Antecedents and outcomes of migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment in the hospitality industry

International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Hospitality Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Antecedents and outcomes of migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment in the hospitality industry Woo Gon Kim, Hyung-Min Choi ∗ , Jun (Justin) Li International Center for Hospitality Research & Development, Dedman School of Hospitality Management, The College of Business, Florida State University, 288 Champions Way UCB 4117, Tallahassee, FL 32306-2541, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 17 October 2015 Received in revised form 12 May 2016 Accepted 30 June 2016 Keywords: a migrant worker a respondent-driven sampling (RDS) Dominant cultural orientation (DCO) Sociocultural adjustment (SCA) Life satisfaction (LS) Turnover intention (TI)

a b s t r a c t Migrant workers are an important part of the labor force for the hospitality industry in developed countries and emerging markets. The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) and dominant cultural orientation (DCO), sociocultural adjustment (SCA), job satisfaction (JS), life satisfaction (LS), and turnover intention (TI) of migrant workers. This research uses a respondent-driven sampling (RDS) method with a dual incentive system to attain hard-to-reach migrant employees. The findings demonstrate that both POS and DCO have a significant and positive relationship with SCA and, interestingly, that POS has a stronger impact on hospitality migrants’ SCA than DCO. The findings also imply that although personal efforts of migrant workers are important for their effective socialization, positive support from a hospitality organization plays a far more important role. Furthermore, this study highlights the significant relationships between POS and JS and between DCO and LS. The findings also show that SCA had a significant and positive effect on LS and that hospitality migrants who adjust well in their host society tend to have a high satisfaction with their lives in the foreign country and are apt to stay longer in their positions. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction The hospitality industry is facing a labor shortage, and some researchers have written on this emerging challenge (Choi et al., 2000; Meier, 1991; Taylor and Finley, 2010; Zopiatis et al., 2014). In addition, research from the United States Department of Labor (2015a) shows that employment rates in the industry of accommodation and food services in the United States have deeply decreased from 83.6% in 2005 to 69.4% in 2014 due to a lack of labor in the hospitality industry although the total job openings in this sector has increased from 5.4 million to 7.1 million. The above statistics clearly indicate that the hospitality industry has the challenge of filling the growing number of jobs since the labor supply pool is not deep enough to meet the demand of hospitality businesses. The labor shortage issue in the hospitality sector is not only a major concern in developed countries but is also an issue in emerging markets, for example, in South Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. According to the statistics provided by the Ministry of Employment and Labor in South Korea (2015), the labor shortage rates have

∗ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (W.G. Kim), [email protected] (H.-M. Choi), [email protected] (J. Li). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2016.06.009 0278-4319/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

increased from 3.8% in 2009 to 6.4% in 2014. The hospitality industry has consistently had the highest labor shortage rates out of all industries since 2010. Moreover, research shows labor shortage will become more serious in the future because the working-age population (from 16 years old to 64 years old) will decline dramatically in the next decade due to demographic changes from aging and low birth rates (Bloom et al., 2011). Therefore, based on current and forecasted labor shortage issues, hospitality researchers need to propose various solutions for the labor shortage problem. The hospitality industry can resolve its labor shortage problem by importing a foreign workforce, and migrant workers are a great alternative labor force. For example, in 2008, the number of foreign-born migrant workers (27% of total restaurant employees, 34% of restaurant and catering managers, 31% of chefs, and 26% of waiting staff) in the UK’s hospitality industry was considerable (Baum, 2012). In the U.S., 22% of employees for food preparation and serving were born overseas (United States Department of Labor, 2015b). This phenomenon is also global, especially in other developed countries such as Luxembourg (44.6%), Switzerland (27.5%), Australia (21.1%), New Zealand (18.7%), and Austria (14.5%), which show much higher rates of migrant workers in the service sector than the average (7.4%) country (OECD, 2012). In South Korea, the proportion of migrant workers in the lodging and the restaurant industry has continuously increased (Statistics Korea, 2014). This

2

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

statistical information shows that migrant workers have filled a workforce need in the contemporary hospitality industry because native workers cannot fill the labor demand. Hospitality migrant workers include daily commuters, seasonal workers, and permanent migrants (Baum, 2012; Janta et al., 2012). Most of them can be classified as low-paid or casual workers (Baum, 2012; Manoharan et al., 2014). The primary reason why people migrate to other countries is for better employment opportunities (Baum, 2012). Even though many migrant workers have been employed by service firms for numerous years, they often remain at low skilled levels compared to native workers (Janta et al., 2011). Migrant workers also often face the challenge of adequate socialization—the process by which humans acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society or social group (Macionis and Gerber, 2010)—in their host society (Alberti, 2014; Taylor and Finley, 2010). Migrant workers tend to have higher turnover rates and job dissatisfaction due to maladjustment. From the labor cost perspective, HR departments carry the high cost of constant recruiting and training; as a result, those costs may outweigh savings from migrant workers’ relatively low wages (Baum, 2012; Slavnic, 2013; Taylor and Finley, 2010; Zopiatis et al., 2014). Thus, considering the important role migrant workers play in solving the labor shortage problem, human resource managers need to pay attention to the sociocultural adjustment of migrant workers to mitigate high employee turnover rate. Social exchange theory implies that if an organization offers support and reciprocity to facilitate employees’ job domain or their well-being, the likelihood employees will leave the organization declines (Kim et al., 2005; Kraimer et al., 2001; O’Neill and Davis, 2011). Most migrant workers are generally facing the challenge of adjusting to the mainstream culture of the host country (Au et al., 1998; Janta, 2011; Taylor and Finley, 2010). When an organization provides a strong support system to facilitate migrant workers’ successful adjustment to the host society, migrant workers are likely to show higher loyalty to the company and not leave the organization, reducing the turnover rate (Taylor and Finley, 2010). On the other hand, acculturation theory explains the process of cultural and psychological changes that migrants experience during their cultural adjustment process in the host country (Berry, 1997). In this process, they endeavor to adjust to life by interacting with people who are a part of mainstream culture and changing their behaviors; as a result, they face acculturative stress caused mainly by experiencing cultural differences between their society of origin and their settlement (Ben-Shalom and Horenczyk, 2003; Gui et al., 2012; Lu et al., 2012). Migrants can accomplish long-term adaptation primarily by their individual effort to reduce stress (Au et al., 1998; Berry, 1997). A study based on acculturation theory also demonstrates that managing migrant workers’ socialization (or sociocultural adjustment) to the host culture is one of the important strategies for reducing their turnover intention (Taylor and Finley, 2010). Hence, the above two theories insinuate that organizational support and migrant workers’ orientation to the dominant culture are important drivers for reducing their TI because they promote migrant workers’ adjustment. The importance of migrant workers’ SCA, including their quality of life in their host countries, has been ignored or not well understood, specifically, in the field of hospitality research. A limited amount of research addresses the importance of migrant workers as an alternative workforce in the hospitality and tourism sector (e.g., Choi et al., 2000; Janta et al., 2012; Loi et al., 2014; Shen and Huang, 2012). Several studies contribute to hospitality migrants research by stating that hospitality migrant workers suffer from their precarious life and job (Alberti, 2014; Rydzik et al., 2012; Slavnic, 2013) and suffer from racial discrimination based on their skin color (Parutis, 2011). However, these previous studies are rather exploratory (or qualitative) and have not quantitatively

dealt with migrant workers’ SCA, which can be an important factor for JS, LS, and TI. Moreover, the studies do not explain how migrant workers can effectively socialize into the host society nor what can be expected from their socialization. To fill this gap, this research examines which factors influence hospitality migrant workers’ ability to adjust to their social and cultural environment and whether one can expect positive outcomes, such as improved job and life satisfaction and decreased TI, from their SCA. Thus, this study aims to examine the relationship between perceived organizational support (POS) from hospitality organizations and dominant cultural orientation (DCO), SCA, JS, LS, and TI of migrant workers. 2. Literature review 2.1. Social exchange theory and perceived organizational support Over the past five decades, researchers have viewed social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1958) as ideal for explaining the relationship between an organization and its members and, therefore, applied it to many studies (Aryee et al., 2002; Wayne et al., 1997). POS is the most typical construct this theory explains. Many researchers perceive the employment relationship as a social exchange relationship (e.g., Etzioni, 1969; March et al., 1958), and the concept of POS developed from social exchange theory (Settoon et al., 1996; Wayne et al., 1997). Researchers define POS as the collective belief members of an organization have about how much value the organization places on job contribution and member achievements and how much the organization is interested in its members’ wellbeing as a means of compensation for their contribution and achievements (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Numerous studies (e.g., Allen et al., 2003; Walters and Raybould, 2007) have reported that members of an organization spend their energy and time on the organization and will remain in the organization in exchange for the financial and social support the organization provides. 2.2. Acculturation theory and dominant cultural orientation In addition, many researchers have used the bi-dimensional acculturation model to analyze bicultural people’s attitudes (e.g., Ben-Shalom and Horenczyk, 2003; Berry, 1997; Ryder et al., 2000; Stephenson, 2000). One of the unique characteristics of this model is it purports that migrants do not change by only the means of simple learning, but they change strategically to adjust. One dimension of the model is migrant’s orientation toward the dominant culture, and the other is migrant’s orientation toward the nondominant culture (Ben-Shalom and Horenczyk, 2003; Berry, 1997; Stephenson, 2000). The majority of studies in the field of crosscultural psychology, regarding the bi-dimensional acculturation scales, have used the terminology of dominant cultural orientation and non-dominant cultural orientation in general, though a few researchers (Ryder et al., 2000) used heritage (or minority) culture and mainstream culture identification as the concepts of these dimensions. However, there is not much difference in meaning between dominant (or non-dominant) cultural orientation and mainstream (or heritage) cultural identification (Berry, 1997). DCO refers to an individual’s efforts to acquire dominant or mainstream culture, and the dimension of non-dominant cultural orientation refers to an individual’s willingness to maintain their heritage culture and identity (Ben-Shalom and Horenczyk, 2003; Ryder et al., 2000). Berry (1997) explains that the framework of acculturation attitudes is defined by four types of strategies: integration (high orientation toward both dominant and non-dominant culture), assimilation (high orientation toward dominant culture, but low orientation toward non-dominant culture), separation

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

(low orientation toward dominant culture, but high orientation toward non-dominant culture), and marginalization (low orientation toward both dominant and non-dominant culture). 2.3. Sociocultural adjustment In hospitality literature, scholars describe SCA in terms of behavioral competence, which is more strongly influenced by factors underpinning culture learning and social skills acquisition (Ward and Kennedy, 1999). This construct consists of three factors: general, interaction, and work (Black, 1988). General adjustment is a dimension concerning the general living conditions and culture of the host country including housing, food, shopping, entertainment, cost of living, and health care facilities (Kraimer and Wayne, 2004; Takeuchi et al., 2002a). Interaction adjustment relates to socializing, speaking, and interacting with host nationals not only in their workplace but also outside of work (Black, 1988; Huang et al., 2005). Work adjustment is the migrant employee’s psychological comfort related to the job tasks of the foreign organization, including job responsibilities, performance standards, and expectation (Black and Stephens, 1989; Kraimer et al., 2001). 2.4. The context of Chinese migrant workers in the Korean hospitality industry Since the mid-1980s, the growth of migrant workers has rapidly increased in South Korea, fueled by the discrepancy between labor demand and supply, which occurred due to South Korea’s highspeed economic growth during the past decades (Lee and Lee, 2015). Particularly, a remarkable increase in native Koreans’ educational level has led them to tend to avoid working in low-skilled jobs (Jun and Ha, 2015). For these reasons, the Korean government has established various employment permit systems for hiring foreign workers in order to alleviate the labor shortages in low-skilled jobs (Kim, 2009). The Korean immigration office issues two categories of visas: the ‘non-professional employment (E-9)’ and ‘working visit (H-2)’ to foreign applicants who want to work low-skilled jobs in South Korea. The E-9 visa allows eligible foreigners from 15 countries (i.e., China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the Republic of the Philippines, Vietnam, etc.) that have signed MOUs with the Korean government to work up to three years in low-skilled jobs in industries such as manufacturing, agriculture, fishery, and waste management; however, the visa does not allow migrants to work in the hospitality industry. E-9 applicants must have a sponsor company, and the visa application is only possible for a group sent by an organization, which means an individual visa application is prohibited. Unlike the E-9, the H-2 is issued only to citizens living in China or the former Soviet Union region. The applicants for this visa can earn eligibility in various ways, for example, if the applicant is an ethnic-Korean, a citizen of China or the countries of the former Soviet Union region, invited by a blood or non-blood relative who is a Korean or a permanent migrant in Korea, a father/mother/spouse of an international student, or a winner of the online rotate draw who is proficient in Korean. The visa allows migrants not only to freely enter and exit South Korea, but also to get a job in simple labor services for a maximum of 4 years and 10 months within the expiration date of their visas. In addition, H-2 visa holders can change their work places and can work in 38 types of low-skilled jobs in industries such as lodging and restaurant, wholesale and retail, and transportation. Furthermore, H-2 visa holders can apply for a permanent residence status if he/she is financially able, meaning the individual owns property/assets worth at least 30,000,000 KRW (around US $ 26,000) and has obtained a skill/technician license or has earned an annual income worth more than the Gross National

3

Income per capita in Korea (Ministry of Justice: Korea Immigration Service, 2015a). According to statistics from Korea Immigration Service in the Ministry of Justice (Ministry of Justice: Korea Immigration Service, 2015b), in December 2014, out of a total of 544,547 legal migrant workers in low-skilled jobs, 48.7% of migrants were E-9 visa holders, and the remaining 51.3% were H-2 visa holders. In terms of nationality, it is interesting to see that a majority (94.8%) of the total 279,291 H-2 visa holders were Chinese, but only a small portion (2.8%) of the total 265,256 E-9 visa holders came from China. According to a report from the Foreigner Labor Force Survey of Korea in 2014 (Statistics Korea, 2014), approximately one-third of H-2 visa holders were working in the hospitality industry, and the majority of them were Chinese citizens. In addition, the survey reported that 94.3% of H-2 visa holders wanted to continue staying in South Korea after visa expiration, and 56.4% of them selected the visa extension as a method to continue staying. By analyzing the difference between living standards and income levels, Martin (2006) reported that migrant workers from underdeveloped countries are willing to take low-skilled, low-pay jobs in developed countries. He also argued that the wage difference between developed and underdeveloped countries is significant. By the same token, in this study, the primary reason why low-educated Chinese workers migrate abroad is for economic affluence. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China (NBSC, 2015), the average wage per year reached 56,339 CNY (around US $ 9000) in 2014, which has doubled since 2004. However, the minimum wage in China has traditionally been below a living wage, and employees earning minimum wage usually have to rely on excessive overtime and production bonuses (China Labour Bulletin, n.d.). Moreover, there is a large number of unemployed in China estimated about 21.6 million in 2011 (Majid, 2015). On the other hand, the average annual wage of the Korean hospitality industry was 23,080,000 KRW (around US $ 20,000) in 2014 (Korea Federation of Small and Medium Business, 2016). The wages in the Korean hospitality industry were relatively low compared to the average annual wage (36,940,000 KRW: US $ 32,000) of the overall Korean industry; however, it is still enough to attract Chinese immigrants to South Korea.

3. Hypotheses development Except for Wang and Sangalang (2005), the majority of previous studies (Kraimer et al., 2001; Kraimer and Wayne, 2004) confirmed the positive and significant effect of POS on SCA in the context of an expatriate. Due to the dearth of previous studies, Wang and Sangalang (2005) also relied on expatriate adjustment literature to derive the proposed hypothesis testing the relationship between organizational social support and JS/workadjustment. Specifically, they examined how the level of perceived support from two sources, the immigrant coworker group and the native-born coworker group, influences immigrants’ JS and workadjustment. They used a sample of Filipino immigrant employees who worked for the frontline in various manufacturing firms in Canada. Their study revealed that support from both groups of immigrant coworkers and Canadian-born coworkers significantly impacted the immigrants’ work adjustment and JS. In this study, the difference and commonality between expatriate and migrant adjustment literature precedes the section on how this study borrows from expatriate adjustment literature to support the proposed hypotheses given the very limited empirical research in the context of migrant employees. From a broad perspective, expatriates are regarded as a part of migrant workers based on the definition established by The United Nations (1990). However, in international management literature,

4

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

researchers have not referred to or studied expatriates as part of the larger migrant worker population. Specifically, an expatriate refers to “a person moved to another country by a multi-national corporate on a temporary work assignment” (Berry and Bell, 2012, p. 12). The challenges that an expatriate confronts in the host culture may be somewhat different from those that a migrant worker confronts because a majority of migrant workers are working in low-skilled positions, whereas expatriates are typically skilled employees or executives (Berry and Bell, 2012). Furthermore, migrant workers are occasionally in the blind spot of the their organization’s and society’s support system, and expatriates generally receive more sufficient support from their organization than migrant workers do (Au et al., 1998; Berry and Bell, 2012). However, both distinct groups of sojourners have the common challenge of adjusting to a culture different from their origins (Berry and Bell, 2012; Ward et al., 2001). The lack of support of migrant workers relative to expatriates indicates that organizational support given to migrant workers can be an effective vehicle for their better and faster adjustment. In terms of hospitality literature, no previous study has empirically examined the influence of migrant workers’ POS on their SCA in the hospitality industry. However, several hospitality studies regarding diversity management imply the positive relationship between POS and SCA in the context of hospitality migrant workers. In Janta et al.’s study (2011), several interviewees who are migrant workers in the hospitality sector, articulated that the support from management or native colleagues had been very helpful in their adapting to the host society. Furthermore, Devine et al. (2007) emphasized the importance of international workers’ integration and socialization with not only their colleagues but also with the wider community. In addition, Hsiao et al. (2015) postulated that minority employees, including non-indigenous workers, may start developing a feeling of being ignored and not belonging to the company if they perceive they are receiving insufficient support for their needs and interests, ultimately resulting in high turnover intentions. These theoretical explanations and the findings from the empirical literature provide rationales for expecting a positive relationship between POS from the hospitality company and migrant workers’ SCA. H1. POS from hospitality companies has a positive effect on migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment in host countries. Many scholars in organizational academic fields have attempted to define JS. One of the most common definitions of JS, given by Locke (1976, p. 1300) and adopted in this study, is “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences.” Numerous studies have also identified the antecedents of employees’ JS (Li et al., 2016). Organizational variables, such as leadership style (Lok and Crawford, 2004; Podsakoff et al., 1990), organizational justice (Ang et al., 2003; Chen McCain et al., 2010), and POS (Allen et al., 2003; Riggle et al., 2009) are widely known as significant antecedents of JS. In particular, research shows that POS strongly and positively influences JS. Riggle et al. (2009), who conducted a meta-analysis that analyzed 167 previous studies from 1986 to 2006, confirmed this positive relationship. They found that POS had the strongest positive effect on JS relative to other outcomes such as organizational commitment and employee turnover. Previous literature in the field of hospitality also confirmed that employees’ perception of support from an organization has a great effect on their JS (Cheng et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2005). Therefore, the researchers propose the hypothesis below:

the bi-dimension of the acculturation model primarily influences migrant workers’ SCA because the success of migrant workers’ socialization in new countries does not rely on their non-dominant culture orientation nor their maintaining their heritage culture and identity but instead relies on their effort to adjust to the dominant society. Several empirical studies have attempted to explain the adjustment of migrants using the bi-dimensional acculturation model. For example, Ryder et al. (2000) empirically confirmed that only DCO had a significant effect, and non-dominant culture orientation did not have any impact on their adjustment. Nguyen and Benet-Martínez (2007) also explained that biculturalism had a significant and positive relationship with SCA. Their findings reveal that DCO has a much stronger influence on migrants’ adjustment or acculturation stress than non-dominant culture orientation. Based on the previous literature, we adopted only DCO as a predictor of SCA. Thus, this study formulates the following hypothesis. H3. Hospitality migrant workers’ DCO has a positive effect on their sociocultural adjustment in their host countries. LS is a cognitive or judgmental process through an overall assessment of an individual’s quality of life according to his or her chosen criteria (Shin and Johnson, 1978). In other words, LS refers to how much a person likes the overall evaluation of the domains in his or her life. The level of a migrant worker’s DCO can also be an important construct, from an individual perspective, for explaining his or her LS in the host country. When people immigrate to new countries, the majority of them experience culture shock, a personal disorientation that happens when a person experiences the chasm between the dominant and non-dominant culture (Macionis and Gerber, 2010). Some scholars conceptualize migrants’ LS as subjective well-being (e.g., Benet-Martínez and Karakitapoglu-Aygün, 2003), and LS is influenced by acculturative stresses, such as psychological depression or anxiety, which occurs due to culture shock (Berry, 1997; Silveira and Allebeck, 2001). As a result, migrants actively demonstrate coping strategies to overcome their culture shock and to reduce their stress (Berry, 1997). DCO is a positive and receptive strategy, and researchers have used it as an important predictor of LS. The findings of BenetMartínez and Karakitapoglu-Aygün (2003) showed that the cultural orientation of immigrants influenced their level of LS. In addition, Amit (2010) demonstrated that migrants that strongly identify with dominant cultures tend to have a higher level of satisfaction with their lives. Therefore, this study formulates the following hypothesis. H4. Hospitality migrant workers’ DCO has a positive effect on their life satisfaction in their host countries. Migrants well-adjusted to their host society tend to feel satisfaction with their jobs because they have more psychological stability in their host country (Peltokorpi and Froese, 2014). Previous empirical studies confirmed that SCA influences JS (Gudmundsdottir, 2013; Hechanova et al., 2003; Masgoret, 2006). Hechanova et al. (2003) conducted a meta-analytic review regarding sociocultural or psychological adjustment and demonstrated that employees’ SCA to overseas assignment influences their JS. In addition, Masgoret (2006) showed a strong positive association between the UK sojourners’ sociocultural adaptation to Spain and their JS. Moreover, Gudmundsdottir (2013) also confirmed that different dimensions of adjustment, such as general, interaction, and work adjustment, are positively related to JS. Based on the previous studies, the researchers propose the hypothesis below.

H2. POS from hospitality companies has a positive effect on migrant workers’ job satisfaction.

H5. Hospitality migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment has a positive effect on their job satisfaction.

Migrant workers’ SCA depends not only on POS but on workers’ individual effort, DCO. This study assumes that the DCO among

Adjusting to a new society and culture is a prerequisite for migrants’ satisfaction with their overseas life. Cross-culture liter-

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

ature has supported the relationship between migrants’ SCA and their feelings about life in their host society. For example, Mähönen and Jasinskaja-Lahti (2013) verified that Ingrian-Finnish (Russian nationals) migrants’ sociocultural adaptation in Finland has a direct and significant effect on their psychological well-being, which consists of general mood, somatic complaints, and satisfaction with life in the host country. Conducting similar research, Aycan and Berry (1996) confirmed that the sociocultural adaptation of Turkish immigrants in Canada has a significant relationship with their psychological adaptation, which is a good proxy for LS. A further study by Ataca and Berry (2002) also explicated that migrants’ sociocultural adaptation by interacting with the new culture can bring them greater feelings of LS, while, on the other hand, migrants’ social isolation and de-socializing in the new culture hinder their psychological stability. Thus, this study formulates the hypothesis below. H6. Hospitality migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment has a positive effect on their life satisfaction in host countries. TI refers to the behavioral intention to permanently withdraw from an organization, whether voluntary or involuntary (Robbins and Judge, 2008). A number of studies in the hospitality field have examined employees’ TI (e.g., Mohsin et al., 2013; Moncarz et al., 2009; Nadiri and Tanova, 2010). Migrant workers’ high turnover rate leads to more serious labor shortage in the hospitality industry (Baum, 2012; Janta, 2011) and results in higher costs for recruiting, staffing, and training (Shen and Huang, 2012; Taylor and Finley, 2010). Several studies in the hospitality field also highlight the possible effect of migrants’ adjustment or socialization on migrants’ turnover or retention. For example, in Parutis’ (2011) study, a Lithuanian migrant interviewee, who had worked in the catering business in London, stated that difficulty adapting to British society led him to leave the country. Taylor and Finley (2009) conducted a qualitative study targeting Jamaican workers in the U.S. hospitality industry, and their findings focused on highlighting the disadvantages of the guest worker program in the U.S. Jamaica has been one of the most popular labor sources for the U.S. hospitality industry. Taylor and Finley discussed the major problems facing Jamaican migrant workers participating in the U.S. guest worker program, and the major problem was adjusting in the U.S without their families for almost one year. In particular, migrants with small children tended to have serious homesickness. In sum, the findings of telephone interviews with migrant workers disclosed that a majority of them went through a kind of culture shock as they adjusted to American culture. Overall, this study is exploratory in nature, and it does not deal with the possible consequence of culture shock or socio-cultural adjustment problems. Taylor and Finley (2010) later conducted another study in order

5

to enhance retention strategies for international seasonal workers in U.S. resorts, and they disclosed that organizations need to encourage seasonal workers’ (a type of migrant workers) socialization in order to reduce their turnover intention. Additionally, Foote (2004) also asserted that temporary workers’ inadequate socialization gives rise to their unscheduled turnover. Considering the similarity between the definition of socialization and SCA, this study hypothesizes that migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment effectively reduces migrant workers’ turnover intention. Based on the above literature, the researchers propose the following hypothesis. H7. Hospitality migrant workers’ sociocultural adjustment has a negative effect on their turnover intention. For this study, the researchers operationalized satisfactions for two different domains: job and life. Numerous studies support the idea that an employee’s JS is an essential predictor of his or her turnover intention (e.g., Kim et al., 2005; Mobley, 1977; Porter et al., 1974; Tschopp et al., 2014). In the hospitality literature, copious studies also confirm the above relationship (Kim et al., 2005; Mok and Finley, 1986; Nadiri and Tanova, 2010). For example, Janta (2011) argued that Polish migrant workers’ dissatisfaction with their jobs is a reason for their leaving the industry although empirical finding failed to support the postulation. Thus, drawing on previous literature, this study posits that hospitality migrant workers’ JS is directly related to their TI. In addition, according to the spillover theory satisfaction, not only the workplace but also the non-work domain may cause TI because of the strong correlation between work and non-work domains (Staines, 1980; Takeuchi et al., 2002b). The findings of Takeuchi et al. (2002b) showed that both job and general satisfaction have negative and significant effects on migrants’ returning intention to their home country. Ghiselli et al. (2001) empirically examined the relationships among job and life satisfaction and TI in the context of restaurant managers. Their findings confirmed that LS, as well as JS, has a significant effect on a manager’s turnover. Even though a dearth of research as to whether job and life satisfaction influence TI for migrant workers has been conducted, for this study, the researchers expect that the same relationship will hold. Therefore, based on the findings and explanations from the previous studies, the researchers formulate the following two hypotheses. H8. Hospitality migrant workers’ job satisfaction has a negative effect on their turnover intention. H9. Hospitality migrant workers’ life satisfaction in their host countries has a negative effect on their turnover intention. The theoretical framework of the relationships among each construct for this study is displayed in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Proposed model.

6

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

4. Research methods

and 0.88 for general, interaction, and work adjustment and was 0.94 for SCAQ as a uni-dimension.

4.1. Measurements This study used a self-administered questionnaire that included questions regarding constructs (POS, DCO, SCA, JS, LS, and TI), demographics (gender, age, and marriage status), and work (working hours per a day and off days per a week). The researchers measured all the items of each construct using the 5 point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The researchers developed the survey instrument in Chinese and Korean, and then professional translators translated the English version into Korean and Chinese. Native speakers who work as professional interpreters and translators proofread the survey. In addition, two bilingual graduate school students performed back translations into English, and they checked the surveys to confirm whether they had different meanings. 4.1.1. Perceived organizational support The researchers measured migrant workers’ POS with a 9-item scale. The original scale of the short version of POS had 16-items, including 7-items of negative wording; the full version of POS had 36-items, with 18-items of negative expressions. This study excluded 7-items of negative wording from the short version since Eisenberger et al. (1986) focused on controlling an agreement response bias in the process of scale development rather than examining the degree of POS. We also modified the statements of the items to fit the context of the restaurant industry. The sample items were as follows: “My restaurant values my contribution to its well-being;” “My restaurant really cares about well-being.” Cronbach’s alpha was 0.96 for the POS measure of this study. 4.1.2. Dominant cultural orientation In order to assess migrant workers’ DCO, the researchers modified the 10-item mainstream identity subscale of the Vancouver Index of Acculturation (VIA), which researchers had originally applied to Chinese migrants in North America, into an 8-item scale (Ryder et al., 2000). They excluded two items that asked about willingness to marry a dominant person and comfortableness working with dominant people from this study. The researchers dropped the former item because some of the respondents were married and dropped the latter, which asked if a migrant worker feels comfortable working with dominant people, since it implied that he or she is already adjusted or socialized. In addition, this study slightly modified the wording of some items. For instance, the researchers changed “It is important for me to maintain or develop North American cultural practices” to “I make an effort to maintain or develop South Korean cultural practices.” In addition, they measured Cronbach’s alpha of DCO at 0.89. 4.1.3. Sociocultural adjustment This study assessed the SCA of migrant workers in hospitality companies from the SCA Questionnaire (SCAQ) used in previous studies (Black, 1988; Black and Stephens, 1989; Selmer, 2004). The SCAQ consisted of 14-items with three sub-dimensions: adjustment regarding work (3-items), adjustment to general environment (7-items), and interactions with the people in the host country (4-items). Several studies operated the sub-dimensions of SCAQ as separate constructs (Kraimer et al., 2001; Takeuchi et al., 2002a). However, the main purpose of this study was not to evaluate the dimensionality of SCAQ but to examine the relationships among SCA, the antecedents, and the consequences. Therefore, this study examined SCAQ as a single construct, estimating the covariance reflected by the three sub-dimensions of SCAQ. Past studies examined SCA as a single construct (Kraimer and Wayne, 2004; Zlobina et al., 2006). For this study, Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90, 0.91,

4.1.4. Life satisfaction The researchers measured LS with 5-items of the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS), of which the cross-cultural validity between China and the U.S. had been confirmed (Oishi, 2006). Diener et al. (1985) initially developed the SWLS in order to assess global LS. The sample statements of this scale included “In most ways my life is close to my ideal,” and “I am satisfied with my life.” Cronbach’s alpha was 0.88 for the SWLS in this study. 4.1.5. Job satisfaction and turnover intention The researchers adopted the 4-item JS and 3-item TI scale from Nadiri and Tanova (2010) in the context of the hotel industry. The JS sample question was “I am satisfied with the amount of pay received for the job done.” The TI sample statement was “I often think that I am quitting from this restaurant.” The internal consistency for JS and TI was 0.94 and 0.90, respectively. 4.2. Sample and procedure Chinese migrants who moved to South Korea with working-visit visas and worked at restaurants located in the central region of the country are the sample for this study. The researchers selected subjects using a respondent-driven sampling (RDS) method, which has been mainly employed to target hard-to-reach populations, for example, the disabled, homeless, sexual minorities, and migrants (Heckathorn, 1997; Qiu et al., 2012). The RDS method is a nuanced version of the traditional snowball sampling (or chain-referral sampling) method and attempts to reduce its inherent biases while maintaining its usefulness in reaching difficult populations with a dual incentive system (Górny and Napierała, 2015; Johnston and Malekinejad, 2014). Specifically, researchers reward respondents with a primary incentive for participating in the research and with a remunerated secondary incentive for introducing other potential respondents (Górny and Napierała, 2015; Qiu et al., 2012). This system aims to generate long recruitment chains and to minimize crucial biases that occur in the traditional snowball sampling method (Górny and Napierała, 2015; Heckathorn, 1997). Therefore, the RDS method is frequently adopted in empirical studies focused on migrants (e.g., Arnholtz and Hansen, 2013; Kissinger et al., 2013; Yang et al., 2015). The subject recruitment procedures followed a typical RDS study (for more specific explanation, see Johnston and Malekinejad, 2014; Qiu et al., 2012). First, the researchers selected a street in the business district in one of the major downtown areas in Seoul, South Korea due to easy acceptability and accessibility for recruiting initial respondents (so called ‘seeds’). Second, they recruited 8-seeds for the survey and assigned each seed the following two criteria: gender and age. Third, after completing the questionnaires, each seed filled out a set of recruitment coupons with several columns for the respondent’s and recommending person’s name and number, so they could recruit their peers. The researchers also asked referred respondents to complete the survey and fill out a set of recruitment coupons. A majority of respondents introduced at least two other restaurant migrant workers, so the researchers limited referrals to four to reduce sample bias. Fourth, they provided monetary incentives worth approximately $10 U.S. for completing the survey (primary incentive), and $5 U.S. for introducing other respondents (secondary incentive). Fifth, they contacted potential respondents, explained how they obtained their information, asked them several screening questions to determine their eligibility, and ensured their participation in the survey. The researchers also provided affirmation that the questionnaires would not be matched up with respondents’ private information. Then they made an appoint-

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

ment with each respondent, confirmed the respondents’ phone numbers and names, and excluded duplicate participations. Sixth, they recruited two Korean-Chinese graduate school students who had a good command of Chinese and Korean and trained them on the questionnaire survey, focusing on the objectives of the study, the survey methods, and research ethics. Then the researchers deployed them to administer the self-reported questionnaire. Seventh, they repeated stages three to six until they reached their target sample size. The researchers continued the RDS until they collected 300-copies of the questionnaire. After they eliminated 33 questionnaires, including those missing values and errors, they retained 267 valid surveys for further data analysis. Of the 267 respondents, 72.7% were female. In terms of age distribution, respondents in their 20s accounted for 16.5%, those in their 30s, 31.5%, those in their 40s, 34.5%, those in their 50s, 15.4%, and those in their 60s or older, 2.2%, respectively. Those who were married were 69.3%, 24.0% of them were single, and 6.7% were divorced or bereaved. Holidays per month were 3.81 days (SD = 1.57) on average, and the average working hours a day were 11.37 hours (SD = 2.01). Period of sojourn in the host country was 3.45 years (SD = 2.86) on average. 4.3. Data analysis For this study, the researchers employed a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) before they conducted a structural equation modeling to test the hypotheses according to a two-step approach suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). In the first step, they conducted a CFA of the measurement model, which had indicators with parceled items of some constructs (POS, DCO, SCA, JS, and LS). They also calculated the average variance extracted (AVE) and composite construct reliability (CCR) in order to examine the construct validity, which consisted of a convergent validity and discriminant validity according to the suggestion by Fornell and Larcker (1981). In the second step, they analyzed the structural model to test the hypotheses, evaluating the standardized coefficients and t-values of each path. This study checked the skew and kurtosis in order to assess normality of the measurement model. The statistics of skewness were from −0.041 to 0.07, and those of kurtosis were from −0.26 to 0.50. Therefore, the measurement model met the acceptable range of normality assumption.

7

The researchers also examined whether the measurement model of this study reflected common method variance (CMV) since they measured all items via self-administration in a crosssectional survey (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Williams and Brown, 1994). Thus, they utilized several procedural and statistical remedies suggested by Podsakoff et al. (2003) in order to minimize the CMV. First, they used different cover stories for each measurement scale to accomplish respondents’ psychological separation. Second, they improved scale items in order to reduce item ambiguity by providing several examples, using simple, specific, and concise sentences, and avoiding complicated syntax. Third, well trained surveyors assured respondents of their anonymity and confidentiality, so respondents would answer as honestly as possible. Lastly, this study utilized a statistical remedy, a Harman’s single-factor test via CFA to detect possible CMV (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Williams and Brown, 1994). Harman’s single-factor test showed that the single latent variable did not account for the majority of the variances among the indicators. Moreover, all of the fit indices of the single-factor model showed that the model did not fit the data well [␹2 (119) = 1243.11; GFI = 0.58; AGFI = 0.46; RMR = 0.07; NFI = 0.67; TLI = 0.65; CFI = 0.69; RMSEA = 0.19], and it was highly insignificant and clearly rejected. Furthermore, the fit indices of the single factor model also showed poor fit compared to those of this study’s measurement model. Therefore, the researchers concluded that CMV did not seriously bias the results. 5. Results 5.1. Construct validity tests The researchers also utilized the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in order to examine the measurement model and found that the fit indices of the measurement model were appropriate: [␹2 (104) = 158.61; GFI = 0.94; AGFI = 0.91; RMR = 0.02; NFI = 0.96; TLI = 0.98; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.04]. They also employed convergent validity tests. First, they examined the factor loadings and their t-values, which are listed in Table 1, in order to evaluate the convergent validity. Factor loadings ranged from 0.74 to 0.94, and the t-values indicated that all of them were highly significant. Second, they calculated the values of AVE and CCR to confirm the convergent validity. As outlined in Table 1, the AVEs ranged from 0.74 to

Table 1 The results of CFA. Constructs

Indicators

Std. loadings

PPOS1 PPOS2 PPOS3

0.89 0.93 0.94

PHCO1 PHCO2 PHCO3 PHCO4

0.74 0.81 0.88 0.74

GA IA WA

0.85 0.80 0.86

PJS1 PJS2

0.93 0.93

SWLS1 SWLS2

0.85 0.83

TI1 TI2 TI3

0.81 0.88 0.92

t-Values

Perceived organizational support

AVEs

CCRs

0.89

0.96

0.74

0.92

0.80

0.92

0.90

0.95

0.83

0.91

0.81

0.93

**

24.31 25.10*

Dominant cultural orientation 13.01** 13.97** 11.77**

Sociocultural adjustment 14.90** 16.21**

Job satisfaction **

24.81

Life satisfaction 13.39**

Turnover intention 17.25** 18.13**

Model fit: ␹2 (104) = 158.61; GFI = 0.94; AGFI = 0.91; RMR = 0.02; NFI = 0.96; TLI = 0.98; CFI = 0.99; RMSEA = 0.04; * p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01.

8

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

Table 2 CFA results and construct validity.

1. POS 2. DCO 3. SCA 4. JS 5. LS 6. TI

Mean

SD

1

2

3

4

5

3.22 3.55 3.41 3.28 3.38 2.8

0.80 0.67 0.68 0.82 0.66 0.78

0.89 0.43** 0.60** 0.80** 0.53** −0.77**

0.19 0.74 0.52** 0.39** 0.56** −0.43**

0.36 0.27 0.80 0.46** 0.48** −0.56**

0.63 0.15 0.21 0.90 0.48** −0.69**

0.28 0.31 0.23 0.23 0.83 −0.55**

6 0.59 0.18 0.31 0.47 0.31 0.81

Note: POS, perceived organizational support; DCO, dominant cultural orientation; SCA, sociocultural adjustment; JS, job satisfaction; LS, life satisfaction; TI, turnover intention. Figures in parentheses are AVEs, in lower triangular are r, and in upper triangular are r2 . * p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01.

0.90, and the CCRs ranged from 0.88 to 0.96. These figures all exceed the recommended thresholds (AVE > 0.50, CCR > 0.70) proposed by Fornell and Larcker (1981), which shows that the measurement model had sufficient convergent validity. Thus, the researchers concluded that the measurement model of this study had sufficient convergent validity. The researchers analyzed the discriminant validity by using the statistics of AVE. If r2 , a square of the correlation coefficient between two constructs, is smaller than the AVE statistic, it suggests that the focal construct is truly distinct from other constructs (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). As shown in Table 2, all of the r2 appeared to be smaller than all of the AVE. Therefore, this result indicates that the measurement model also met the adequate discriminant validity. In sum, the results of CFA provided strong evidence for construct validity, including both convergent and discriminant validity, of each of the six constructs. 5.2. Testing the structural equation model and the hypotheses Fig. 2 presents the AMOS estimates for paths in the structural equation model (SEM). As shown in Fig. 2, the overall fit indices of the SEM suggest that the model had an acceptable level of fit for the data [2 (108) = 203.58; GFI = 0.92; AGFI = 0.89; RMR = 0.04; NFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.97; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.06]. Migrant workers’ POS from hospitality companies positively ( 1 = 0.50) and significantly (t = 7.84; p < 0.01) influenced their SCA in the host countries. Thus, the first hypothesis that POS has a positive effect on SCA was supported. As anticipated in hypothesis 2, the relationship between POS and JS was also robustly supported in the context of hospitality migrant workers. Migrant workers’ POS from hospitality companies was positively ( 2 = 0.92) and significantly (t = 14.04; p < 0.01) related to their JS. In addition, hypothesis 3, which predicted the positive relationship between DCO and SCA, was also confirmed. Hospitality migrant workers’ DCO had a positive ( 3 = 0.35) and sig-

nificant (t = 5.30; p < 0.01) effect on their SCA in the host countries. Hypothesis 4, regarding the positive relationship between DCO and LS, was firmly supported as well. Hospitality migrant workers’ DCO had a positive ( 4 = 0.50) and significant (t = 6.25; p < 0.01) impact on their LS in the host countries. Hypotheses 5 and 6 state that hospitality migrant workers’ SCA will positively affect their job and life satisfaction. The results showed that migrant workers’ SCA had a positive (␤1 = 0.30) and significant (t = 3.94; p < 0.01) effect on their LS, whereas SCA’s path coefficients on JS was slightly negative (␤2 = −0.10) and insignificant (t = −1.71; p < 0.01). Consequently, hypothesis 6 was supported, while hypothesis 5 was not. Hypotheses 7, 8, and 9, which proposed that migrant workers’ SCA and satisfaction with job and life have negative influences on their TI, were all supported. The effect of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA on their TI was negative (␤3 = −0.25) and significant (t = −3.70; p 0 < 0.01), that of JS was negative (␤4 = −0.55) and significant (t = −9.39; p < 0.01), and LS was negative (␤5 = −0.19) and significant (t = −3.14; p < 0.01). In sum, all proposed hypotheses except for H5 were supported.

6. Discussion and conclusion Previous hospitality studies (e.g., Choi et al., 2000; Meier, 1991; Taylor and Finley, 2009; Zopiatis et al., 2014) have highlighted the issue of labor shortage and, more specifically, the prominence of migrant workers as a solution for this challenge (Altinay, 2010; Baum, 2012; Janta, 2011; Janta et al., 2011). A majority of crosscultural studies (Ben-Shalom and Horenczyk, 2003; Gui et al., 2012; Hechanova et al., 2003; Takeuchi et al., 2002a, 2002b; Zlobina et al., 2006) have indicated that the issue of migrants’ adjustment is important. Nevertheless, previous studies in the hospitality literature have seldom dealt with the issue of migrants’ adjustment. This study investigated the antecedents and consequences of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA. A model of hospitality migrant workers’ adjustment, comprised of the constructs of POS, DCO, SCA, JS, LS, and TI, was tested. Our findings showed that both POS and DCO significantly and positively influenced SCA, and interestingly, that POS had a stronger impact on the hospitality migrants’ SCA than DCO. Furthermore, the findings expose significant relationships between POS and JS and between DCO and LS. The findings also showed that SCA had a significant and positive effect on LS. In addition, the findings revealed that significant antecedents of TI were not only JS but also SCA and LS. This research intends to contribute to the hospitality human resource literature by providing important theoretical and practical implications.

Fig. 2. Estimated path coefficients from the SEM results.

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

6.1. Theoretical implications Despite the importance of migrant workers in the hospitality industry, migrant worker SCA and LS received only limited attention in previous research. None of the previous hospitality studies directly examined SCA nor incorporated the variable into a research model but instead suggested SCA is important for migrant workers’ retention. This study extends the current SCA model by including both POS and DCO as predictors of migrants’ SCA. Our findings disclose that both POS and DCO are significant predictors, and POS has a stronger effect on SCA than DCO. The findings also suggest that although migrant workers’ personal efforts are important for their effective socialization, positive support from a hospitality organization plays a far more important role. Another significant contribution of this study is it develops comprehensive predictors of hospitality migrants’ TI by incorporating SCA, LS, and JS. Previous hospitality studies demonstrate JS as a crucial predictor of employees’ TI (e.g., Kim et al., 2005; Nadiri and Tanova, 2010; Yang, 2010). Ghiselli et al. (2001) are one of a few scholars demonstrating that both job and life satisfaction are significant predictors of foodservice managers’ TI. Moreover, to the researchers’ knowledge, no previous hospitality research has explicitly adopted SCA as an important antecedent of hospitality migrants’ TI. This study empirically tests a model of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA, and the high explanatory power (R2 = 68%) confirms that SCA, JS, and LS are strong predictors of hospitality migrant workers’ TI. The findings of this study clearly demonstrate that a hospitality migrant, who adjusts well in the host society and culture, tends to have high satisfaction with his or her life in the foreign country and is apt to stay longer in the organization. Another contribution this study makes is that it examines the relationship among DCO, SCA, LS, and TI. A limited number of hospitality research has investigated which factors positively foster employees’ LS. Moreover, hospitality scholars have never dealt with DCO and SCA as important antecedents of migrants’ LS. This model of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA contributes to the field because it demonstrates that DCO and SCA are significant and positive antecedents of migrants’ LS. In other words, hospitality migrant workers who endeavor to acquire and learn the mainstream culture and have stably adjusted to their host country tend to feel satisfaction with their lives in the host country. 6.2. Practical implications Considering that migrants are the workforce that will help hospitality organizations overcome the potential labor shortage, hospitality organizations should pay attention to managing migrant human resources. Migrants’ adjustment to the host society and culture influences their LS and TI. The stronger the POS and DCO, the higher the migrant workers’ SCA and LS and the lower their intention to leave their organizations. Thus, hospitality organizations should provide various organizational supports to facilitate migrants’ SCA in the host country, which in turn will enhance their well-being. Based on the findings of this study, the researchers suggest the following practical implications. This study’s findings affirm that DCO has a positive and significant impact on migrant workers’ SCA, and DCO is positively and significantly associated with LS through SCA. The findings imply that hospitality migrants’ individual efforts (e.g., learning a host country’s language and understanding the mainstream culture and a new system of social norms) are necessary for their successful adjustment and well-being in the host society and culture. It is important for hospitality HR managers to provide various learning opportunities, so migrants can overcome new challenges, such as housing, transportation, food, health care, and law, when they first migrate to a new country (Berry, 1997). For instance, companies

9

may conduct an on-arrival orientation program or in-depth induction training program recommended by Devine et al. (2007) to help migrants become familiar with various issues for settlement and enable them to handle their personal and work-related issues independently. HR managers in hospitality companies should ensure that the on-arrival orientation program assists migrant workers in becoming aware of the adversities and constraints of living in the host country. POS has a significant effect on SCA, and this relationship implies that positive support from a hospitality organization is important for migrant workers’ effective socialization. Kraimer et al. (2001) suggest that organizations should provide at least one HR staff to assist foreign workers while they settle in the host country. The HR office can establish a help desk or an advisory office for migrant workers to assist them in obtaining information regarding their living conditions (e.g., housing, education, and health care) in the host country. Migrant workers should also be able to learn about their rights and find solutions for unfair treatment and other unexpected situations through the help desk or advisory office because a majority of migrant workers do encounter cultural barriers and, sometimes, ethnic or racial prejudice (Devine et al., 2007; Gomez-Mejia et al., 2004). Moreover, in this study, SCA includes not only a general adjustment to living conditions in the host country but also adjusting to interacting with native people. Therefore, as Devine et al.’s (2007) recommends, hospitality organizations should provide migrant workers the opportunity to interact with native people, for example, the “Buddy Mentoring Program for Migrant Employees.” Mentoring programs should have the goal of improving employees’ job skills and career development (e.g., Teare, 1997; Yang, 2010). Unlike most mentoring programs, the Buddy Mentoring Program for Migrant Employees should focus on building their social skills, so they can positively adjust to the new culture. The findings also demonstrate that POS has a positive and direct effect on JS. In light of the definition of POS that covers recognizing their contribution from an organizational perspective, hospitality organizations should value migrant workers’ contribution and appreciate them for their work. To accomplish this goal, leaders (i.e., hospitality top managers, managers, and supervisors) of hospitality organizations should create an organizational climate where all organizational members acknowledge and value migrants’ efforts. For example, organizations could have a recognition awards program for migrant employees where the organizational leaders give public credit to migrants who make outstanding contributions to the organization. Awarded migrants may then become role models for others by communicating what behaviors and accomplishments the company values. A migrant employee recognition award can also be as simple as a thank you for a job well done, for example, a GM’s voicemail message of gratitude to a migrant employee who is selected as one of the company’s “best migrant employees of the month.” HR managers should keep in mind that the most important purpose of these recognition programs is to announce the organization’s recognition and appreciation of migrant employees’ contribution. The recognition will increase their morale, JS, which in turn will reduce their TI. 6.3. Limitations and future research directions This study has the following limitations. Researchers should not generalize the findings of this study because the subjects were a specific group of migrants in a specific country. Future hospitality researchers need to validate the proposed model of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA in different countries and cultures. This study’s research framework includes antecedents (POS and DCO) and consequences (job and life satisfaction; TI) of SCA; however, other predictors that may have had significant impacts

10

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

on migrant workers’ adjustment were omitted. Therefore, future studies need to expand this model by identifying the other important exogenous (i.e., person-organization fit, organizational justice, and perceived unfairness) and endogenous variables (i.e., job performance, organization commitment, and organization citizenship behavior) of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA. In addition, the POS scale (Eisenberger et al., 1986) this study adopted is too general to reflect various types of support although it has been broadly employed by numerous POS studies. Thus, future researchers may adopt more comprehensive POS scales (i.e., monetary support and informational support) as antecedents of migrants’ SCA. A construct of SCA does not include migrant workers’ interaction with their co-nations because scope of the variable is limited to only their interaction with native nationals. Some hospitality migrant workers may interact only with their co-nationals in the workplace from a job environment perspective, and this condition may influence migrants’ SCA, JS, LS, and TI. Another limitation is this study omits specific work environment characteristics, such as the number of co-nationals working together. Therefore, the researchers suggest future studies trace migrant employees’ work environment, such as the number of co-nationals interacting with them, in order to examine whether migrant workers’ original cultural orientation, including interaction with their co-nationals can have a significant impact on their adjustment in the host culture and society. The last limitation of this study is that the researchers conducted several remedies to minimize the possibility of bias but could not completely exclude CMV. Therefore, hospitality scholars who want to extend this model of hospitality migrant workers’ SCA need to apply additional procedural remedies, such as time lag between the data collection of the predictors and the outcomes, in order to exclude CMV. References Alberti, G., 2014. Mobility strategies, mobility differentials and transnational exit: the experiences of precarious migrants in London’s hospitality jobs. Work Employ. Soc. 28, 865–881, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0950017014528403. Allen, D.G., Shore, L.M., Griffeth, R.W., 2003. The role of perceived organizational support and supportive human resource practices in the turnover process. J. Manage. 29, 99–118, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014920630302900107. Altinay, L., 2010. Market orientation of small ethnic minority-owned hospitality firms. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 29, 148–156, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2009. 07.004. Amit, K., 2010. Determinants of life satisfaction among immigrants from Western Countries and from the FSU in Israel. Soc. Indic. Res. 96, 515–534. Anderson, J.C., Gerbing, D.W., 1988. Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach. Psychol. Bull. 103, 411–423, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411. Ang, S., Van Dyne, L., Begley, T.M., 2003. The employment relationships of foreign workers versus local employees: a field study of organizational justice, job satisfaction, performance, and OCB. J. Organ. Behav. 24, 561–583, http://dx.doi. org/10.1002/job.202. Arnholtz, J., Hansen, N.W., 2013. Labour market specific institutions and the working conditions of labour migrants: the case of Polish migrant labour in the Danish labour market. Econ. Ind. Democr. 34, 401–422, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1177/0143831X2450055. Aryee, S., Budhwar, P.S., Chen, Z.X., 2002. Trust as a mediator of the relationship between organizational justice and work outcomes: test of a social exchange model. J. Organ. Behav. 23, 267–285, http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/job.138. Ataca, B., Berry, J.W., 2002. Psychological, sociocultural, and marital adaptation of Turkish immigrant couples in Canada. Int. J. Psychol. 37, 13–26, http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/00207590143000135. Au, A.Y., Garey, J., Bermas, N., Chan, M., 1998. The relationship between acculturation and job satisfaction among Chinese immigrants in the New York city restaurant business. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 17, 11–21, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/S0278-4319(97)00040-6. Aycan, Z., Berry, J.W., 1996. Impact of employment-related experiences on immigrants’ psychological well-being and adaptation to Canada. Can. J. Behav. Sci. Can. Sci. Comport 28, 240–251, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0008-400X.28.3. 240. Baum, T., 2012. Migrant Workers in the International Hotel Industry (No. 112), International Migration Paper. International Labour Office, International Migration Branch. Sectoral Activities Department.

Ben-Shalom, U., Horenczyk, G., 2003. Acculturation orientations a facet theory perspective on the bidimensional model. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 34, 176–188, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022102250249. Benet-Martínez, V., Karakitapoglu-Aygün, Z., 2003. The interplay of cultural syndromes and personality in predicting life satisfaction comparing asian americans and european americans. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 34, 38–60, http://dx. doi.org/10.1177/0022022102239154. Berry, D.P., Bell, M.P., 2012. Expatriates: gender, race and class distinctions in international management. Gend. Work Organ. 19, 10–28, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1111/j.1468-0432.2011.00577.x. Berry, J.W., 1997. Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Appl. Psychol. 46, 5–34, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x. Black, J.S., Stephens, G.K., 1989. The influence of the spouse on american expatriate adjustment and intent to stay in Pacific Rim overseas assignments. J. Manage. 15, 529–544, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/014920638901500403. Black, J.S., 1988. Work role transitions: a study of american expatriate managers in Japan. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 19, 277–294. Blau, P.M., 1964. Exchange and Power in Social Life. John Wiley, New York. Bloom, D.E., Boersch-Supan, A., McGee, P., Seike, A., 2011. Population aging: facts challenges, and responses (PGDA working paper). Program on the Global Demography of Aging. Chen McCain, S., Tsai, H., Bellino, N., 2010. Organizational justice, employees’ ethical behavior, and job satisfaction in the casino industry. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 22, 992–1009, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111011066644. Cheng, P.-Y., Yang, J.-T., Wan, C.-S., Chu, M.-C., 2013. Ethical contexts and employee job responses in the hotel industry: the roles of work values and perceived organizational support. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 34, 108–115, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijhm.2013.03.007. China Labour Bulletin, n.d. Wages and employment [WWW Document]. China Labour Bull. URL http://www.clb.org.hk/content/wages-and-employment (accessed 3.28.16.). Choi, J., Woods, R.H., Murrmann, S.K., 2000. International labor markets and the migration of labor forces as an alternative solution for labor shortages in the hospitality industry. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 12, 61–67, http://dx.doi. org/10.1108/09596110010305154. Devine, F., Baum, T., Hearns, N., Devine, A., 2007. Managing cultural diversity: opportunities and challenges for Northern Ireland hoteliers. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 19, 120–132, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596110710729238. Diener, E., Emmons, R.A., Larsen, R.J., Griffin, S., 1985. The satisfaction with life scale. J. Pers. Assess. 49, 71–75, http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901 13. Eisenberger, R., Huntington, R., Hutchison, S., Sowa, D., 1986. Perceived organizational support. J. Appl. Psychol. 71, 500–507, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1037/0021-9010.71.3.500. Etzioni, A., 1969. A Sociological Reader on Complex Organizations, 2nd ed. Rinehart and Holt, Winston, New York. Foote, D.A., 2004. Temporary workers: managing the problem of unscheduled turnover. Manage. Decis. 42, 963–973, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 00251740410555452. Fornell, C., Larcker, D.F., 1981. Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J. Mark. Res. 18, 39–50, http:// dx.doi.org/10.2307/3151312. Górny, A., Napierała, J., 2015. Comparing the effectiveness of respondent-driven sampling and quota sampling in migration research. Int. J. Soc. Res. Methodol., 1–17, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2015.1077614. Ghiselli, R.F., La Lopa, J.M., Bai, B., 2001. Job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and turnover intent: among food-service managers. Cornell Hotel Restaur. Adm. Q. 42, 28–37. Gomez-Mejia, L.R., Balkin, D.B., Cardy, R.L., 2004. Managing Human Resources, 4th ed. Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,N.J. Gudmundsdottir, S., 2013. The relationship between socio cultural adjustment and extrinsic job satisfaction. Int. J. Bus. Soc. Sci. 4, 43–48. Gui, Y., Berry, J.W., Zheng, Y., 2012. Migrant worker acculturation in China. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 36, 598–610, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.007. Hechanova, R., Beehr, T.A., Christiansen, N.D., 2003. Antecedents and consequences of employees’ adjustment to overseas assignment: a meta-analytic review. Appl. Psychol. 52, 213–236, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1464-0597.00132. Heckathorn, D.D., 1997. Respondent-driven sampling: a new approach to the study of hidden populations. Soc. Probl. 44, 174–199, http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/sp. 1997.44.2.03x0221m. Homans, G.C., 1958. Social behavior as exchange. Am. J. Sociol. 63, 597–606. Hsiao, A., Auld, C., Ma, E., 2015. Perceived organizational diversity and employee behavior. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 48, 102–112, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm. 2015.04.009. Huang, T.-J., Chi, S.-C., Lawler, J.J., 2005. The relationship between expatriates’ personality traits and their adjustment to international assignments. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manage. 16, 1656–1670, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 09585190500239325. Janta, H., Brown, L., Lugosi, P., Ladkin, A., 2011. Migrant relationships and tourism employment. Ann. Tour. Res. 38, 1322–1343, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. annals.2011.03.004. Janta, H., Lugosi, P., Brown, L., Ladkin, A., 2012. Migrant networks, language learning and tourism employment. Tour. Manage. 33, 431–439, http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.05.004.

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12 Janta, H., 2011. Polish migrant workers in the UK hospitality industry: profiles, work experience and methods for accessing employment. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 23, 803–819, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111111153484. Johnston, L., Malekinejad, M., 2014. Respondent-Driven Sampling for Migrant Populations. In: Schenker, M., Castan˜eda, X., Rodriguez-Lainz, A. (Eds.), Migration and health: A research methods handbook. University of California Press, Oakland, CA, pp. 141–164. Jun, H.-J., Ha, S.-K., 2015. Social capital and assimilation of migrant workers and foreign wives in South Korea: the case of Wongok community. Habitat Int. 47, 126–135, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2015.01.013. Kim, W.G., Leong, J.K., Lee, Y.-K., 2005. Effect of service orientation on job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention of leaving in a casual dining chain restaurant. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 24, 171–193, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijhm.2004.05.004. Kim, A.E., 2009. Global migration and South Korea: foreign workers, foreign brides and the making of a multicultural society. Ethn. Racial Stud. 32, 70–92, http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870802044197. Kissinger, P., Althoff, M., Burton, N., Schmidt, N., Hembling, J., Salinas, O., Shedlin, M., 2013. Prevalence, patterns and predictors of substance use among Latino migrant men in a new receiving community. Drug Alcohol Depend. 133, 814–824, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.08.031. Korea Federation of Small & Medium Business, 2016. Survey on wages by occupation of SMEs [WWW Document]. Korean Stat. Inf. Serv., URL http:// kosis.kr/statisticsList/statisticsList 01List.jsp?vwcd=MT ZTITLE&parentId=A#SubCont (accessed 3.31.16.). Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J., 2004. An examination of perceived organizational support as a multidimensional construct in the context of an expatriate assignment. J. Manage. 30, 209–237, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jm.2003.01. 001. Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J., Jaworski, R.A., 2001. Sources of support and expatriate performance: the mediating role of expatriate adjustment. Pers. Psychol. 54, 71–99. Lee, Y.J., Lee, D., 2015. Factors influencing learning satisfaction of migrant workers in Korea with E-learning-based occupational safety and health education. Saf. Health Work 6, 211–217, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2015.05.002. Li, J. (Justin), Wong, I.A., Kim, W.G., 2016. Effects of psychological contract breach on attitudes and performance: the moderating role of competitive climate. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 55, 1–10, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2016.02.010. Locke, E.A., 1976. The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In: Dunnette, M.D. (Ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the Nature and Causes of Job Satisfaction. Rand McNally, Chicago, IL, pp. 1297–1343. Loi, R., Ao, O.K.Y., Xu, A.J., 2014. Perceived organizational support and coworker support as antecedents of foreign workers’ voice and psychological stress. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 36, 23–30, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.08.001. Lok, P., Crawford, J., 2004. The effect of organisational culture and leadership style on job satisfaction and organisational commitment: a cross-national comparison. J. Manage. Dev. 23, 321–338, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 02621710410529785. Lu, Y., Samaratunge, R., Härtel, C.E.J., 2012. The relationship between acculturation strategy and job satisfaction for professional Chinese immigrants in the Australian workplace. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 36, 669–681, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijintrel.2012.04.003. Mähönen, T.A., Jasinskaja-Lahti, I., 2013. Acculturation expectations and experiences as predictors of ethnic migrants’ psychological well-being. J. Cross Cult. Psychol. 44, 786–806, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022022112466699. Macionis, J.J., Gerber, L.M., 2010. Sociology, 7 ed. Pearson Education Canada, Toronto. Majid, N., 2015. The great employment transformation in China (No. 195). In: Employment Working Paper. International Labour Office, Employment Policy Department. Manoharan, A., Gross, M.J., Sardeshmukh, S.R., 2014. Identity-conscious vs identity-blind: hotel managers’ use of formal and informal diversity management practices. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 41, 1–9, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijhm.2014.04.007. March, J.G., Simon, H.A., Simon, H.A., Simon, H.A., Simon, H.A., 1958. Organizations. Wiley, New York. Martin, P.L., 2006. The trade, migration, and development nexus. Proceedings, Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 11–34. Masgoret, A.M., 2006. Examining the role of language attitudes and motivation on the sociocultural adjustment and the job performance of sojourners in Spain. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 30, 311–331, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.08. 004. Meier, J., 1991. Solutions to the hospitality industry’s labor shortage. Hosp. Rev. 9. Ministry of Employment and Labor, 2015. The statistics of annual employment [WWW Document]. Employ. Labor Stat. Korea, URL http://laborstat.molab.go. kr:8081/OLAP/Analysis/stat OLAP.jsp?org id=118&tbl id=DT 118N MONA31&path=%20%EC%A2%85%EC%82%AC%EC%9E%90%2C%20%EB %B9%88%EC%9D%BC%EC%9E%90%EB%A6%AC%2C%20%EC%9E%85%E3%86 %8D%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%81%3E%20%EB%85%84%EA%B3%A0%EC%9A%A9 %ED%86%B5%EA%B3%84 (accessed 2.19.16.). Ministry of Justice: Korea Immigration Service, 2015a. Visa Instruction Guide: Eligibility, Required Documents and Other Prerequisites for All Visa Types. Ministry of Justice: Korea Immigration Service, Number of registered foreigners by nationality/region, sex, and sojourn status [WWW Document], Korean Stat. Inf. Serv. 2015b, URL (accessed 2.19.16.).

11

Mobley, W.H., 1977. Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover. J. Appl. Psychol. 62, 237–240, http://dx. doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.62.2.237. Mohsin, A., Lengler, J., Kumar, B., 2013. Exploring the antecedents of intentions to leave the job: the case of luxury hotel staff. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 35, 48–58, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2013.05.002. Mok, C., Finley, D., 1986. Job satisfaction and its relationship to demographics and turnover of hotel food-service workers in Hong Kong. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 5, 71–78, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0278-4319(86)90035-6. Moncarz, E., Zhao, J., Kay, C., 2009. An exploratory study of US lodging properties’ organizational practices on employee turnover and retention. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 21, 437–458, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596110910955695. NBSC, 2015. Statistical database [WWW document]. Natl. Bur. Stat. China., URL http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/Statisticaldata/AnnualData/ (accessed 3.28.16.). Nadiri, H., Tanova, C., 2010. An investigation of the role of justice in turnover intentions, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior in hospitality industry. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 29, 33–41, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.ijhm.2009.05.001. Nguyen, A.-M.D., Benet-Martínez, V., 2007. Biculturalism unpacked: components, measurement individual differences, and outcomes. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 1, 101–114, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00029.x. O’Neill, J.W., Davis, K., 2011. Work stress and well-being in the hotel industry. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 30, 385–390, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.07.007. Oishi, S., 2006. The concept of life satisfaction across cultures: an IRT analysis. J. Res. Pers. 40, 411–423, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2005.02.002. Parutis, V., 2011. White, European, and hardworking: East European migrants’ relationships with other communities in London. J. Balt. Stud. 42, 263–288, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2011.569074. Peltokorpi, V., Froese, F., 2014. Expatriate personality and cultural fit: the moderating role of host country context on job satisfaction. Int. Bus. Rev. 23, 293–302, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2013.05.004. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Moorman, R.H., Fetter, R., 1990. Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadersh. Q. 1, 107–142, http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.-Y., Podsakoff, N.P., 2003. Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psychol. 88, 879–903, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1037/0021-9010.88.5.879. Porter, L.W., Steers, R.M., Mowday, R.T., Boulian, P.V., 1974. Organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover among psychiatric technicians. J. Appl. Psychol. 59, 603–609, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0037335. Qiu, P., Yang, Y., Ma, X., Wu, F., Yuan, P., Liu, Q., Caine, E., 2012. Respondent-driven sampling to recruit in-country migrant workers in China: a methodological assessment. Scand. J. Public Health 40, 92–101, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1403494811418276. Riggle, R.J., Edmondson, D.R., Hansen, J.D., 2009. A meta-analysis of the relationship between perceived organizational support and job outcomes: 20 years of research. J. Bus. Res. 62, 1027–1030, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jbusres.2008.05.003. Robbins, S.P., Judge, T.A., 2008. Organizational Behavior, 13th ed. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. Ryder, A.G., Alden, L.E., Paulhus, D.L., 2000. Is acculturation unidimensional or bidimensional? A head-to-head comparison in the prediction of personality, self-identity, and adjustment. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 79, 49–65, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0022-3514.79.1.49. Rydzik, A., Pritchard, A., Morgan, N., Sedgley, D., 2012. Mobility, migration and hospitality employment: voices of Central and Eastern European women. Hosp. Soc. 2, 137–157, http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/hosp.2.2.137 1. Selmer, J., 2004. Psychological barriers to adjustment of Western business expatriates in China: newcomers vs long stayers. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manage. 15, 794–813, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0958519042000192951. Settoon, R.P., Bennett, N., Liden, R.C., 1996. Social exchange in organizations: perceived organizational support, leader-member exchange, and employee reciprocity. J. Appl. Psychol. 81, 219–227, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/00219010.81.3.219. Shen, H., Huang, C., 2012. Domestic migrant workers in China’s hotel industry: an exploratory study of their life satisfaction and job burnout. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 31, 1283–1291, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.02.013. Shin, D.C., Johnson, D.M., 1978. Avowed happiness as an overall assessment of the quality of life. Soc. Indic. Res. 5, 475–492. Silveira, E., Allebeck, P., 2001. Migration, ageing and mental health: an ethnographic study on perceptions of life satisfaction, anxiety and depression in older Somali men in east London. Int. J. Soc. Welfare 10, 309–320, http://dx. doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.00188. Slavnic, Z., 2013. Working in the Bleak House – an autoethnographic study of ethnic segmentation, precarization and informalization in the London hotel industry. Hosp. Soc. 3, 7–24, http://dx.doi.org/10.1386/hosp.3.1.7 1. Staines, G.L., 1980. Spillover versus compensation: a review of the literature on the relationship between work and nonwork. Hum. Relat. 33, 111–129, http://dx. doi.org/10.1177/001872678003300203. Statistics Korea, 2014. 2014 Foreigner Labor Force Survey [WWW Document], URL (accessed 10.15.15.).

12

W.G. Kim et al. / International Journal of Hospitality Management 58 (2016) 1–12

Stephenson, M., 2000. Development and validation of the stephenson multigroup acculturation scale (SMAS). Psychol. Assess. 12, 77–88, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1037/1040-3590.12.1.77. Takeuchi, R., Yun, S., Russell, J.E.A., 2002a. Antecedents and consequences of the perceived adjustment of Japanese expatriates in the USA. Int. J. Hum. Resour. Manage. 13, 1224–1244, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09585190210149493. Takeuchi, R., Yun, S., Tesluk, P.E., 2002b. An examination of crossover and spillover effects of spousal and expatriate cross-cultural adjustment on expatriate outcomes. J. Appl. Psychol. 87, 655–666, http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010. 87.4.655. Taylor, M., Finley, D., 2009. Three views of guest workers in the United States. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 21, 191–200, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ 09596110910935688. Taylor, M., Finley, D., 2010. Acculturation, assimilation, and retention of international workers in resorts. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 22, 681–692, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596111011053800. Teare, R., 1997. Supporting managerial learning in the workplace. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manage. 9, 304–314, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09596119710190921. The United Nations, 1990. International convention on the protection of the rights of all migrant workers and members of their families [WWW document]. Off. High Comm. Hum. Rights, URL http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cmw/ cmw.htm (accessed 2.19.16.). Tschopp, C., Grote, G., Gerber, M., 2014. How career orientation shapes the job satisfaction-turnover intention link. J. Organ. Behav. 35, 151–171, http://dx. doi.org/10.1002/job.1857. United States Department of Labor, Employment by detailed occupation [WWW Document], Bur. Labor Stat. 2015a, URL http://www.bls.gov/emp/ep table 102. htm (accessed 2.19.16.). United States Department of Labor, 2015b. Labor force characteristics of foreign-born workers news release [WWW document]. Bur. Labor Stat., URL http://www.bls.gov/news.release/archives/forbrn 05212015.htm (accessed 10.15.15.).

Walters, G., Raybould, M., 2007. Burnout and perceived organisational support among front-line hospitality employees. J. Hosp. Tour. Manage. 14, 144–156, http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.14.2.144. Wang, X., Sangalang, P.J., 2005. Work adjustment and job satisfaction of Filipino immigrant employees in Canada. Can. J. Adm. Sci. 22, 243–254. Ward, C., Kennedy, A., 1999. The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 23, 659–677, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S01471767(99)00014-0. Ward, C.A., Furnham, A., Bochner, S., 2001. The Psychology of Culture Shock, 2nd ed. Routledge; Taylor & Francis, Hove [England]: Philadelphia. Wayne, S.J., Shore, L.M., Liden, R.C., 1997. Perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange: a social exchange perspective. Acad. Manage. J. 40, 82–111, http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/257021. Williams, L.J., Brown, B.K., 1994. Method variance in organizational behavior and human resources research: effects on correlations path coefficients, and hypothesis testing. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process. 57, 185–209, http://dx. doi.org/10.1006/obhd.1994.1011. Yang, Y., Zhao, X., Qiu, P., Ma, X., Chou, C.-P., 2015. Integrating spatial technology into studying the generational differences of migrants’ health protection status in urban China. Int. J. Equity Health 14, 27, http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12939015-0159-x. Yang, J.-T., 2010. Antecedents and consequences of job satisfaction in the hotel industry. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 29, 609–619, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm. 2009.11.002. Zlobina, A., Basabe, N., Paez, D., Furnham, A., 2006. Sociocultural adjustment of immigrants: universal and group-specific predictors. Int. J. Intercult. Relat. 30, 195–211, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.005. Zopiatis, A., Constanti, P., Theocharous, A.L., 2014. Migrant labor in hospitality: the Cyprus experience. Int. J. Hosp. Manage. 37, 111–120, http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ijhm.2013.11.002.