Analyzing structural and functional changes of traditional landscapes—two examples from Southern France

Landscape and Urban Planning 67 (2004) 79–95

Analyzing structural and functional changes of traditional landscapes—two examples from Southern France Veerle Van Eetvelde∗ , Marc Antrop Geography Department, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281 S8, B9000 Ghent, Belgium

Abstract Traditional landscapes are changing with increasing speed and an important cultural heritage is becoming lost. New landscapes replace the traditional ones gradually or sometimes abruptly. This article analyzes the characteristics and mechanisms of landscape changes at a settlement level, by using case studies in the countryside of southern France where landscapes are in transition between new residential urbanization and land abandonment. Structural changes in land use, building and field patterns between two time periods are studied using aerial photographs covering a period from 1960 to 1999. The photographs were scanned to allow on screen digitalization and interpretation of selected features and details, which were consecutively mapped and analyzed in a GIS. Changes observed on the aerial photographs were compared with the population statistic and the accessibility of the place. All cases show very different and unique trajectories of change with complex interactions between different driving forces. Agricultural intensification and land abandonment act simultaneously with different forms of urbanization in the countryside. Although easily recognizable on the aerial photographs, a quantitative assessment of the changes in the different structural components remains difficult and the results can hardly be related to changes in population characteristics and accessibility. Consequently, structural and morphological changes observed on the aerial photographs lead to other interpretations of the underlying functional processes than the statistical data do. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Cultural landscape; Landscape change; Aerial photo series; Southern France

1. Introduction Traditional cultural landscapes in Europe are in profound transition (Holdaway and Smart, 2001; Wascher, 2000; Green, 2000; Pedroli, 2000; Prihmdahl, 2000; Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995; Meeus et al., 1990). Many new types of landscape emerge (Klijn and Vos, 2000; Kolen and Lemaire, 1999). Coherent relations between the physical environment and the local cultural adaptation, resulting in typical patterns of settlement, roads, land use and field structures, characterize ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +32-9-264-47-07; fax: +32-9-264-85. E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Van Eetvelde).

0169-2046/$20.00 © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00030-6

traditional landscapes, which can be recognized easily on aerial photographs. Many of these relations last for generations of people living there and are ecologically consistent. Thus, traditional cultural landscapes are diverse and have a distinct identity linked to the character of the place or region (Antrop, 1997). In general, new landscapes are considered being less diverse and less coherent than the traditional ones. The pace of the changes is increasing (Klijn and Vos, 2000). These changes are difficult to study as most land use statistics are not reliable, due to the fact that they seldom reflect real landscape patterns and are often outdated (Stanners and Bourdeau, 1995). Many of the changes are structural and thus monitoring land cover may not be sufficient. Land use is only one aspect

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that determines the landscape character. Landscapes should be considered as holistic entities (Antrop and Van Eetvelde, 2000; Naveh, 2001; Naveh, 2000) and many other features beside land use define the landscape character and identity (Fry, 2000). Different models of changing landscape patterns can be defined (Forman, 1995; Vos and Stortelder, 1992; Keisteri, 1990). Landscape metrics or indices are frequently used to assess structural characteristics of landscapes and to monitor changes (Antrop, 1998; Dramstad et al., 1998; Fry, 1998; Hunsaker et al., 1994). Generally, traditional landscapes are considered as more diverse, small scaled, clearly structured and ordered, while new landscapes are considered to be more homogeneous or more chaotic, and more structured in a large-scale way (Vos, 2000; Antrop, 1997). Holism defines the identity of a landscape and thus its unique character (Naveh, 2000; Pinto-Correia, 2000). The concept of holism also describes how our perception works. It forms a basis in photo interpretation, which is one of the fundamental tools in landscape ecology (Turner et al., 2001; Troll, 1939). The holistic dimension of the landscape as well as the dynamics of the landscape can be studied easily using time series of aerial photographs, which offer more reliable results than census statistics (Dramstad et al., 1998; Ihse, 1995; Lipsky, 1995). Can structural changes between traditional and new landscapes be recognized and are these significant? How much structural change is needed for a traditional landscape to lose its character and to become a new landscape? Monitoring changes in land cover is widely practiced (Antrop, 2000; Wrbka, 1998; Ihse, 1996) and studying structural changes can offer new applications in planning (Fry, 1998). However, the relation between these changes and the actual processes are not obvious, as is the way they cause a profound change of the landscape character and identity. What makes the character of a landscape change? It might be a general change of land cover and land use, without fundamental changes of field size and patterns, or it might be a fundamental change in the field structure, road pattern and small biotopes without a significant change in land cover. What are the small mechanisms of change that together change the identity of a landscape or make it an other landscape type at the end? How many new housing is needed before the rural character is lost and an urbanized landscape emerges?

How can these mechanisms be studied, measured and monitored?. Landscape metrics or indices have been used widely to describe landscape structures, spatial patterns and landscape change (Turner et al., 2001; Klopatek and Gardner, 1999; Turner and Gardner, 1990). However, the significance of landscape metrics for practical applications remains questionable (Dramstad et al., 1998) and their dependence upon data quality is important in particular in highly dynamic landscapes, such as suburban ones (Turner et al., 2001; Antrop and Van Eetvelde, 2000). The question remains if the transition from traditional patterns to modern rural landscape patterns can be described using spatial structural indices that rely upon only very partial landscape components, such as land cover and which do not necessarily reflect the historical trajectory of the landscape. The use of time series of historical maps and aerial photographs is a common practice in historical geography and has proven to be very useful (Vuorela, 2000; Skånes and Bunce, 1997; Ihse, 1996). Their application was particularly successful in well-documented regions that were studied in detail with an interdisciplinary approach. However, most analyses are very detailed and specific and therefore difficult to generalize for monitoring a wide variety of actual landscape changes. Detailed studies at field or farm level indicate numerous different causes that can result in similar landscape changes. Understanding the changing landscape implies knowledge of the processes and mechanisms that cause them. Three main driving forces can be recognized: (1) accessibility related to transportation mode and infrastructure; (2) urbanization and (3) globalisation. The major trends of change of cultural landscapes in Europe can be summarized as follows according to Klijn and Vos (2001) and Wood and Handley (2001). First, the intensification and increase of scale of the agricultural production has a role. Wetlands and natural areas are likely to be transformed into agricultural land in particular in densely inhabited areas. The new reclaimed land is characterized by large-scale fields and mono-functional specialization. Small landscape elements with particular ecological value, such as ponds and hedges are lost. Fine-grained rural landscape structures are replaced by large scale ones which enhance landscape homogenisation and lead to loss of regional identities and diversity of cultural landscapes.

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Over-intensive land use can lead to rapid land degradation with processes of desertification and salinization. A second major trend is the urban sprawl, the growth of infrastructures and functional urbanization. These are other forms of intensive land use that have high environmental impacts. These forms of land use spread like a fungus over the existing agricultural or natural landscapes and create new and complex forms of multifunctional land use, increasing landscape heterogeneity and fragmentation. Multifunctionality demands reflection about the compatibility between different functions and land use and new planning solutions much be searched to combine these geographically (Brandt, 2000; Brandt et al., 2001). A third trend consists of specific tourist and recreational forms of land use that are still developing at an accelerating speed in coastal and mountainous regions. Natural, cultural and scenic values of the landscape are important factors in this development. The contrast between the urban-recreational development and the natural and often traditional rural surroundings is extreme. Sharp gradients in land use intensity develop at close range. Aspects of over-exploitation, spoiling and exceeding carrying capacity are important issues. As most of these are situated in less developed regions, new tourist infrastructure gives an extreme contrast with traditional forms of land use and settlement stressing social differences. Other variants in this trend, which are typical for developed regions, are the colonization of declining rural areas by secondary homes, the emergence of summer houses near natural areas, in particular coast (Tress, 1999). Typical for developed regions with an aging population is also the retirement migration mainly towards the coastal zone. The fourth trend consists of the extensification of land use and land abandonment that is likely to continue to affect remote rural areas with poor accessibility and less favourable or declining social and economical conditions. In these regions, the population will continue to decrease and agriculture will become less productive. Alternative forms, such as hobby-farming and part-time farming with specific land use, might emerge. In areas with less favourable physical land qualities, marginalization of land use and land abandonment will increase. Unplanned, patch work style, reforestation is characteristic in such areas and loss of cultural heritage elements is inherent.

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Different processes are involved in these trends and they act simultaneously. Traditional land use is characterized by involution where land use changes are introduced smoothly taking into consideration land capabilities and existing structures. This occurs in areas where limited technical means exist but high labour input could be applied. Polyculture of crops and multifunctional land use are prevalent and management is often sustainable. Otherwise, replacement is characterized by an increase of technical means and low labour input and causes land use change that wipe away the existing structures rapidly and transform the physical environment. Land use becomes more specialized and monofunctional zoning is typical. Ecological disturbances and stress upon the environment are important factors. Mismatch of dysfunction occurs when the chosen land use forms are not adapted to the physical land capabilities or to the geographical location and context. Obsolescence or loss of function might occur after a while and the land use gradually becomes disaffected (Wood and Handley, 2001). This study analyses the nature and magnitude of the changes in landscapes and the underlying mechanisms at the settlement level based on two case studies in southern France where landscapes are in transition between new residential urbanization and land abandonment. Aerial photographs, topographical maps and census statistics are used as data sources to assess the change of basic landscape components that define the landscape structure and identity. The focus will be upon the changes of the agrarian zone around the settlement and its more extensive fringe. These zones correspond to infields (or the ager of classic Roman land division), which is intensively cultivated land. The fringe zone corresponds partially to the more extensively used saltus grounds or outfields. Less attention will be given to the vast forests or wastelands, the silva.

2. Study areas Two case studies were selected in the rural countryside of France to assess the structural changes of the landscape in approximately 20 years. The cases were selected from a series of study areas that have been used for many years in training exercises for students in landscape science (Antrop, 1993). Over

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a long period, large datasets of topographical maps, aerial photographs, terrain observations and monographic studies were collected, offering a good basis to assess the processes of landscape change. The case studies were selected to represent different types of change as described by Klijn and Vos (2001) and Wood and Handley (2001). Tavernes and le Fleix–Montfaucon are both situated in southern France where land abandonment and urbanization of the countryside act simultaneously. Le Fleix and Monfaucon are adjacent municipalities: one in well accessible valley of the Dordogne River and one on a less accessible plateau. The cases will be discussed separately because of these different site characteristics. Table 1 summarizes the main characteristics of the traditional landscape for each of the case study areas. Fig. 1 gives their localization in France on a map of the estimated population density in 2015 based on demographical dynamics (Lebras, 1994). All are situated in rural zones with a rather low population density, but with a slight trend of population increase due to immigration in the region (Lacoste, 1990). The landscape character is described systematically for different components, such as landform, settlement, road and field patterns, land use, type of spatial zoning and the occurrence of landmarks as visual focal points in the area. The results are summarized in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Localization of the case studies in the estimated population density map for 2015 of France (1) Tavernes, (2) Le Fleix–Monfaucon (after Lebras, 1994).

Table 2 summarizes the population change and some administrative and additional location characteristics related to accessibility. Tavernes is a small village of less than a thousand inhabitants situated in the middle of Var Department in the Provence region in the Mediterranean southeast

Table 1 Characteristics of traditional landscapes Structural characteristics

Tavernes

Le Fleix

Monfaucon

Land form

Tectonic basin

Flood plain of Dordogne

Landscape spatial zoning

Circular concentric

Sections parallel to river corridor

Settlement type

Circular, nucleated

Planned nucleated

Building density Roads Dominant land use Field shape Field size: average coefficient of variation Field structure/slope Edges, corridors, barriers Forest

Low Three main roads connect village Olive groves Small blocks 1.25 ha (96.5%)

High One main road, radiating minor roads, bridge Polyculture Strips grouped in blocks 0.71 ha (74.0%)

Dissected plateau; cliff along Dordogne valley Mosaic of patches of forest, pastures and arable land Elongated or clustered on ridges; scattered hamlets Low Only minor roads

Flat and terraced Surrounding limestone hills Hardwood shrub (maquis)

Flat River, cliff Only on steep slopes mixed forest

Landmarks

Village

Bridge

Forest, cropland, grazing land Blocks, sometimes irregular shaped 0.68 ha (51.8%) Undulating to steep Steep slopes Only mixed forest on steep slopes and in minor valleys None

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Table 2 Socio-geographic characteristics of the studied municipalities (source statistics: Institut National de la Statistique et des Etudes Economique, France, 2001) Indicator

Tavernes 1982 1990

Le Fleix 1999

1982 1990

1999

Population 483 628 739 Population change (%) +30.0 +17.7 Older than 60 years (%) – 38.3 34.4 Foreigners (%) – – 2.8 Second residences (%) – – 20.8 Employed (%) – 85.4 77.9 Level of government Local authority, canton

– – – – Local

Distance (km) to the nearest Cities Barjols: 5; Manosque: 33 Highway access 19 19 + 28a 19 + 28a Railway station 21

St-Foy-la-Grande: 4; Bergerac: 20 64 57 14 5

a

1241

Montfaucon

1278 1345 +3.0 +5.2 30.1 32.3 – 1.3 – 9.7 88.3 88.4 authority, municipality

1982 1990

1999

209

233 232 +11.0 −0.4 – 25.3 28.9 – – 2.6 – – 16.8 – 93.4 82.3 Local authority, municipality St-Foy-la-Grande: 4; Bergerac: 19 68 61 10 9

To the E80 and the new A51-E172.

of France. The region is highly forested and belongs to the Pre-Alps. The landscape is characterized by a succession of mainly forested ridges and plateaus of Mesozoic limestone, where smaller basins and valleys are situated filled with Tertiary sediments providing arable soils (Antrop, 1988). Most of the settlements in the region are on defensive hilltop sites and are situated in the center of their territories, which includes the arable basin soils as well as parts of the limestone plateaus that were formerly used as extensive grazing land. The site of Tavernes is situated in the center of such a basin, which is almost perfectly circular and surrounded by steep slopes of limestone, which rise 40–280 m above the basin. The basis is drained through a small gorge in the south. The village is specialized in olive oil and some wine production. Most of the basis and the terraces lower foot slopes are olive groves and vineyards. The basin is assessable by three main roads: one to the east towards the gorge du Verdon, one to the west leading to the access of the E171 motorway and one to the south to the closest town Barjols and further to the E80 motorway. The village of Le Fleix and the hamlet of Monfaucon are situated at the border of the department Dordogne about 20 km west of the main town of Bergerac and near the old town Sainte-Foy-la-Grande and its twin settlement Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt on the opposite river bank. Both places are ancient strategic, commercial and harbor sites on the Dordogne River. Le Fleix is located near one of the major meanders

of the Dordogne River and possesses one of the few bridges over the river, thus connecting the historical region of the Périgord with Guyenne. It was founded as a small English medieval ‘new town’ or bastide (Ranoux, 1996). The river is only navigable by small barges and formed a natural border between the historical provinces. An important road passes through Le Fleix which, however, did not develop its strategic advantage as the nearby Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt and Sainte-Foy-la-Grande on the other side of the River. The River valley is approximately 5 km wide and the soils are formed of alluvial gravel and clayish deposits. The area is traditionally cultivated with a mixture of vineyards, orchards, cereals and tobacco as crops (Ranoux, 1996). This typical Aquitanian polycultural landscape (Lebeau, 1972; Pinchemel, 1969) disappeared largely during the second-half of the 20th century. The landscape became more homogeneous with a specialization in corn and fruit orchards and by grouping the fields into larger blocks. As the Dordogne forms the border between the planning regions Dordogne and Aquitaine, which since the 1970s follow each their own planning policy, interesting landscape changes on both sides of the river emerge. The municipality of Le Fleix has a little more than thousand inhabitants today (Table 3) and population density between 50 and 99 inhabitants/km2 (1990). Contrary to the easily accessible Le Fleix, the municipality of Monfaucon is situated 88 m above the valley on the dissected plateau with rugged relief,

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Table 3 Aerial photographs and topographical maps used Datasets

Case study

Date

Original scale

Topographical maps Tavernes, IGN France, number 3343 Ste-Foy-la-Grande, IGN France, number 1736

Tavernes Le Fleix–Monfaucon

1984 1988

1/50000 1/50000

Aerial photographs—Scanning 1000 dpi IGN France 9064-145 numbers 2937–2939 IGN France 83-200 numbers 2038–2040 IGN France 1636–1936 numbers 102–104 IGN France 1736/300 numbers 24–26

Tavernes Tavernes Le Fleix–Monfaucon Le Fleix–Monfaucon

1979 1993 1960 1999

1/14500 1/20000 1/25000 1/30000

approximately 5 km from the river. It is connected with the main transportation infrastructure by small winding roads. This relative isolation is well expressed by its population of about 200 inhabitants (Table 3) and very low population density consisting of <10 inhabitants/km2 (Ranoux, 1996). The steep slopes are formed in Tertiary of molasses, sands, clays and gravels and are forested. Woodlands occupy also large parts of the plateau. Cropland and meadows are prevalent. The increase of the forested area is characteristic for the landscape change here.

3. Methods and materials Analogue stereoscopic black and white aerial photographs were available for two time periods (Table 3). Their original scale varied from 1/14500 to 1/30000. The photographs were scanned at a resolution of 1000 dpi to allow comparison and overlaying. The resolution 1000 dpi was chosen to allow the detection of the smallest landscape elements also during the onscreen interpretation, since changes of these were considered highly significant in the assessment of changes of small details in the landscape. Georeferencing of the raster images was done in PCI Geomatica. Comparative photo-interpretation and on screen digitizing was performed in AutoCAD Map 2000, while for map overlaying and spatial analysis Arcview GIS 3.1 was used. First, the geographical context and site characteristics for the different cases were studied using topographical maps and literature. This allowed to define the main structural components of the traditional landscapes and to collect information of processes

that were significant for the landscape changes, such as population dynamics and construction projects. These characteristics were summarized in Table 1. Second, a global visual stereoscopic interpretation of photographs was conducted to define different landscape units (blocks) in each case. These blocks were used as strata for sampling and aggregating elements of change within these areas. The blocks were defined as polygons bordered by roads and enclosing similar patterns of fields, buildings or linear features, such as terraces, natural edges and rivers. These irregular polygons were preferred to a raster grid for aggregating the observed changes because the areas correspond to old field systems and to the traditional agrarian land organization systems (Lebeau, 1972; Uhlig and Lienau, 1972). Town centers were left out of the analysis because of the different scale and nature of structural changes within the built up environment. Different landscape elements were selected as significant indicators of structural change. These were land cover, defined field-by-field or patch-by-patch when no clear field borders could be separated, buildings and infrastructural constructions with their associated properties and fields patterns with different size and shape. Third, aerial photographs and topographical maps were scanned and georeferenced using PCI Geomatica to allow map overlay and easy comparison. Elements of change were digitized on screen as a vector map in AutoCAD Map 2000. An example to illustrate this is given in Fig. 2. Different types of changes were described, counted and measured for each time period and consecutively aggregated by landscape block. The results are summarized in Table 4 and represented cartographically in diagrams (Figs. 4 and 8).

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Fig. 2. Example of a block stratified sampling and indication of objects selected for comparison (case study Le Fleix).

Finally, these results were compared to changes in population spreading. Therefore population potential surfaces were constructed for the different periods. Population potential maps indicate the relative isolation of places relative to the population size of the settlements in the region and are based upon the gravity

model of interaction (Smith, 1975; Haggett, 1975). In this case the population census data for the municipalities was used. The density mapping procedure of the Spatial Analyst in Arcview GIS was applied, using a search distance of 5 km, which corresponds to the average action radius of movement by pedestrians

Table 4 Indicators of change the case study areas Tavernes, Le Fleix and Monfaucon Indicator Time period

Tavernes

Le Fleix

Monfaucon

1979–1993

1960–1999

1960–1999

For surveyed area Surveyed area (km2 ) Change of forested area (ha) Overall building density (km2 ) past/present (% change) Annual rate of change of building density (%) Number of fields past/present (% change) Annual rate of change of number of fields (%)

4.825 – 26.9/42.9 (+59.2%) +4.2 608/509 (−16.3%) −1.2

8.395 – 34.3/58.7 (+71.2%) +1.8 1548/700 (−54.8%) −1.4

8.857 +60.38 (+6.8%) 6.7/15.6 (+133.9%) +3.4 537/231 (−57.0%) −1.5

At block level Number of blocks Difference in average building density by block (km2 ) Difference in average number of fields by block Difference in average field size by block (ha) Annual change of number of building density (km2 ) Annual change of number of fields (km2 ) Average field size (ha): past/present Coefficient of variation of field size (%): past/present Annual change of average field size (m2 )

11 +31.37 −40.71 +0.9856 +1.14 −1.47 1.25/2.24 97/94 +110.23

23 +34.37∗∗ −36.87∗∗ +0.8983∗∗ +20 −72.66 0.71/1.61 74/52 +230.34

10 +13.01∗ −30.60∗∗ +0.4884∗ +3 −8.86 0.68/1.08 52/48 +102.70

∗

P < 0.05. P < 0.01.

∗∗

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during the shaping of the traditional landscape (Antrop, 1999). The population potential map of the oldest situation is represented by gray shaded contours. The difference map between the potential surfaces for the two periods gives an indication of the spatial change of potential population density and is represented as a contour map. The theoretical territories were mapped using Thiessen polygons and population size of the settlements according to Antrop (1988). These were overlaid with the actual municipal borders.

4. Results For approximately the same time period, all study areas show important, but completely different patterns of change in the land use and landscape structure, which are summarized in Table 4 and illustrated by Figs. 3 and 7. Tavernes is situated in a transition zone of high population potential associated with the town of Barjols

in the south and an almost abandoned densely forested limestone plateaus in the north and east (Fig. 5). A rapid connection to the main motorway E80 of the Cˆote d’Azur in the south exists. Since 1990, the minor road to the west offers also access to the E172 motorway. The population increase of Tavernes is spectacular between 1982 and 1999 (>53%) with an annual growth rate of 3.1%, which seems to be slowing down now. An increase of 30.0% was noted between 1982 and 1990, which almost halved (>17.7%) between 1990 and 1999. Although the percentage foreigner is low (2.8%), the proportion of secondary housing occupies now one-fifth (20.8%). The proportion of the elderly people is slightly decreasing; unemployment remains high and has increased in the last decade. The shift of the population density surface indicates a relatively faster growth to the north and northwest of Barjols. The Thiessen polygons still correspond fairly well with the old municipal border. At a first look, the Tavernes Basin shows little change between 1979 and 1993 (Fig. 3). In particular the circular and nucleated old village looks

Fig. 3. Aerial photographs of the Tavernes village and the eastern foot slope in 1979 (top) and 1993 (bottom) (extract from IGN France 9064–145 numbers 2937–2939, 83–200 numbers 2038–2040).

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Fig. 4. Change maps for dominant land use, buildings (a) and number of fields (b) by landscape block for the Tavernes case study. Type of change for dominant land use: (1) maquis to maquis (2) maquis and olive yards to maquis and olive yards (3) vineyards to vineyards (4) vineyards to vineyards and arable land (5) vineyards and olive yards to arable land.

unchanged and small changes in land use can be noticed in the cultivated basin, in particular the transition from vineyards to olive groves. Most important changes are located at the terraced foot slopes of the Basin, in particular in the northern and eastern edge of the Basin. The number of buildings increased from 130 in 1979 to 207 in 1993, which means an overall increase of the building density from 26.9 to 42.9 buildings/km2 (>59.2%). A pronounced con-

centration in the north and east of the Basin can be traced. Clearly, the well-protected, long steep slopes facing south and west are preferred. However, the slopes are well absorbed in the already existing landscape. Smaller buildings, such as the cabanons, field cabins with stonewalls and brick roofing tiles and typical for the region, have been transformed and enlarged into second homes (Fig. 6). The surrounding narrow cultivation terraces have been abandoned

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Fig. 5. Population potential and village territories in (a) the Tavernes study area and (b) the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area. Grey shades zones represent the population potential surface of 1982; contour lines indicate differences between the 1999 and 1982 surface with the mean value of change for the Tavernes study area = 6 inhabitants/km2 and for the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area = 3 inhabitants/km2 ; dotted lines represent the municipal borders and dashed lines the theoretical territories defined by Thiessen polygons.

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Fig. 6. Detailed extracts from aerial photographs illustrating the interpretation of the change of individual elements: transformation of field cabins and terraces (left) into residential villas with swimming pool and gardens (right) (Tavernes).

and transformed into gardens. New houses have also been built in a scattered pattern on the abandoned terrace slopes. Existing dirt roads formed the skeleton to access new housing sites. The number of fields decreased by 16.3%, but the change in average field size by block did not change significantly. Variation in field size remains very high as indicated by the coefficient of variation. Spatial variation is clearly shown by the diagrams in Fig. 4. The average field size by block increases almost by one hectare, which is not significant (P = 0.1430). The Dordogne Valley appears clearly in the population potential map (Fig. 5). Le Fleix is situated at the transition of the core area of the main towns Sainte-Foy-la-Grande and Port-Ste-Foy-et-Ponchapt and the plateau area with very low population density where Monfaucon is situated. The population of the Le Fleix municipality has been stagnating between 1982 and 1990, with an average annual growth of only 0.5%. This stagnation is also reflected by its age structure: 30–32% of the inhabitants is older than 60 years (Ranoux, 1996). The overall population increase was 8.4% and seems to be slightly accelerating (>3.0% between 1982 and 1990, >5.2% between 1990 and 1999) (Table 3). Unemployment is low and has been stable in the last decade. The percentage of foreigners is extremely low as is the proportion of second homes.

The core of population potential shows a clear shift towards the northeast with the highest change rate between Le Fleix and St-Avit-St-Nazaire and in the viewing of Gardonne. Although the population statistics suggest low dynamics in the area, this shift of population potential corresponds to changes in building density. The number of buildings doubled from 288 in 1960 to 493 in 1997, which gives an overall increase of the building density in the studied area from 34.3 to 58.7 buildings/km2 (>71.2%). The average building density by block increases significantly by 34.37 buildings/km2 . The scattered extension of new residential housing is situated in particular along the secondary roads to northeast of the old village center. Another striking structural change visible on the aerial photographs is an important reorganization of the field pattern. The regular strips organized in blocks have been up scaled and replaced by large fields. Less than half of the number of fields in the area studied remained: 1548 fields in 1960, only 700 in 1999 (−54.8%). The average number of fields by block had decreased significantly. Most of the small strip fields were merged into larger blocks. The average field size by landscape block increased significantly by 0.8983 ha from 0.7066 ha in 1960 to 1.6049 ha in 1999. Simultaneously, the variation coefficient dropped from 74 to 52%, indicating homogenization of the field size. The spatial variation of these changes by block is given

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Fig. 7. Aerial photographs of the Le Fleix–Monfaucon study area in 1960 (top) and 1999 (bottom) (extract from IGN France 1636–1936 numbers 102–104, 1736/300 numbers 24–26).

in Fig. 8. Land use becomes more homogeneous, as fruit orchards have replaced the vineyards on the flat valley area. Although poorly accessible, the population of the municipality of Monfaucon showed a spectacular increase of 11.0% between 1982 and 1990, which is far above the average growth of the Department (>2.4%) (Ranoux, 1996). This makes its population structure

more favourable than Le Fleix, although 20–29% of people are older than 60 years (Ranoux, 1996). However, this population increase happened between 1982 and 1990 and has stagnated. This sudden increase in population is expressed by a relative increase in building density in the area from 6.7 to 15.6 buildings/km2 (>133.9%). Land use changes show an extension of forest, mainly due to abandonment or replanting of

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Fig. 8. Change maps for dominant land use, buildings (a) and number of fields (b) by landscape block for the Le Fleix–Monfaucon case study. Circle indicates unbuilt blocks in 1960 with number of buildings in 1999. Type of change for dominant land use: (1) forest to forest; (2) forest and grassland to forest; (3) grassland to grassland; (4) arable land and grassland to fruit orchards; (5) arable land to fruit orchards; (6) grassland and arable land to arable land; (7) grassland and arable land to grassland; (8) grassland and arable land to grassland and arable land; (9) grassland and arable land to grassland and arable land and water surfaces; (10) arable land to arable land; (11) arable land and vineyards to orchards.

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Fig. 9. Detailed extracts from aerial photographs illustrating the interpretation of the change of individual elements: transformation of a manor into an institution for special education (Cadillac, Le Fleix).

individual fields. Forest increased by 60 ha (>6.8%) in the area. The average number of fields by block was reduced and average field size increased significantly by almost half a hectare (>0.4884 ha). The variation of field sizes by blocks has persisted (52% in 1960 to 48% in 1999) and is rather low compared to the other case studies. Existing farms expanded with new buildings. The aerial photographs easily reveal functional changes where farms extended activities and manors have been turned in special education (Fig. 9), recreation or rural tourism (gˆıte rural, table d’hˆotes) establishments.

5. Discussion The holistic view given by the aerial photographs offers the most comprehensive assessment of the structural changes of the landscapes. Important changes in spatial patterns can be detected easily and visually interpretated. Measuring and quantification reduces the observed and obvious changes to non-significant differences in indicator values. The stratification of landscape using blocks allowed some spatial differentiation, but the indicators of change derived from the strata are not easy interpretable. A difficulty here is that the delineation of blocks combines both physical features, such as abrupt changes in the slope and river valleys, as well as cultural features, such as field systems and roads.

Terms, such as ‘construction’, ‘field’ and ‘field system’, as applied in classical historical geography in Europe (Lebeau, 1972; Uhlig and Lienau, 1972), were preferred instead of the more general concepts, such as ‘element’ and ‘patch’. They allow a more direct and thus a less abstract interpretation. Properties, such as ‘field size’ and ‘shape’ are used for the same reason instead of the more abstract quantitative landscape metrics that are frequently applied in landscape ecology, and that are more controversial in use (Dramstad et al., 1998). Although many landscape metrics are related (Turner et al., 2001), their combined use gives better interpretation (Dramstad et al., 1998). The use of synthetic indices of landscape change is only meaningful when looking at one feature of change, such as land use or forestation. Combining land use changes with structural changes of settlement and field patterns seldom results in an index that allows unambiguous interpretation. The borders of the municipality of Tavernes and its size and shape still reflect the traditional territorial zoning. Theoretical territories correspond well with the original, old municipal borders, confirming earlier similar findings (Antrop, 1988). The compact shape and central position of the controlling settlement indicate an organic growth of the land occupancy (Unwin and Nash, 1992; Baker, 1971). In case of Le Fleix and Monfaucon, the theoretical mapped territories using Thiessen polygons correspond well with the municipal borders and indicate an organic growth of the

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land occupancy. The land use change and small reduction of arable land in the basin of Tavernes between 1979 and 1999, could be seen as a continuing phase in the decline of small-scale traditional polyculture that started in the second-half of the 20th century as described already in detail for the adjacent municipality Montmeyan by Larnoe (1988). The structural changes in the landscape are mainly new residential (second) housing that is well absorbed in the traditional terraced foot slopes. Most changes are functional and do not affect the basic structure of the landscape. The general morphology and physiognomy of the landscape is hardly affected and changes become only distinct when looking closer at details. For all case studies the interpretation and linking of population statistics and dynamics to the observed physical changes in buildings and field patterns is not distinct. This confirms the advantage of using aerial photographs over census statistics in landscape change studies (Dramstad et al., 1998; Lipsky, 1995). For the Le Fleix and Monfaucon case, census statistics and population maps (Ranoux, 1996) suggest different, even opposite dynamics than what can be observed in analyzing the time series of aerial photographs. Important physical changes can be observed in the landscape, while census data suggest a stagnating area with low dynamics. The changing field patterns in Le Fleix is a typical result of the up-scaling and transition towards industrial specialization in crops. Le Fleix has remained a rural village with the main activity in agriculture. The population statistics do not explain the more than doubling of the number of buildings in the area (from 34.3 buildings/km2 in 1960 up to 58.7 buildings/km2 in 1999). Many new buildings are extensions of existing complexes of farms or companies. The residential expansion shows a typical ‘beady ring’ development emerging along the access roads of the original village (Saunders, 2001; Hillier and Hanson, 1984). The population of Monfaucon stagnated after a short period of fast growth by immigration and is getting older while unemployment increases. It is not possible to relate this population growth to the observed obvious increase in building density. Most of the new buildings are extensions of existing sites, in particular of expanding farms or transformation of existing building complexes into institutions or enterprises. Consequently, in this case the building density as one of the indicators of landscape

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change does not refer to important visual and structural change of the landscape, but rather to functional change. Detailed visual interpretation of single elements, such as individual fields and buildings is possibly based on the aerial photographs, offering the possibility of detecting functional changes that are important for better understanding the processes of change in the area. The expansion of the forest in Monfaucon seems to illustrate the principles of “la forˆet chasse l’homme” (‘the forest chases humans’) and “la forˆet en timbre poste” (‘afforestation by small post stamps’), which have been used to describe the symptoms of land abandonment in central France (Bouet and Fel, 1983).

6. Conclusions Structural changes in the selected villages in the French countryside showed fundamental but also very specific changes over the recent two to four decades. Most of the changes were induced by processes of urbanization and a combination of agricultural intensification and land use extensification. Few changes can be directly related to changes in the accessibility of the place. Changes in statistical data that indicate human activity and accessibility do not always coincide with changes observed in land use and landscape patterns. Places that look stable in the census data can show significant structural landscape change, as in the le Fleix and Monfaucon case. Structural changes, as shown by indices, such as number of buildings and field size, are not always the result of the same proces. Functional changes of existing elements can be detected using detailed visual photo interpretation. Although many different types of functional and structural change can be detected and even measured to some extend, the central question remains unanswered. The transition from a traditional landscape in a new one happens gradually with changes in some landscape components while others remain unchanged. The overall landscape character, its identity is more stable than specific structural components, such as field systems or land use. It illustrates the binding power of holism in the characterization of landscape. Large values of changes as indicated by numerical indices do not always find their expression in the landscape itself. Much depends on how the changes are absorbed by the existing landscape

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structure as illustrated in the Tavernes and Monfaucon cases. The processes and mechanisms of change can not be understood completely using only census data or pattern analysis on aerial photographs. Macroscopic observation and interpretation of the change of individual elements, such as a single field or building complex, reveal both structural and functional changes, which are often very specific. Advanced and detailed photo-interpretation is indicated and should be combined with additional field surveying using interviews and collecting the oral history of the area. References Antrop, M., 1988. Invisible connectivity in rural landscapes. In: Schreiber K.-F. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Second International Seminar of IALE, Connectivity in Landscape Ecology. Münsterische Geographische Arbeiten 29, Münster, pp. 57–62. Antrop, M., 1993. The transformation of the Mediterranean landscapes an experience of 25 years of observations. In: Proceedings of the International Symposium on The Future of Mediterranean Landscapes. Landscape and Urban, Planning, vol. 24. Landscape Ecology, Montecatini, pp. 3–13. Antrop, M., 1997. The concept of traditional landscapes as a base for landscape evaluation and planning. The example of Flanders Region. Landscape Urban Plann. 38, 105–117. Antrop, M., 1998. Landscape change: plan or chaos? Landscape Urban Plann. 41, 155–161. Antrop, M., 1999. Transport routes in the landscape: about connectors, dividers, initiators, attractors and views. In: Kristensen, L., Petersen, E.H. (Eds.), Transport og Landskab. Landskabsøkologiske skrifter nr. 13, Center for Landskabsforskning, pp. 21–39. Antrop, M., 2000. Changing patterns in the urbanized countryside of Western Europe. Landscape Ecol. 15 (3), 257–270. Antrop, M., Van Eetvelde, V., 2000. Holistic aspects of suburban landscapes: visual image interpretation and landscape metrics. Landscape Urban Plann. 50, 43–58. Baker, A., 1971. Some shape and contact characteristics of French rural communes. In: Dussart, F. (Ed.), L’habitat et ses paysages ruraux d’Europe, vol. 58. Compte rendu du Symposium, Université, Liège, pp. 13–24. Bouet, G., Fel, A., 1983. Atlas et Geographie du Massif Central. Flammarion, 348 pp. Brandt, J., 2000. Demands for future landscapes research on multifunctional landscapes. Summing up of the Conference Multifunctional Landscapes—interdisciplinary approaches to landscape research and management, 18–21 October. Roskilde, 6 pp. Brandt, J., Holmes, E., Skriver, P., 2001. Urbanisation of the countryside—problems of interdisciplinarity in the study of rural development. In: Proceedings of the Conference on the Open SPACE functions under URBAN Pressure, 19–21 September 2001. Ghent, 8 pp.

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Unwin, T., Nash, B., 1992. Township boundaries: theoretical considerations and analytical implications. Tijdschrift van de Belgische Vereniging voor Aardrijkskundige Studies 1, 116– 127. Vos, W., 2000. Future landscapes: between the devil and the deep blue sea. In: Pedroli, B. (Ed.), 2000. Landscape— our Home. Lebensraum Landschaft. Essays on the Culture of the European Landcsape as a Task. Indigo, Zeist—Freies Geistesleben, Stuttgart, pp. 187–192. Vos, W., Stortelder, A.H.F., 1992. Vanishing Tuscan landscapes, landscape ecology of a sub-mediterranean-montane area (Solano basin, Tuscany, Italy), Pudoc, Wageningen. Vuorela, N., 2000. Can data combination help to explain the existence of diverse landscapes? Fennia 178 (1), 55–80. Wascher, D.M. (Ed), 2000. The Face of Europe. European Centre for nature Conservation, Technical Report Series, Tilburg, 59 pp. Wood, R., Handley, J., 2001. Landscape Dynamics and the Management of Change. Landscape Res. 26 (1), 45–54. Wrbka, T., 1998. Landscape structure as indicators for sustainable land use? A case study in alpine and lowland landscapes of Austria. In: Dover, J.W., Bunce, R.G.H. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1998 European Congress of IALE, Key Concepts in Landscape Ecology. UK-IALE 3, September 1998, pp. 177–180. Veerle Van Eetvelde is geographer and planner. She specialises in landscape science, GIS and spatial data structures. At present, she is an assistant at the Department of Geography of the University of Ghent and supervises students’ exercises in landscape science. She works on a PhD, analysing structures and dynamical processes in landscapes. She is co-author of the landscape atlases, active in studies for environmental impact assessment related to landscape and did research to set up an integrated monitoring system for the Flanders region. Marc Antrop (1946) is geographer specialised in landscapes sciences, remote sensing, GIS and planning. He is professor lecturing at the University of Ghent (Belgium, Flanders) and at the moment head of the Department of Geography. His interest in the landscape is broad and holistic, covering and integrating aspects of landscape genesis (in particular focusing upon the natural and cultural aspects of the European landscapes), landscape perception, landscape evaluation and land assessment, landscape ecology and landscape architecture. Practical application of this knowledge is achieved in planning and environmental impact assessment and monitoring land degradation. His main work areas are Belgium, France, the Mediterranean, Egypt and Central Europe. His main research field are actually the elaboration of the survey of the relicts of traditional landscapes of Flanders, the elaboration of methods for strategic environmental impact assessment (SEA) and the development of new structural spatial planning. He is member of the Royal Committee for Protection of Monuments and Landscapes in Flanders and vice-president for the division of landscape protection. He is a consultant for the Flemish and Belgian government on the field of environmental impact assessment and the implementation of GIS in administration, environmental policy and planning and is member of the Scientific GIS Committee.