Yangtze and Cathaysian blocks, and related Au (?) and Au-Sb mineralization
1398
event; (c) continental collision between the North China and South China blocks
1399
with related, but distal, Au and Au-Sb mineralization event(s); (d) Early
1400
Cretaceous distal rollback of the paleo-Pacific Plate, and related Sb
1401
mineralization and minor Au mineralization. Modified from Shu (2012); Li et al.
1402
(2013); Zhang et al. (2013).
1403 1404
Highlights
1405
Multiple Au, Au-Sb and Sb events related to complex tectonic evolution of Orogen.
1406 1407
Early Devonian intracontinental orogeny and related Au-Sb mineralization.
1408 64 / 77
1409
Triassic distal effect of collisional orogeny and related Au-Sb event.
1410 1411
Early Cretaceous Sb and Au events linked to rollback of paleo-Pacific Plate.
1412 1413
Definition of structural geometries is critical for future exploration targeting.
1414 1415
1416
65 / 77
1417
1418
66 / 77
1419
1420 67 / 77
1421
68 / 77
1422
1423
69 / 77
1424
1425
70 / 77
1426
71 / 77
1427
1428
72 / 77
1429
Table 1
1430 N o.
Regio n
Occur rence
Material Analyzed
Method
73 / 77
Age (Ma)
Err or (Ma
Reference s
, 2σ) Pings hui
1 2 3 4 5
Zhejia ng (Easte rn Jiangn an Oroge n)
Huan gshan
6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5
Jiangxi (Easte rn Jiangn an Oroge n)
Jinsha n
Huan gjindo ng Northe astern Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge n)
Wang u Dado ng Daya n Tuans hanbe i Yanlin si
Mineralization ages for gold deposits Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 450. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 396. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Rb–Sr 358. Gold ores isochron 0 Muscovite in auriferous 40 39 345. Ar/ Ar quartz vein 0 Muscovite in auriferous 343. K-Ar quartz vein 0 Muscovite in auriferous 325. K-Ar quartz vein 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 754. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 751. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 406. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 379. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Ultramylonite with Rb–Sr 717. quartz veins isochron 0 Rb–Sr 167. Ilite isochron 9 660. 040 39 Hydrothermal sericite Ar/ Ar 560. 0 317. Illite K-Ar 9 299. Illite K-Ar 5 269. Illite K-Ar 9 Rb–Sr 838. Pyrite isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 462. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 152. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 425. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 70.7 hydrothermal quartz isochron Hydrothermal 130. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 0 Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz
21. 0 34. 0 22. 0 / / / 62. 0 98. 0 25. 0 49. 0 6.0 / / 1.8 2.7 1.7 110 .0 18. 0 13. 0 33. 0 2.2 1.4
Ni et al. (2015) Chen and Xu (1996) Chen and Xu (1996) Ye et al. (1993) Ye et al. (1993) Ye et al. (1993) Wang et al. (2018) Zhao (2013) Wang et al. (1999) Mao et al. (2008) Zhang (1994) Wu and Liu (1989) Li et al. (2007) Li et al. (2002) Li et al. (2002) Li et al. (2002) Mao et al. (2008) Han et al. (2010) Dong et al. (2008) Han et al. (2010) Dong et al. (2008) Deng et al. (2017b)
Rb–Sr isochron
222. 4
9.4
Han et al. (2010)
Electron Spin Resonance Electron Spin Resonance
214. 2 177. 4
21. 0 17. 0
Huang et al. (2012) Huang et al. (2012)
74 / 77
2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1
4 2
Hydrothermal quartz Hydrothermal quartz
South wester n Hunan (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9 5 0
South easter n Guizh ou (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
176. 5 155. 0 115. 8 107. 4 108. 2 160. 7
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
Hydrothermal quartz
Fission-track
98.0
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron
244. 0 205. 6 204. 8
K-feldspar
K-Ar
Mobin
K-feldspar
K-Ar
Fuzhu xi
Mineralized graniteporphyry
K-Ar
Pingji angLiuya ng
Weste rn Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n)
Electron Spin Resonance Electron Spin Resonance
Chanz iping Dapin g Shenji aya Liulinc hai
90.6 412. 5 404. 2 209. 9 418. 0 412. 0
17. 0 16. 0 17. 3 19. 5 16. 8 24. 8 20. 3 7.0 9.4 6.3 3.2 / / 3.4
Huang et al. (2012) Huang et al. (2012) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Hu et al. (1995) Ma et al. (2016) Li et al. (2008) Li et al. (2008) Chen et al. (2008) Wang et al. (1999) Wang et al. (1999) Yao and Zhu (1993) Peng and Dai (1998) Peng and Dai (1998)
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron
Yang watua n
Hydrothermal quartz
40Ar/39Ar
381. 0
1.0
Peng et al. (2003)
Bake
Arsenopyrite
Re-Os isochron
410. 0
52. 0
Gu et al. (2016)
Shuiyi nchan g
Whole rock
Rb–Sr isochron
406. 0
29. 0
Jia et al. (1993)
Rb–Sr isochron Re-Os isochron Rb–Sr isochron Rb–Sr isochron Re–Os isochron Re-Os isochron
340. 0 174. 0 477. 0 425. 0 400. 0 235. 3
16. 0 15. 0 14. 0 16. 0 24. 0
Zhu et al. (2006) Wang et al. (2011) Zhu et al. (2006) Zhu et al. (2006) Wang et al. (2011) Gu et al. (2016)
Xiaoji a
Jinjing
Whole rock
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Arsenopyrite
Pingq iu
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz Arsenopyrite Arsenopyrite
75 / 77
4.0 33. 0
3.4
5 1
5 2
5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3
6 4
6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8
Northe rn Guang xi (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n)
Centra l Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge n) North wester n Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n) South wester n Hunan (South wester n Jiangn an Oroge n) Centra l Hunan (Centr al Jiangn an Oroge
Jintou
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
430. 0
44. 0
Zhu et al. (2006)
Fensh uiao
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
166. 4
25. 7
Wang and Zhang (1997)
Mineralization ages for gold-antimony deposits Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 175. hydrothermal quartz isochron 0 Sm–Nd 210. Scheelite isochron 0 Long shan Re-Os 195. Pyrite isochron 0 Hydrothermal 162. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 5 331. Hydrothermal sericite K-Ar 0 Gutai shan Hydrothermal 223. 40Ar/39Ar muscovite 6 420. 40 39 Hydrothermal quartz Ar/ Ar 0 414. 40Ar/39A Hydrothermal quartz 0 Fluid inclusions in Rb–Sr 144. Woxi hydrothermal quartz isochron 8 281. Altered rocks K-Ar 0 Sm–Nd 402. Scheelite isochron 0
Pingc ha
Xikua ngsha n
Fluid inclusions in hydrothermal quartz
Rb–Sr isochron
435. 0
Mineralization ages for antimony deposits Hydrothermal calcite, Sm–Nd 156. stibnite isochron 3 Sm–Nd 155. Hydrothermal calcite isochron 5 Sm–Nd 124. Hydrothermal calcite isochron 1 155. Zircon in altered rocks (U-Th)/He 9 76 / 77
27. 0
20. 0 19. 0 11. 7
Shi et al. (1993) Zhang et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2016) Zhang et al. (2018a) Peng and Dai (1998) Li et al. (2018) Peng et al. (2003) Peng et al. (2003) Shi et al. (1993)
/
Luo (1989)
6.0
Peng et al. (2003)
9.0
Peng and Dai (1998)
2.0 36. 0 1.8 / 5.3
12. 0 1.1 3.7 12. 6
Hu et al. (1996) Peng et al. (2002) Peng et al. (2002) Fu et al. (2019a)
6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3
n)
7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He 40Ar/39Ar
7 4 7 5
Zircon in altered rocks
Hydrothermal quartz North wester n Hunan (West ern Jiangn an Oroge n)
Hydrothermal quartz Stibnite Banxi Arsenopyrite, stibnite
(youngest apparent age) 40Ar/40Ar (youngest apparent age) Sm–Nd isochron Rb-Sr isochron
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
Zircon in altered rocks
(U-Th)/He
142. 6 135. 6 131. 7 126. 0 117. 2
17. 8 9.4 11. 2 12. 0 14. 0
Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a) Fu et al. (2019a)
422. 2
0.2
Peng et al. (2003)
397. 4
0.4
Peng et al. (2003)
130. 4 129. 4 129. 0 125. 0 121. 0
1.9 2.4 3.0 10. 0 12. 0
Li et al. (2018) Li et al. (2018) Fu et al. (2019b) Fu et al. (2019b) Fu et al. (2019b)
1431 1432 1433 1434
Conflict of interest
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No conflict of interest exits in the submission of this manuscript, and the
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manuscript is approved by all authors for publication. I would like to declare on
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behalf of my co-authors that the work described is original research that has
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not been published previously, and is not under consideration for publication
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elsewhere, in whole or in part.
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