- Email: [email protected]
Applying the systems approach to urban development
84
East Side and West Side study, the case of public-housing environment in Cleveland, Ohio, called Arrowhead, and the cases of seven locations in Alaska. Chapter 9 gives a clear idea of Barker’s and Wright’s concept of the ‘core setting’ as the central point around which to arrange all other settings in the community. The closing chapter is a concise explanation of the undermanning theory, which states that human organisation has to be of a certain scale in order to derive positive benefits from the environment. After reading ‘Enclosing Behavior’ through, one may express the author’s aforementioned introductory message like this: no man-made environment should be designed and built for itself, but to foster and incite the initiatives and activities of both the individual human being and his social community in order to promote their quality of life. Such a thesis demands a multidisciplinary and comprehensive approach to the planning and designing of physical environments. From among the disciplines which compose the theory of planning and designing Bechtel has selected and emphasized psychology, or more exactly, behavior theory, as the topic of his work. What about comment upon such an approach? I would mention a certain neglect of the close interdependency among psychology and other components of planning and designing theory, such as economy, sociology, technology, and ecology itself. Yet, this is an other theme. In any case, Bechtel’s work is a thoughtful and very useful contribution not only to the theory of planning and designing of man-made environments, but also to the perception of its humanistic objectives. M. TEPINA (Lju bljana, Yugoslavia)
SYSTEMS
APPROACH
TO URBAN
SERVICES
Applying the Systems Approach to Urban Development. Jack W. LaPatra. Community Development Series, Vol. 5. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa, 1977, ix + 296 pp, E9.75/US$ 16.50, ISBN O-87933042-2. The title of the book is misleading, as the book hardly touches on urban development, but deals more with rationalization of technical routines in urban services. The author correctly writes that “the book is aimed at contributing to the understanding of phenomena associated with the urban setting, and to facilitating problem-solving within the urban setting.” There is a need for books like this one, giving a survey of the state of the art. This survey is strictly limited to the situation in the U.S.A.: out of 150 literature references, only about three are from outside the U.S.A., and when
85
LaPatra writes a brief history of systems analysis, this is mainly devoted to the U.S.A. (at least as long as the U.S.A. has existed). The readers (also outside the U.S.A.) are, however, given stimulating examples from several fields of application, mainly regarding community health, justice, urban protective services, education and welfare. The book has an attractive layout, seems to have very few errors and is well written from the pedagogical point of view. It is intended by LaPatra that the book will be read by a wide variety of professionals. This will hopefully be the case - for two reasons. One is that the material indicates the capability and promise of the systems approach as well as some of its limitations. The other is that the book is a good start to something better. There is a need for an up-to-date survey of practical applications of the systems approach not only to urban services, but also to urban development. Some readers should be sufficiently inspired to complete LaPatra’s fine approach. In addition to its geographical (and thus ideological) limitation, the book has a number of weaknesses, some examples of which are: The system of systems: The tools of systems methodology are classified by LaPatra into 18 groups, comprising more than 100 “tools”. The classification system used is not convincing. Several of the “tools” have little to do with the rest of the book. It is not easy to do better (I have failed myself!), but it must be possible. (See, for example, p. xi in Harvey M. Wagner: “Principle of Operations Research”, Prentice Hall, 1969/1972.) Objections to the systems approach: LaPatra evaluates five objections, representing a “complex, bewildering and almost overpowering plethora of problems associated with the application of the systems approach”. The fourth objection is that “systems analysis has invaded many traditional social science areas in recent years with few noteworthy results”. LaPatra’s comments on this point are very weak. Actually, the book would be more interesting if many (or at least some) of the examples given were commented on as regards the practical value of the real application (versus the costs of applying systems analysis). Internal coordination: There could have been better correspondence between the part of the book dealing with the several tools of systems methodology and the parts in which the several applications are presented. Although it is often difficult to explain why a certain tool is used, comments could be made on the selection of some methods rather than others. The promise of the systems approach for the future: In the final chapter LaPatra writes that “systems analysis in the very nature of its dependence on quantitative methods has been most successful in fields that have a large technical content. Successes have been extremely modest in any problem area which has a substantial emotional and psychological content.” He then too easily postulates that the message of the book is that there are visible means to understand social processes. This is a weak conclusion to the book, as many social processes (including development planning processes) are outside the scope of the book and maybe also outside the systems approach.
86
Definition of “systems approach”: Of course, several of the above points depend on the definition of “systems approach”. It will take many more years before a satisfactory definition has been established. LaPatra has done well not to include too much academic discussion on this point. According to his definition, the systems approach is the utilization of a set of methods, techniques and intellectual tools, collectively known as systems analysis, for complex problem solving; its primary goal is increased understanding and insight; its second attitude is the visibility of solution attainment; the systems approach is organized (providing a “glue” for collaboration between many disciplines), creative (not providing self-evident selection of the appropriate techniques), empirical (with emphasis on data), theoretical (although there is invariably both a data and a theory gap, and limited theory only can be dealt with by imagination and intuition creatively employed), and pragmatic (attempting to respond to real needs). HARALD
(Stockholm,
URBAN
BERG
Sweden)
ENTOMOLOGY
Perspectiues in Urban Entomology. G.W. Frankie and C.S. Koehler (Editors). Academic Press, New York, N.Y., San Francisco, Calif., London, 1978, xvi + 417 pp., 27 tables, 30 figures, appendix A-E, $13.95, US$ 21.50, ISBN o-12-265250-9. “Urban entomology” is probably a new expression, and anyone who heard this term would imagine rural or natural entomology. There are terms such as urban climatology, urban geography, urban sociology, urban ecology, etc.; however, there has been no urban entomology up to now. Urban entomology appears to be a new field of science. According to the preface, urban entomology simply refers to the study of insects, including their management, in urban environments. Many contributions to our knowledge of pests that are of medical importance similarly fall into this category. A symposium entitled “Ecology and management of insect populations in urban environments” was held in 1976 in Washington, D.C. during the Fifteenth International Congress of Entomology. The 17 chapters of this book are based on the topics in the symposium. The contributors were requested to emphasize the relationship of man to their particular entomological topics. The editors say the book is not a catalog of all relevant subject areas. Additional topics include endangered insect species, entomophobia and delusions of parasitosis, and insects associated with turfgrass and soil as well as those associated with food processing plants, dining establishments, stored products, and urban aquatic habitats. The themes of the 17 chapters are very diverse. However, after reading the book one gets the impression of a strong emphasis on urban pest management.
East Side and West Side study, the case of public-housing environment in Cleveland, Ohio, called Arrowhead, and the cases of seven locations in Alaska. Chapter 9 gives a clear idea of Barker’s and Wright’s concept of the ‘core setting’ as the central point around which to arrange all other settings in the community. The closing chapter is a concise explanation of the undermanning theory, which states that human organisation has to be of a certain scale in order to derive positive benefits from the environment. After reading ‘Enclosing Behavior’ through, one may express the author’s aforementioned introductory message like this: no man-made environment should be designed and built for itself, but to foster and incite the initiatives and activities of both the individual human being and his social community in order to promote their quality of life. Such a thesis demands a multidisciplinary and comprehensive approach to the planning and designing of physical environments. From among the disciplines which compose the theory of planning and designing Bechtel has selected and emphasized psychology, or more exactly, behavior theory, as the topic of his work. What about comment upon such an approach? I would mention a certain neglect of the close interdependency among psychology and other components of planning and designing theory, such as economy, sociology, technology, and ecology itself. Yet, this is an other theme. In any case, Bechtel’s work is a thoughtful and very useful contribution not only to the theory of planning and designing of man-made environments, but also to the perception of its humanistic objectives. M. TEPINA (Lju bljana, Yugoslavia)
SYSTEMS
APPROACH
TO URBAN
SERVICES
Applying the Systems Approach to Urban Development. Jack W. LaPatra. Community Development Series, Vol. 5. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc., Stroudsburg, Pa, 1977, ix + 296 pp, E9.75/US$ 16.50, ISBN O-87933042-2. The title of the book is misleading, as the book hardly touches on urban development, but deals more with rationalization of technical routines in urban services. The author correctly writes that “the book is aimed at contributing to the understanding of phenomena associated with the urban setting, and to facilitating problem-solving within the urban setting.” There is a need for books like this one, giving a survey of the state of the art. This survey is strictly limited to the situation in the U.S.A.: out of 150 literature references, only about three are from outside the U.S.A., and when
85
LaPatra writes a brief history of systems analysis, this is mainly devoted to the U.S.A. (at least as long as the U.S.A. has existed). The readers (also outside the U.S.A.) are, however, given stimulating examples from several fields of application, mainly regarding community health, justice, urban protective services, education and welfare. The book has an attractive layout, seems to have very few errors and is well written from the pedagogical point of view. It is intended by LaPatra that the book will be read by a wide variety of professionals. This will hopefully be the case - for two reasons. One is that the material indicates the capability and promise of the systems approach as well as some of its limitations. The other is that the book is a good start to something better. There is a need for an up-to-date survey of practical applications of the systems approach not only to urban services, but also to urban development. Some readers should be sufficiently inspired to complete LaPatra’s fine approach. In addition to its geographical (and thus ideological) limitation, the book has a number of weaknesses, some examples of which are: The system of systems: The tools of systems methodology are classified by LaPatra into 18 groups, comprising more than 100 “tools”. The classification system used is not convincing. Several of the “tools” have little to do with the rest of the book. It is not easy to do better (I have failed myself!), but it must be possible. (See, for example, p. xi in Harvey M. Wagner: “Principle of Operations Research”, Prentice Hall, 1969/1972.) Objections to the systems approach: LaPatra evaluates five objections, representing a “complex, bewildering and almost overpowering plethora of problems associated with the application of the systems approach”. The fourth objection is that “systems analysis has invaded many traditional social science areas in recent years with few noteworthy results”. LaPatra’s comments on this point are very weak. Actually, the book would be more interesting if many (or at least some) of the examples given were commented on as regards the practical value of the real application (versus the costs of applying systems analysis). Internal coordination: There could have been better correspondence between the part of the book dealing with the several tools of systems methodology and the parts in which the several applications are presented. Although it is often difficult to explain why a certain tool is used, comments could be made on the selection of some methods rather than others. The promise of the systems approach for the future: In the final chapter LaPatra writes that “systems analysis in the very nature of its dependence on quantitative methods has been most successful in fields that have a large technical content. Successes have been extremely modest in any problem area which has a substantial emotional and psychological content.” He then too easily postulates that the message of the book is that there are visible means to understand social processes. This is a weak conclusion to the book, as many social processes (including development planning processes) are outside the scope of the book and maybe also outside the systems approach.
86
Definition of “systems approach”: Of course, several of the above points depend on the definition of “systems approach”. It will take many more years before a satisfactory definition has been established. LaPatra has done well not to include too much academic discussion on this point. According to his definition, the systems approach is the utilization of a set of methods, techniques and intellectual tools, collectively known as systems analysis, for complex problem solving; its primary goal is increased understanding and insight; its second attitude is the visibility of solution attainment; the systems approach is organized (providing a “glue” for collaboration between many disciplines), creative (not providing self-evident selection of the appropriate techniques), empirical (with emphasis on data), theoretical (although there is invariably both a data and a theory gap, and limited theory only can be dealt with by imagination and intuition creatively employed), and pragmatic (attempting to respond to real needs). HARALD
(Stockholm,
URBAN
BERG
Sweden)
ENTOMOLOGY
Perspectiues in Urban Entomology. G.W. Frankie and C.S. Koehler (Editors). Academic Press, New York, N.Y., San Francisco, Calif., London, 1978, xvi + 417 pp., 27 tables, 30 figures, appendix A-E, $13.95, US$ 21.50, ISBN o-12-265250-9. “Urban entomology” is probably a new expression, and anyone who heard this term would imagine rural or natural entomology. There are terms such as urban climatology, urban geography, urban sociology, urban ecology, etc.; however, there has been no urban entomology up to now. Urban entomology appears to be a new field of science. According to the preface, urban entomology simply refers to the study of insects, including their management, in urban environments. Many contributions to our knowledge of pests that are of medical importance similarly fall into this category. A symposium entitled “Ecology and management of insect populations in urban environments” was held in 1976 in Washington, D.C. during the Fifteenth International Congress of Entomology. The 17 chapters of this book are based on the topics in the symposium. The contributors were requested to emphasize the relationship of man to their particular entomological topics. The editors say the book is not a catalog of all relevant subject areas. Additional topics include endangered insect species, entomophobia and delusions of parasitosis, and insects associated with turfgrass and soil as well as those associated with food processing plants, dining establishments, stored products, and urban aquatic habitats. The themes of the 17 chapters are very diverse. However, after reading the book one gets the impression of a strong emphasis on urban pest management.