Archaeological Geophysics

C H A P T E R 14

Archaeological Geophysics Chapter Outline 14.1 Underground Ancient Caves

412

14.1.1 14.1.2 14.1.3 14.1.4

Model of Underground Cave: Magnetic Method 412 Model of Underground Cave: Gravity Method 412 Model of Closely Occurring Underground Caves: Gravity Method 413 Model of Underground Cave for the Beit Shemesh Area (Central Israel): Gravity Method 414 14.1.5 Analysis of SP Anomaly over the “Big Room” (USA) 417 14.1.6 Analysis of SP Anomalies over Caves in the Sha’ar HaGolan (Northern Israel) 418

14.2 Ancient Garbage Accumulations

419

14.2.1 Magnetic Ivestigations in Ashqelon Marina (Southern Israel) 419 14.2.2 Magnetic Investigations in Nahal-Zehora-II (Northern Israel) 419

14.3 Remains of Fortresses, Walls, and Cemeteries

419

14.3.1 Nahal Hagit Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic Data Analysis 419 14.3.2 Munhata Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic Data Analysis 420 14.3.3 Tel ’Ein Gev Site, Casemate Wall of the Hellenistic Period (Northern Israel): Magnetic and ERT Data Analysis 424 14.3.4 Banias Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic and SP Data Analysis 424 14.3.5 Site of Yodefat (Northern Israel): Magnetic Method 425 14.3.6 Ksiaz Castle, Lower Silesia, Poland: Thermal Data Analysis 427 14.3.7 Examination of Buried Walls at Verulamium (Hertfordshire, Great Britain): Thermal Method 428 14.3.8 Site of Tel Afek (Central Israel): Resistivity 428

14.4 Ancient Roads and Aqueducts 429 14.4.1 Site of Beit Guvrin II (Central Israel): Magnetic Method 429 14.4.2 Tel Megiddo Sites: Preferences of Two-Level Gravity Observations

14.5 Areas of Ancient Metallurgy

14.5.1 Site of Tel Kara Hadid (Southern Israel): Magnetic Method

14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11

430

432 432

Egyptian Pyramids 432 Caucasian Dolmens 434 Areas of Recent and Ancient Battles 435 Marine Archaeogeophysics 435 Remote Operated Vehicle and Archaeogeophysics 436 Analysis of Potential Field Temporal Variations in Archaeogeophysics

437

14.11.1 Classification of Archaeological Targets by the Use of Temporal Magnetic Variations Examination 438

Geophysical Potential Fields. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-811685-2.00014-X Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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412 Chapter 14 14.11.2 Advanced Analysis of Thermal Data Variations Observed in Subsurface Wells can Unmask the Ancient Climate 440

14.12 Integrated Analysis

443

14.12.1 Some General Considerations 443 14.12.2 Integrated Analysis on the Basis of Informational Approach 444

References 446

Potential geophysical fields (magnetic, gravity, resistivity, self-potential [SP], and thermal) are nonexpensive, rapid, and effective tools for investigation of the most part of archaeological remains (e.g., Eppelbaum, 2013a). Numerous examples (mainly from Israel) illustrate effective application of potential geophysical methods over some typical archaeological remains. I must note a significant role of Dr. S. Itkis in performing field magnetometric and SP observations in Israel.

14.1 Underground Ancient Caves Let us begin to consider application of potential geophysical fields from analysis of ancient caves which, by different authors’ estimation, occupy about 20% of the total number of archaeological targets in the world.

14.1.1 Model of Underground Cave: Magnetic Method A simple example of inverse problem solution for the model of buried archaeological cavity (J ¼ 0) occurring in the magnetized medium (J ¼ 300 mA/m) with underlying layer of J ¼ 150 mA/m is displayed in Fig. 14.1. Strong oblique magnetization (44 , typical for the Eastern Mediterranean archaeological sites) and inclined surface relief complicate quantitative analysis of this anomaly. Simple visual analysis of the magnetic curve indicates that minimal amplitude of this anomaly does not coincide (see vertical green dash line) with the projection of the middle of hidden ancient object to the earth’s surface. Application of the developed methodology of inverse problem solution (Khesin et al., 1996; Eppelbaum et al., 2001) (see Section 5.1) permitted to determine the position of the sphere center (a model of horizontal circular cylinder [HCC] was applied) with a high accuracy (Fig. 14.1). Hence, a trouble-free initial quantitative physicalearchaeological model (PAM) has been constructed.

14.1.2 Model of Underground Cave: Gravity Method Gravity anomaly observed on an inclined profile from the model of ancient underground cave is shown in Fig. 14.2. It is obvious that excavations realized directly below the gravity minimum will not discover the cavity. However, quantitative interpretation carried out according to methodology described in Section 5.2 allowed to detect a center of the cavity with sufficient accuracy.

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Figure 14.1 Model example of magnetic field quantitative analysis under complicated environments. Symbol ☉ designates location of the sphere center and arrows show the position of the total magnetic field vector After Eppelbaum, L.V., 2011b. Study of magnetic anomalies over archaeological targets in urban conditions. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 36(16), 1318e1330.

14.1.3 Model of Closely Occurring Underground Caves: Gravity Method The case of computation of gravity effects from the near-surface closely locating cavities (their upper edge is located at the depth of 0.8 m) is shown in Fig. 14.3. Upper part of these cavities has the density contrast Ds (1800 kg/m3) and lower partd(1900 kg/m3).

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Figure 14.2 Quantitative analysis of gravity anomaly on inclined profile from a buried sphere.

Interestingly, that such simple tool as computing the values of Dgx and Dgxx (Fig. 14.3B and C, respectively) allows to determine projection of left boundary of the left occurring target and right boundary of the right occurring target; two other quasi-vertical boundaries can also be identified. A positive anomaly arising between two extremums testify to a presence of some additional target (in our case it is a surrounding medium, i.e., we could make a suggestion about the geometrical parameters of these targets).

14.1.4 Model of Underground Cave for the Beit Shemesh Area (Central Israel): Gravity Method The planning microgravity investigations must be accompanied by development of preliminary PAMs (Eppelbaum, 2000, 2010b). The PAM presented in Fig. 14.4 reflects a

Figure 14.3 Computing of horizontal derivatives from models of two closely disposed caves. (A) Computed gravity curve. (B) Calculated first horizontal derivative of gravity field Dgx. (C) Calculated second horizontal derivative of gravity field Dgxx. (D) Physicalegeological model Based on Eppelbaum, L.V., Ezersky, M.G., Al-Zoubi, A.S., Goldshmidt, V.I., Legchenko, A., 2008. Study of the factors affecting the karst volume assessment in the Dead Sea sinkhole problem using microgravity field analysis and 3D modeling. Advances in Geosciences 19, 97e115, with modifications.

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Figure 14.4 Physicalegeological model of buried prehistoric cave and computed 3D gravity anomalies. (A) Location of projected profiles and disposition of buried cave (view over). (B) Computed gravity effects along profiles 1e5. (C) Geologicalearchaeological sequence. After Eppelbaum, L.V., 2011a. Review of environmental and geological microgravity applications and feasibility of their implementation at archaeological sites in Israel. International Journal of Geophysics ID 927080, 1e9. doi:10.1155/2011/ 927080.

simplified model of the real archaeological site located in the vicinity of town of Beit Shemesh (central Israel). The developed PAM was used for the estimation of expected gravity anomaly amplitudes and calculation of the most optimal step of observations along profiles and distances between profiles.

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Figure 14.5 Quantitative interpretation of self-potential (SP) anomaly (the “Big Room” is approximated by the HCC model). Symbol C marks the position of the HCC center. HCC, horizontal circular cylinder. Observed SP anomaly and geological section are from Lange, A.L., Barner, W.L., 1995. Application of the Natural Electric Field for Detecting Karst Conduits on Guam. ICF Kaiser Engineering Reprint, Wheat Ridge, CO, USA, quantitative examinationdafter Eppelbaum, L.V., 2007. Revealing of subterranean karst using modern analysis of potential and quasi-potential fields. In: Proceed. of the 2007 SAGEEP Conference, vol. 20. Denver, USA, pp. 797e810.

14.1.5 Analysis of SP Anomaly over the “Big Room” (USA) A small SP anomaly (about 25 mV) was observed over the underground void in the conditions of inclined relief (Lange and Barner, 1995). Interpretation of this anomaly (see Section 5.4) may be estimated as a satisfactory one (Fig. 14.5).

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14.1.6 Analysis of SP Anomalies over Caves in the Sha’ar HaGolan (Northern Israel) The unique Neolithic (5500e5000 BCE) site of Sha’ar HaGolan is located in northern Israel (south of the Sea of Galilee on the bank of the Yarmuk River). SP measurements carried out in the area of about 150 m2 using grid 1  1 m allowed to identify four underground caves associated with the ancient Neolithic village. Analysis of two selected anomalies is presented in Fig. 14.6. Results of these investigations are in line with the archaeological model of this area.

Figure 14.6 Quantitative interpretation of self-potential anomalies over prehistoric underground caves in Sha’ar HaGolan site, Golan Heights. The “◉” symbol marks the obtained position of the ore body center (approximated by an HCC). HCC, horizontal circular cylinder. After Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., Itkis S.E., Ben-Avraham, Z., 2004. Advanced analysis of self-potential data in ore deposits and archaeological sites. In: Proceed. of the 10th European Meeting of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, Utrecht, The Netherlands, 4 pp.

Archaeological Geophysics 419

14.2 Ancient Garbage Accumulations Ancient garbage accumulations usually include remains of the food and life of the Prehistoric people which differs from the host medium by various physical properties (magnetic susceptibility, resistivity, thermal conductivity, and density). Let us consider two examples.

14.2.1 Magnetic Ivestigations in Ashqelon Marina (Southern Israel) Magnetic anomalies analysis at the site of Ashqelon Marina, the southern coastal plain of Israel (Fig. 14.7), had the aim to examine this area prior to large-scale commercial development (Eppelbaum et al., 2000). Within this area over 90 pits were identified and most of them were revealed using detailed magnetic prospecting. The overlying layer of dark brown sandy soil was found to be over 0.5 m in thickness. The pits were all full of refuse (pottery, flints, bones, and stone vessel fragments, some botanical remains and shells), which may be dated to the Early Bronze period (Golani, 2004). The most likely purpose of the pits is storage. These features were displayed in the magnetic map as ring (radius of 1.5e2 m) positive anomalies (12e20 nT). Fig. 14.7 shows the example of magnetic anomaly interpretation over such ancient garbage pit where the disturbing body was approximated here by the model of a thick bed. As can be seen from this figure, the results of interpretation are in line with the results of archaeological excavations.

14.2.2 Magnetic Investigations in Nahal-Zehora-II (Northern Israel) A comprehensive magnetic survey was conducted in areas surrounding the excavated area of Naḥal Zehora II (Eppelbaum et al., 2012) situated on the southern fringes of the Jezreel Valley in the Menashe Hills (Northern Israel). Positive (20 5 nT) anomalies were associated here with the enhancement of the soil’s magnetic susceptibility due to repeated heating of the soil as well as by the accumulation of organic debris. Both these processes are associated with human habitation and provide good conditions for the conversion of iron oxide found within the soil to a strong ferromagnetic form (Weston, 1995; Itkis and Eppelbaum, 1998). The performed quantitative analysis of magnetic anomalies was confirmed by the subsequent 3D magnetic field modeling (Eppelbaum et al., 2012).

14.3 Remains of Fortresses, Walls, and Cemeteries 14.3.1 Nahal Hagit Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic Data Analysis The site of Nahal Hagit is situated 20 km of coastal plain in northern Israel. Here nonmagnetic remains of Roman constructions (limestone) occur in the low-magnetic medium. The characteristic peculiarity of the site is an extremely low level of useful signaldseveral nanotesla (Fig. 14.8A). For improving the ratio useful signal/noise here entropy estimation based on Eq. (4.12 from Chapter 4) was applied (Fig. 14.8B). The

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Figure 14.7 Interpretation of magnetic anomaly due to ancient garbage accumulation at the site of Ashqelon Marina (southern Israel). After Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., Itkis, S.E., 2001. Prompt magnetic investigations of archaeological remains in areas of infrastructure development: Israeli experience. Archaeological Prospection 8(3), 163e185, with modifications.

specific peculiarity of this procedure was employment of adaptive moving window. White lines were drawn to indicate the results of qualitative interpretation in the right lower part of this area (see Fig. 14.8B). This qualitative PAM is in good agreement with the available results of excavations. Obviously, the anomalies marked in the left upper part of Fig. 14.8B may be used for planning future excavations.

14.3.2 Munhata Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic Data Analysis The site of Munhata (northern Israel) is located on a terrace at the outlet of Nahal Tabor to the Jordan Valley, some 11 km south of Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee), 215 m below sea level. The depth of archaeological remains at Munhata site is between 2 and 3 m; upper levels

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Figure 14.8 Archaeological site Nahal Hagit (northern Israel): (A) observed magnetic map; (B) magnetic map from (A) transformed using an entropy parameter (Eppelbaum, 2014).

422 Chapter 14 Table 14.1: Studying magnetic properties of soils and building materials at the site of Munhata (Eppelbaum et al., 2001). Magnetic Susceptibility, 10¡5 SI Unit Material

No. of Samples

Minimum

Maximum

Average

Dark-brown soil Mud bricks (Pit 1038 level 2B) Plaster level 3 Floor PPNB-3 Massive walls PPNB-4

59 16 5 12 20

183 143 40 708 408

247 231 49 2440 2260

204 195 43 1610 1349

411 769

640 1770

467 1170

335 1330 736

789 1960 2860

622 1476 1623

281 624

552 2810

406 1413

Massive walls PPNB-5 Group 1 Group 2

8 10 Basin level 5

Group 1 Group 2 Structure level 6

4 7 12 Pavement wall

Group 1 and 5 Group 2 and 16

5 16

were assigned to the Chalcolithic Early Bronze periods. Among many architectural features, rectangular houses, large circular complex, floors, courtyards, and large paved basins were identified. Results of studying magnetic properties at the site of Munhata are presented in Table 14.1. It is easy to see that magnetization of basalt stones (architectural remains) is greatly enhanced relative to the soil magnetization (in 5e7 times). On the other hand, the soil has more magnetic material than plastered floor. Therefore, the basalt remains are expected to produce strong magnetic anomalies, while nonmagnetic limestone and plastered remains should produce a slight magnetic effect (Eppelbaum et al., 2000). Thus, we can range investigated area by degree of magnetization and use these data for the preliminary estimation of the anomalous effects (Eppelbaum et al., 2012). The compiled magnetic map (Fig. 14.9A) is complicated by influence of various sources and here it is difficult to reveal the desired targets. For the better contouring of archaeological features, the observed magnetic map was transformed using an informational parameter (see section 4.4) (Fig. 14.9B). In this map (presented as a shaded relief) the desired objects were selected by rectangular and circular forms. We note that the presented map (Fig. 14.9B) illustrates an initial qualitative type of PAM. The known archaeological objects excavated earlier to the south of the surveyed area are presented in Fig. 14.9C (Commenge, 1996). Obviously, Fig. 14.9B (recognized objects) and Fig. 14.9C (excavated objects) have a good agreement. It allows us to suggest that the similar objects may be found at the new area covered by magnetic survey.

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Figure 14.9 Magnetic maps of the northern part of Munhata site: (A) observed magnetic map; (B) magnetic map from (A) transformed using an informational parameter; (C) excavated part of the Munhata site, some 10 m south of the site studied. (A) After Eppelbaum, L.V., Itkis, S.E., Khesin, B.E., 2000. Optimization of magnetic investigations in the archaeological sites in Israel. In: Special Issue of Prosperzioni Archeologiche “Filtering, Modeling and Interpretation of Geophysical Fields at Archaeological Objects”. pp. 65e92, with modifications. (C) After Commenge, C., 1996. Horvat Minha (el-Munhata). Excavations and survey in Israel, vol. 15. Jerusalem, Israel, p. 43.

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14.3.3 Tel ’Ein Gev Site, Casemate Wall of the Hellenistic Period (Northern Israel): Magnetic and ERT Data Analysis The site of Tel ’Ein Gev is situated at the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee (northern Israel). The site was occupied from the 10th century BCE to the Hellenistic Period (e.g., Sugimoto, 2010). Numerous kinds of noise of industrial origin as well as modern buildings strongly complicate performing geophysical surveys in this area. Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and magnetic prospecting were carried out in the northern part of this site where the level of noise was comparatively low (Itkis et al., 2012). Fig. 14.10 shows application of magnetic prospecting (Fig. 14.10A) and ERT (Fig. 14.10B) for delineation of the buried casemate walls. Results of magnetic anomaly quantitative analysis (a model of thick bed was utilized) display that they agree with the ERT inversion.

14.3.4 Banias Site (Northern Israel): Magnetic and SP Data Analysis The remains of the city of Banias (Roman period) are located in northern Israel, at the foot of Mt. Hermon. In the vicinity nearest the area of the geophysical investigations

Figure 14.10 Interpretation of magnetic anomaly from buried casemate wall (10th century BCEdthe Hellenistic Period), kibbutz ’Ein Gev (Sea of Galilee, northern Israel). ERT, electrical resistivity tomography. (A) and (B) Magnetic observations (A) and ERT profile (B) and after Itkis, S.E., Frid, V., Sokolova, T.B., 2012. Integrated geophysical study in ‘En Gev, Israel. In: Trans. of the 18th European Meet. of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, Paris, France, P44, pp. 1-5; (A) interpretation of (A) after Eppelbaum, 2015a.

Archaeological Geophysics 425 described here, the remains of a Roman cemetery and aqueduct (Hartal, 1997) have been discovered. Petrological and petrophysical analyses of the excavated chambers indicated that these objects were built from a special type of limestone (J z 0e2 mA/m) that is found in the host media of basaltic pebbles and magnetic soil (J z 800e900 mA/m) (Itkis and Eppelbaum, 2009). Quantitative interpretation of the observed negative anomaly using the abovementioned methodology has shown that obtained position of the thick bed is at a lowered depth compared with the results of archaeological excavations (Fig. 14.11); apparently it is caused by the essential inhomogeneity of the host media.

14.3.5 Site of Yodefat (Northern Israel): Magnetic Method The site of Yodefatdwell-known site of the Roman perioddis located in the submountain zone of Upper Galilee (Northern Israel). Here were revealed remains of the ancient fortress constructed of limestone and mudbrics which are reflected in the total magnetic

Figure 14.11 Interpretation of magnetic anomaly from buried Roman chamber, northern continuation of the Banias site (foot of Mt. Hermon, northern Israel) Initial data according to Eppelbaum, L., BenAvraham, Z., Itkis, S., 2003. Ancient Roman Remains in Israel provide a challenge for physical-archaeological modeling techniques. First Break 21(2), 51e61; final analysis after Eppelbaum (2015).

426 Chapter 14 field by weak magnetic anomalies (7e15 nT). Here observation step was 1 m, but in some anomalous intervals it was reduced to 0.5 m. This archaeological site is located in conditions of rugged terrain relief (Fig. 14.12A). The terrain relief influence was calculated using correlation approach (see Section 5.2). As a result, the corrected map of DT field was calculated (Fig. 14.12B). Then the corrected magnetic field was transformed to information characteristics by use of Eq. (4.13) (Fig. 14.12C). The quasi-linear anomaly in the central part of Fig. 14.12C was recognized as remains of a buried wall of the ancient fortress. The data from Fig. 14.12B were used for quantitative interpretation (approximation model: thin seam) of magnetic anomaly (Fig. 14.12D). Magnetization of the medium calculated using Eq. (3.10) is in compliance with the magnetic susceptibility

Figure 14.12 Processing and interpretation of the magnetic field DT at the Roman Yodefat site (northern Israel): (A) observed field DT and terrain relief; (B) corrected magnetic field; (C) revealing desired objects using informational criterion; (D) results of inverse problem solution. After Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., Itkis, S.E., 2001. Prompt magnetic investigations of archaeological remains in areas of infrastructure development: Israeli experience. Archaeological Prospection 8(3), 163e185, with modifications.

Archaeological Geophysics 427 measurements. The developed model has a good agreement with the available archaeological data.

14.3.6 Ksiaz Castle, Lower Silesia, Poland: Thermal Data Analysis The following example in the best way possible confirms the statement (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959; Eppelbaum, 2009b) about the direct mathematical analogy between the magnetic and temperature anomalies (see Section 5.3) (Fig. 14.13). Temperature data were observed at the depth of 20 cm over the ancient crypt (old family tomb of the Ksiaz Castle owners), Lower Silesia (Moscicki, 1987). This monumental crypt is occurring in

Figure 14.13 Comparison of temperature data observed over the buried ancient crypt (Ksiaz Castle, Lower Silesia, Poland) with the 3D computed magnetic data from the same model. The “þ” symbol marks the position of the upper edge of the thick body as obtained from analysis of the observed temperature graph. Archaeological model, observed and computed temperature after Moscicki, W.J., 1987. Temperature anomalies over underground cavities. Geophysical Prospecting 35, 393e423. Results of inverse problem solution and 3D magnetic computation after Eppelbaum, L.V., 2009b. Near-surface temperature survey: an independent tool for buried archaeological targets delineation. Journal of Cultural Heritage 12, e93ee103.

428 Chapter 14 gravel-sand medium; several small vertical windows allow free air penetration (Moscicki, 1987). It should be noted that this crypt has the intermediate geometric form between the models of thick bed and horizontal plate (by quantitative analysis a model of thick bed (Eppelbaum, 2015a) has been utilized). From this model, temperature (Moscicki, 1987) and magnetic (DZ by vertical magnetization of the medium and archaeological model) Eppelbaum, 2009b fields were computed. As shown in Fig. 14.13, difference between the observed and computed temperature fields is significantly larger than difference between the observed temperature and computed magnetic fields. This testifies the principal applicability of mathematical apparatus of magnetic field modeling for examination of temperature anomalies.

14.3.7 Examination of Buried Walls at Verulamium (Hertfordshire, Great Britain): Thermal Method Temperature survey has been carried out over the remains of walls (the limestone walls occur in a dry soil) at the depth of 20 cm and corrected for diurnal effects using the combined base station least-square technique (Bellerby et al., 1990). Anomalies I and II (Fig. 14.14) by the use of tangent and characteristic point methods were analyzed. For interpretation of anomaly I, model of a thin bed was employed, and for anomaly II, model of a HCC was used. The obtained depth of the upper edge of a model of thin bedd80 cmdis in a good agreement with the available archaeological data (Bellerby et al., 1990). The calculated depth to the center of the HCC is about 2.3 m. The rough calculation indicates that wall height may consist of no less than 3 m that does not contradict to archaeological data. Calculated value of temperature moment (see section 5.3) for anomalies I and II are 0.04 m$oC and 0.86 m2$oC, respectively.

14.3.8 Site of Tel Afek (Central Israel): Resistivity The archaeological site of Tel Afek, dating to the Late Bronze Age (1550e1200 BC), is situated about 10 km east of Tel Aviv. One of the main geophysicalearchaeological problems at this site consisted of mapping walls of ancient structures that were almost completely covered by sediments. At this site, Ginzburg and Levanon (1977) previously applied the resistivity method (altogether eight profiles were observed) based on the essential differences in geoelectric characteristics between the ancient objects and sediments and effectively localized several buried wall foundations in the area studied. One of the electric resistivity anomalies was examined (Fig. 14.15) by applying the advanced interpretative methods developed in magnetic prospecting (Eppelbaum, 1999). For developing a PAM, the HCC model was applied. As evident from Fig. 14.15, the interpretation is in good agreement with the archaeological data.

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Figure 14.14 Quantitative interpretation of temperature anomalies observed over a set of buried walls at Verulamium (Hertfordshire, Great Britain). The “þ” and “☉” symbols marks the position of the upper edge of the thin body and center of HCC, respectively, as obtained from analysis of anomalies I and II. The observed temperature profile is reconstructed from Bellerby, T.J., Noel, M., Branigan, K., 1990. A thermal method for archaeological prospection: preliminary investigations. Archaeometry 32, 191e203. Interpretation results after Eppelbaum (2009).

14.4 Ancient Roads and Aqueducts 14.4.1 Site of Beit Guvrin II (Central Israel): Magnetic Method The site named here as Beit Guvrin II is located in Shfela, the territory between the coastal plane and the Judean Hills (central Israel). The magnetic survey was conducted in an area of ploughed field (3800 m2) belonging to the kibbutz Beit Guvrin. The survey was carried out prior to the salvage excavation in order to choose a suitable place to build a concrete plant. The map of the magnetic field displayed a few negative anomalies located

430 Chapter 14

Figure 14.15 Inverse problem solution for resistivity anomaly in the archaeological site of Tel Afek, central Israel. A cross in the section designates the location of the center of the anomalous body (Eppelbaum, 1999, 2010b). Initial data from Ginzburg and Levanon (1977).

along a narrow gradient zone. Negative anomalies are caused by limestones (practically nonmagnetic rock) comprising the remains of an ancient Roman road. Interestingly, the modern road repeats the configuration of the ancient road line. Quantitative interpretation over a few negative magnetic anomalies has been conducted. An example of such an interpretation is shown in Fig. 14.16. Fig. 14.16A presents the observed magnetic map with the location of the interpreting profile. Quantitative interpretation of the negative magnetic anomaly allowed determination of the upper edge of the ancient Roman road remains (Fig. 14.16B). Follow-up excavations, carried out in the places where the interpretation was applied, have shown a slight misfit between the calculated and real geometrical parameters of the desired objectsdabout 2%e3%.

14.4.2 Tel Megiddo Sites: Preferences of Two-Level Gravity Observations Analysis of the numerous archaeological and geological publications as well as the author’s investigation (e.g., Eppelbaum, 2009a, 2010a) indicates that the ancient objects supposed for examination by the use of microgravity survey may be classified (in the order of decreasing) by the following way: (1) Underground ancient cavities and galleries, (2) Walls, remains of temples, churches, and various massive constructions,

Archaeological Geophysics 431

Figure 14.16 Localization of remains of the ancient Roman road in the vicinity of the Beit Guvrin II site (central Israel): (A) magnetic map with location profile IeI; (B) quantitative analysis of magnetic anomaly along profile IeI. After Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., Itkis, S.E., 2001. Prompt magnetic investigations of archaeological remains in areas of infrastructure development: Israeli experience. Archaeological Prospection 8(3), 163e185, with modifications.

(3) Pavements and tombs, (4) Roman aqueducts (under favorable physicalegeological environments), (5) Areas of ancient primitive metallurgical activity (including furnaces; under favorable physicalegeological environments).

432 Chapter 14 Examining the different archaeological targets in Israel, it was supposed that microgravity method might be effectively applied at least on 20%e25% of ancient sites (Eppelbaum, 2009a, 2010a). A simplified model example of buried pavement delineation is presented in Fig. 14.17. A buried pavement having the positive density contrast of 400 kg/m3 and occurring at a depth of 1.8 m in uniform medium (PAM of one of the Megiddo sites was selected as a basis) could be easily recognized by a microgravity survey (Fig. 14.17A, anomalous effect from two bodies). Let us assume a low-density layer (2100 kg/m3) over the pavement. It makes the delineation of the pavement practically impossible in field conditions (registered anomaly is oscillating about one microGal) (Fig. 14.17A, anomalous effect from three bodies). At the same time values of the second vertical derivative of gravity potential Wzz (gravity field was computed for the levels of 0.3 and 1.5 m) with a measurable accuracy testify to a presence of disturbing body (Fig. 14.17B). The similar graphs were developed for the models of buried ancient caves of various radius, ancient iron furnaces, Roman aqueducts, etc.

14.5 Areas of Ancient Metallurgy 14.5.1 Site of Tel Kara Hadid (Southern Israel): Magnetic Method The site Tel Kara Hadid is located on the western side of the southern Arava Valley, 4 km north of Eilat (southern Israel). The site (Early Islamic period, 7the11th centuries AD) belongs to a series of copper mines and smelting camps of that period located on the western side of the southern Arava Valley, several km north of Eilat in southern Israel. The site contains a series of copper mines and smelting camps of that period. The same type of slag, reflecting a uniform technology, characterizes all these smelting sites. On the magnetic map two anomalies are clearly detected (Fig. 14.18A), which were recognized as furnaces used in ancient metallurgy. Positions of the upper edges of the anomalous bodies (approximation model of a thin bed was used) and their magnetization were determined (Fig. 14.18B). A 3D modeling of the magnetic field was applied to develop the final PAM (Fig. 14.18C).

14.6 Egyptian Pyramids Egyptian pyramids are very important (and not fully understand until present) archaeological objects where microgravity (e.g., Lakshmanan and Montlucon, 1987; Lakshamanan, 1991; Issawy and Radwan, 2012), thermal (e.g., Ibarro-Kastaneda et al., 2017), resistivity (e.g., Abbas et al., 2008; Mekkawi et al., 2013; Sharafeldin et al., 2017),

Archaeological Geophysics 433

Figure 14.17 Comparison of Bouguer gravity and vertical gradient anomalies. (A) Bouguer gravity, (B) vertical gradient gz (Wzz) computed for the base of 1.2 m, (C) archaeological sequence (Eppelbaum et al., 2010).

and magnetic/paleomagnetic (e.g., Abdallatif et al., 2005, 2010; Tunyi and Femaly, 2012) investigations were applied. The potential possibilities of microgravity investigations are not fully implemented: integrated analysis of g, gx, and gz carried out at different levels will allow to more precisely interpret complex gravity pattern from these enigmatic objects.

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Figure 14.18 (A, B) Solving inverse problem and 3-D modeling of magnetic field in the Tel Kara Hadid site (southern Israel): (A) Magnetic map of the studied site; (B) Rapid interpretation of magnetic anomalies using developed procedures along the profile I . DJ denotes the effective magnetization. (C) Results of 3-D magnetic field modeling. Arrows show the determined position of the total magnetic field vector. (A and B) After Eppelbaum, L.V., Itkis, S.E., Khesin, B.E., 2000. Optimization of magnetic investigations in the archaeological sites in Israel. In: Special Issue of Prosperzioni Archeologiche “Filtering, Modeling and Interpretation of Geophysical Fields at Archaeological Objects”. pp. 65e92, with modifications.

14.7 Caucasian Dolmens The Caucasian dolmens represent a unique type of prehistoric architecture, built with precisely dressed large stone blocks. Most of them are rectangular structures made of stone slabs or cut in rocks with holes in their facade. The stones were, for example,

Archaeological Geophysics 435 shaped into 90-degree angles, to be used as corners or were curved to make a circle. The monuments date from the end of the fourth millennium to the beginning of the second millennium BC. These dolmens cover the Western Caucasus on both sides of the mountain ridge, over an area of more than 12,000 km2 (Markovin, 1978). Which people erected the dolmens remains a mystery (Valganov, 2004). Clearly, the dolmens are the most enigmatic ancient remains of the Caucasus. Boichenko et al. (2000) examined several less damaged dolmens located in the village of Shapsugskaya in the Krasnodar region. Radiometric investigations did not show any anomalous distribution. Some anomalies were detected in the observed magnetic field pattern. However, the complex geometric form of the dolmens and not their anomalous properties could have caused these anomalies. Magnetic investigations of complex (and visible) objects should as a general rule can be accompanied by 3D magnetic field modeling (e.g., Eppelbaum et al., 2000). These investigations involving several geophysical methods (including precise magnetic modeling and paleomagnetic examination) must be continued on dolmens situated in different regions of the Caucasus (Eppelbaum and Khesin, 2012).

14.8 Areas of Recent and Ancient Battles Archaeogeophysical investigations of the areas of recent and ancient battles are also of great interest (e.g., Winn, 1986; Banks, 2012). All potential fields (first of all, magnetic and resistivity methods) may be applied for such an examination. Some averaged magnetic effects from targets of the recent battles are presented in Table 14.2.

14.9 Marine Archaeogeophysics Marine potential fields archaeogeophysics is presented by many examples of magnetic (e.g., Quinn et al., 2000; Boyce et al., 2004; Paoletti et al., 2005; Tontini et al., 2006; Weiss et al., 2007) and resistivity method (e.g., Passaro, 2010; Simyrdanis et al., 2018) Table 14.2: Averaged magnetic effects from some military targets. Object

Average Mass, kg

Distance, m

Magnetic Effect, nT

Tank Car Car Ship Knife Knife Shooting weapon Shooting weapon Pistol Pistol

50,000 1000 1000 1000,000 0.3 0.3 5e10 5e10 0.5 0.5

30 10 30 40 3 1.5 3 1.5 3 1.5

200e300 40e45 1e1.5 200e500 1.2 10e20 3e12 10e20 2e9 5e12

436 Chapter 14 application. Obviously, extension of archaeological surveys in shallow water will cause expansion of potential geophysical method application, and firstly by the use of remote operated vehicle (ROV) operations.

14.10 Remote Operated Vehicle and Archaeogeophysics The last ROV generationdsmall and maneuvering vehicles with different geophysical sensorsdcan fly at levels of a few meters (and even tens of centimeters) over the earth’s surface, to move on the earth’s surface and in the inaccessible underground areas and to explore in underwater investigations (e.g., Mindel and Bingham, 2001; Rowlands and Sarris, 2006; Wilson et al., 2006; Rigaud, 2007; Eppelbaum, 2008, 2016; Patterson and Brescia, 2008; Sarris, 2008; Wang et al., 2009; Wu and Tian, 2010; Stoll, 2011; Tezkan et al., 2011; Hadjimitsis et al., 2013; Hajiyev and Vural, 2013; Petzke et al., 2013; Pourier et al., 2013; Casana et al., 2014; Silverberg and Bieber, 2014). Such geophysical investigations should have an extremely low exploitation cost and can observe surface practically inaccessible archaeological sites (swampy areas, dense vegetation, rugged relief, over the areas of world recognized religious and cultural artifacts (Eppelbaum, 2010), etc.). Finally, measurements of geophysical fields at different observation levels could provide new unique geologicalegeophysical information (Eppelbaum and Mishne, 2011). Let us consider ROV airborne magnetic measurements as an example. The modern magnetometric equipment enables to carry out magnetic measurements with a frequency of 50 times per second (and more) that when taking into account the low ROV flight speed provides a necessary density of observations. For instance, frequency of observation of 100 times per second (modern magnetometric device announcements give frequency 1000 per second and even more) by ROV velocity of 40 km/h gives density of observation about 0.1 m. It is obvious that the calculated step between observation points is more than sufficient. Such observations will allow not only to reduce the influence of some small artificial sources of noise but also to obtain some additional data necessary for quantitative analysis (some interpretation methodologies need to have observations at two levels; upward analytical continuation does not always correspond to available criteria). Besides this, the ROV observed magnetic data may be used for obtaining the averaged values of magnetization of the upper part of geological section along profiles following the inclined terrain relief (it follows from the interpretation scheme presented for surface magnetic investigations in Khesin et al. (1996)) and by combination of horizontal and inclined ROV flights over the flat relief (for air and underwater measurements) (Eppelbaum, 2010b, 2013b). In many cases the bodies (layers) composing the upper part of the archaeogeological section can be approximated by models of thick bed and thin

Archaeological Geophysics 437 horizontal plate and intermediate models that make possible application of the aforementioned technologies. The developed interpretation methodology for magnetic anomalies advanced analysis (Khesin et al., 1996; Eppelbaum et al., 2000, 2001; Eppelbaum, 2011b, 2015a) may be successfully applied for any kind of ROV magnetic observations. This methodology includes (1) nonconventional procedure for elimination of secondary effect of magnetic temporary variations, (2) calculation of rugged relief influence by the use of a correlation method, (3) estimation of medium magnetization, (4) application of various logicaleheuristic, informational, and wavelet algorithms for revealing low-amplitude anomalies against the noise background, (5) advanced procedures for magnetic anomalies quantitative analysis (they are applicable in conditions of rugged relief, inclined magnetization, and an unknown level of the total magnetic field for the models of thin bed, thick bed, and HCC; some of these procedures demand performing measurements at two levels over the earth’s surface), (6) advanced 3D magneticegravity modeling for complex geologicalearchaeological media, and (7) development of 3D PAM of the studied area. Integration of magnetic observations with other geophysical methods may be realized on the basis of multimodel (Eppelbaum and Yakubov, 2004), informational (Eppelbaum, 2014), or wavelet (Eppelbaum et al., 2011, 2014) approaches. In Israel, a lot of positive results were derived from magnetic method employment with application of the abovementioned procedures at numerous archaeological sites (e.g., Eppelbaum, 2000, 2010a, 2010a, 2011a, 2015a, 2019; Eppelbaum et al., 2000, 2001, 2006, 2010, 2014; Eppelbaum and Itkis, 2003). Similar effective techniques were developed for the interpretation of microgravity anomalies (Eppelbaum, 2009, 2011, 2015b), temperature anomalies (Eppelbaum, 2009b, 2013a), SP anomalies (Eppelbaum et al., 2003, 2004), induced polarization anomalies (Khesin et al., 1997; Eppelbaum, 2000), piezoelectric anomalies (Neishtadt and Eppelbaum, 2012), very low frequency anomalies (Eppelbaum and Mishne, 2011; Eppelbaum and Khesin, 2012). The theoretical analysis indicates that for all aforementioned geophysical methods a common interpretation methodology may be applied.

14.11 Analysis of Potential Field Temporal Variations in Archaeogeophysics Temporal geophysical field variations cannot be considered as a noise only. The rapid (magnetic field) and slow (temperature field) variations could be used for determination of physical properties of hidden ancient objects and unmasking climate of the past, respectively.

438 Chapter 14

14.11.1 Classification of Archaeological Targets by the Use of Temporal Magnetic Variations Examination Many buried magnetized archaeological and geological objects (for instance, ancient furnaces, weapon, agricultural targets, and high-magnetized basalts) may be classified without high-expensive excavations. Such a classification may be conducted on the basis of comprehensive studying of temporal magnetic variations over these objects. It is especially significant for archaeogeophysical investigations in the areas of world recognized religious and cultural artifacts where all excavations are forbidden (Eppelbaum, 2010b). Yanovsky’s (1978) investigations laid the foundation of the magnetic variations utilization for separation of disturbing objects with high magnetic susceptibility (not depending on intensity of the studied magnetic anomalies). However, these procedures are inapplicable for studying low-intensive and negative magnetic anomalies, where an influence of residual magnetization may be a sufficient one. At the same time, the approach presented below may be used for investigation of the nature of magnetic anomalies with arbitrary intensity and origin. In the common case (we consider for simplicity that anomalous object is a sphere), the value of magnetic variations h could be estimated using the following expression (Finkelstein and Eppelbaum, 1997): f ðPÞ þ dHa þ dHo ; (14.1) dHo pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi where induction parameter P ¼ a kgu (Wait, 1951), Ho is the initial field of magnetic variations, Ha is the anomalous component of magnetic variations, k is the magnetic susceptibility, g is the electric conductivity, u is the frequency of geomagnetic variations, and a is the radius of the sphere. h¼

For the approximate estimation of possible values of anomalous geomagnetic variations (AGV) (see Chapter 13, Fig. 13.1) over sphere within some domain P, we will use an expression of the anomalous vertical magnetic component Z for any point M (x, y, z) in the external space (for the case of vertical magnetization) (Nepomnyaschikh, 1964): e v2 Z ds ðk1  k2 ÞZ0 þ ð1 þ 4pk2 ÞJRZ ; (14.2) : Za ¼ r 1 þ 4pk2 þ NZZ ðk1  k2 Þ vz2 T

where k1 is the magnetic susceptibility of the object, k2 is the magnetic susceptibility of e is the the host medium, Z0 is the vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field, JRZ effective component of the vector of residual magnetization, Nzz is the coefficient of the

Archaeological Geophysics 439 2

v demagnetization, vz 2

R ds T

r

is the second derivative of the z-axis of the integral

R ds r , and ds is

T

the volume element of the domain P. Taking into account that in most cases k2 is negligible compared with k1 of magnetic e when exposed to an objects, as well as the fact that the residual magnetization of JRZ e in Eq. (14.2) can be alternating field does not create additional fields, values k2 and JRZ practically ignored in the evaluation of magnetic fields from objects. Then for variations of the vertical component of the magnetizing field with objects having a high content of ferromagnetic materials according to Eq. (14.2) we will observe abnormal values of the magnetic variations (Finkelstein et al., 2012): Z k1 dZ0 v2 ds ; (14.3) dZa ¼ : 1 þ NZZ k1 vz2 T r where dZ0 is some increment (both positive and negative) of Z0. R ds v2 Solving the expression vz 2 T r in Eq. (14.3) for each particular body shape, we find that the AGVs from the body of spherical form will be determined by the expression (Finkelstein and Eppelbaum, 2015)    4:2a3 k1 2h2  x2 sin J  3hx cos J dZ0 ; (14.4) dZa ¼ ð1 þ k1 NZZ Þðh2 þ x2 Þ5=2 where J is the angle between the magnetization vector and the horizon, a is the radius of the sphere, x is the current coordinate, and h is the depth to its center. For a spherical body the parameter Nzz was assumed as 43 p (Nikitsky and Glebovsky, 1990). In accordance with Eq. (14.4) the relationship between abnormal to normal variations (h) were calculated: h¼

dZa þ dZ0 dZ0

(14.5)

and plotted versus the magnetic susceptibility of a sphere with a radius a (Finkelstein et al., 2012). From Eq. (14.5) follows that at small values of dZa the ratio becomes close to unity, for example, granitoidsdbasalts, and each value of the differential function (D12) of geomagnetic variations between the two points (1 and 2) will be close to the values of the background level, unless there are other factors creating AGV of different origin. The developed methodology includes (a) estimation of influence of electric conductivity for studied objects and surrounding medium; (b) selection of the most optimal frequencies for observation of magnetic variation effect (f(P) should seek to the value less than 0.6);

440 Chapter 14 (c) revealing relationship between observed variations (their intensity and form) and parameters of disturbing objects (their geometric and physical characteristics); (d) calculation of magnetic susceptibility. Results obtained in the items (c) and (d) are applied (together with other available geological, archaeological, environmental, and geophysical data) for classification of studied ancient targets. These procedures have been successfully tested in several ore deposits of the Middle Asia (mainly in Kazakhstan) and Caucasus. Some preliminary experimental observations over ancient iron-containing targets were carried out in Israel (Eppelbaum et al., 2010).

14.11.2 Advanced Analysis of Thermal Data Variations Observed in Subsurface Wells can Unmask the Ancient Climate Conventional methods of studying the ancient climate history are associated with statistical processing of accomplished meteorological data. These investigations have focused attention on meteorological records of air temperature, which can provide information on the only last 100e200 years. Number of the records is absolutely insufficient, and their areal coverage is limited; some oldest meteorological stations may have been affected by local warming connected with urban and industrial growth. At the same time, significant climatic changes are accompanied by the corresponding variations in the Earth’s surface (soil) temperature. This effect is based on the known physical law that temperature waves at the surface propagate downward into the subsurface with an amplitude attenuation and time delay increasing with depth. Earth’s temperature profiles, measured by precise temperature logging T(z) in boreholes to depth of about 80e300 m, have a “memory” on what has happened on the surface during approximately several last centuries. Knowledge of the past climate in archaeology is necessary not only for tracing some ancient events and more deep understanding some historical facts but also for estimation of harvests, analysis of some physical conditions of constructions built in the past, and in many other fields (Eppelbaum, 2010; Eppelbaum et al., 2010). The first attempts to recover the past ground surface temperature (GST) history from measured T(z) profiles date back to the mid-1960s; however, only after Lachenbruch et al. (1988) pointed out that the magnitude and timing of the ground surface warming in Alaska is consistent with models of the recent warming, the method became popular (Cermak et al., 1996). Let us assume that tx years ago from now the GST started to increase (warming) or reduce (cooling). Prior to this moment the subsurface temperature is: T a ðz; t ¼ 0Þ ¼ T0a þ Gz;

(14.6)

Archaeological Geophysics 441 where T0a is the mean GST at the moment of time t ¼ 0 years; z is the vertical depth; and G is the geothermal gradient. It is also assumed that the host medium is homogeneous with constant thermal properties. Now the current (t ¼ tx) subsurface temperature is (in case of warming): T c ðz; t ¼ tx Þ ¼ T0c þ f ðzÞ;

(14.7)

where T0c is the current (at the time (date) of temperature logging) mean ground surface temperature; and f(z) is a function of depth that could be obtained from the field data. In some cases, the value of T0c can be obtained by extrapolation of the function Tc to z ¼ 0 (Eppelbaum et al., 2014). However, in most cases, the value T0c can be estimated by trial and error method: Assuming an interval of values for T0c, calculating for each T0c value of the temperature profiles Tc for various models of change in the GST with time and, finally, finding a best match between calculated and field measured Tc profiles. In our study we found that a quadratic regression can be utilized to estimate the value of T0c ¼ a0 (Kutasov et al., 2000), Tc ðz; t ¼ tx Þ ¼ a0 þ a1 z þ a2 z2 ;

(14.8)

where a0, a1, and a2 are the coefficients. We will consider four different models (Eppelbaum et al., 2006). Apparently, each of these models is more suitable under concrete physicalegeological conditions. In the first model, we assumed that txC years ago the GST value suddenly changed from T0 to T0c. The current temperature anomaly (the reduced temperature) is TR ðzÞ ¼ T0c þ f ðzÞ  T0  Gz

(14.9)

and the solution is TRC

  z ¼ TR ¼ DT0 F  ðxÞ pffiffiffiffi ; 2 at DT0 ¼ T0c  T0 ;

t ¼ txC ;

(14.10) (14.11)

where a is the thermal diffusivity of formation and F*(x) is the complementary error function. In the second model, we assumed that txL years ago the GST value started gradually to change from T0 to T0c. We assumed that GST is a linear function of time and (Eppelbaum and Kutasov, 2014): T0c ¼ T0 þ aL txL ; where aL is some coefficient.

(14.12)

442 Chapter 14 The solution is TRL

     

z2 z z z2 ¼ TR ¼ aL t 1 þ F  pffiffiffiffi  pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp  ; 2at 4at 2 at pat

t ¼ txL ;

(14.13)

In the third model we also assumed that txS years ago the GST value started gradually to change from T0 to T0c. We assumed that GST is a square root function of time and pffiffiffiffiffi T0c ¼ T0 þ aS txS ; (14.14) where aS is a coefficient. The solution is TRS

pffiffiffi   

 pffi z2 z p z ¼ TR ¼ aS t exp   pffiffiffiffi F  pffiffiffiffi ; 4at 2 at 2 at

t ¼ txS :

(14.15)

And, finally, in the fourth model we assumed that the GST value exponentially increases with time and T0c ¼ T0 expðaE txE Þ;

(14.16)

where aE is a coefficient. The solution is (TRE ¼ TR) rffiffiffiffiffiffi      rffiffiffiffiffiffi   pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 aE z aE TRE ¼ expðaE tÞ exp  z F  pffiffiffiffi  aE t þ exp z F 2 a a 2 at   pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi z  pffiffiffiffi þ aE t ; t ¼ txE : 2 at

(14.17)

At the same time, not all boreholes are suitable for the thermal data processing for unmasking climate of the past. For deep wells (>120e300 m), the drilling process, due to lengthy period of drilling fluid circulation, greatly alters the temperature of formation immediately surrounding the well. As a result, the determination of formation temperature (with a specified absolute accuracy) at any depth requires a lengthy period of shut-in time. The objective of this study is to determine how long it takes before the error caused by mud circulation is small compared to the change arising from the change in surface temperature. Two techniques were suggested (Slider’s method (Kutasov and Eppelbaum, 2007) and utilization of the gefunction (Kutasov, 1999)), which enables us to estimate the rate of temperature decline and the difference between the formation and shut-in temperatures (Kutasov and Eppelbaum, 2013). The developed methodologies were successfully applied on the thermal borehole data from the northern America, Europe, and Asia (Eppelbaum et al., 2006).

Archaeological Geophysics 443

14.12 Integrated Analysis 14.12.1 Some General Considerations As shown in countless publications on archaeological prospection, there are typically no more than two or three geophysical methods employed to solve problems of detection, contouring, and the development of 3-D models of archaeological sites (e.g., Linford, 1998; Darnet et al., 2004; Di Fiore and Chianese, 2008). A simple model showing the results of the application of two methods (e.g., magnetic and direct current surveys) is described below. These methods are labeled in Table 14.3 as follows: 1 ¼ weak negative anomaly, 2 ¼ weak positive anomaly, 3 ¼ negative anomaly, 4 ¼ positive anomaly, 5 ¼ high-gradient field, and 6 ¼ roughly zero field. The values of the physical properties are assumed to be consistent with published data on the magnetic and electric properties of AT and host rocks in archaeological sites in Israel. Table 14.3: An example of geophysical data combination over archaeological remains. Typical Field Combination for Magnetic and Resistivity Fields 1

2

3

4

5

C

6

Class of Targets

Ratio “Target/Surrounding Rocks”

Limestone constructions

J1/J2 z 1/(10 e 30) r1/r2 z (3 e 7)/1 J1/J2 z (100 e 1000)/1 r1/r2 z 1/(100 e 300) J1/J2 z (20 e 50)/1 r1/r2 z (5 e 15)/1 J1/J2 z (3 e 8)/1 r1/r2 z (5 e 12)/1

Iron objects (kilns, furnaces) C C

C Basaltic constructions Zones of garbage accumulation

Designations: J1 and J2 are the magnetization of target and surrounding rocks, respectively, r1 and r2 are the resistivity of target and surrounding rocks, respectively. Symbol relates to magnetization, and C to resistivity.

Four combinations of two parameters can represent the four classes of targets, each ranging from 1 to 6. The number of A possible combinations of two parameters divided into six categories is 36. One of these 36 combinations can characterize each class of archaeological features. The number of combinations can be increased at the expense of secondary parameters related to certain transformations of the fields (downward and upward continuation, derivatives of various orders, etc.). Limestone constructions are characterized here by index “12,” iron objects “55,” basaltic constructions “54,” and zones of garbage accumulation “23.”

444 Chapter 14

14.12.2 Integrated Analysis on the Basis of Informational Approach These computations are based on the results of an integrated survey at the Halutsa site in southern Israel (Eppelbaum et al., 2001) (Table 14.4). The Halutsa site is located 20 km southwest of the city of Be’er Sheva. It was the central city of southern Palestine in the Roman and Byzantine periods and was founded as a way station for Nabatean (7the2nd centuries BC) traders traveling between Petra (Jordan) and Gaza and was occupied throughout the Byzantine period (4the7th centuries AD) (Kenyon, 1979; Kempinski and Reich, 1992). Magnetic and SP measurements (Eppelbaum et al., 2001) were conducted in a 20  10 m area with a 1  1 m grid (Fig. 14.19A and B). The buried targets (ancient Roman limestone constructions) induced negative anomalies in both fields (Fig. 14.19C and D). Fig. 14.18C and D show initial PAM of these concrete archaeological targets. To estimate the informational significance, the following expression can be used: X I’A/B ¼ ½PðAi Þ,IAi /B:

(14.18)

i

The results using expression (14.18) appear in the second column of Table 14.5. The estimates served to substantiate the ratio between informational significance, cost, and time. To normalize the results, the following semiempirical expressions (obtained on the

Table 14.4: Example of information parameter calculation (archaeological site Halutsa, southern Israel). Indicator Self-potential field Intervals of values, millivolt

Magnetic field Intervals of values, nanoTesla

Si

(51) O (40) (39) O (30) (29) O (20) (19) O (10) (9) O (0) 1 O 13.6

27 38 29 17 64 35

(14) O (11) (10) O (8) (7) O (5) (4) O (2) (1) O 1 2O4 5O8

3 9 13 47 36 74 35

PðAi Þ [

Si S

PðAi jBÞ [

S ¼ 210, Sp ¼ 26 0.1286 2.0385 0.1810 2.4615 0.1381 2.1154 0.0810 1.6538 0.3048 3.4615 0.1667 2.3462 S ¼ 217, Sp ¼ 16 0.0138 1.1875 0.0415 1.5625 0.0600 1.8125 0.2166 3.9375 0.1659 3.2500 0.3410 5.6250 0.1613 3.1875

Spi Sp

PðAi BÞ [

Si Spi SSp

DIi, bit

0.8579 0.8489 0.8563 0.8563 0.8220 0.8514

1.2485 1.5118 1.2769 0.8120 2.0562 1.4370

0.9851 0.9552 0.9353 0.7662 0.8209 0.6318 0.8259

0.2696 0.7010 0.9545 2.3615 1.9852 3.1543 1.9484

Figure 14.19 Maps of (A) magnetic and (B) self-potential fields at the Halutsa site (Negev Desert, Israel). Results of the quantitative interpretation for (C) profile IeI and (D) profile IIeII. (þ) Position of the middle of upper edge of anomalous body for magnetic anomaly. 1 Upper edge of anomalous body for the self-potential anomaly. After Eppelbaum, L.V., Khesin, B.E., Itkis, S.E., 2001. Prompt magnetic investigations of archaeological remains in areas of infrastructure development: Israeli experience. Archaeological Prospection 8(3), 163e185, with modifications.

446 Chapter 14 Table 14.5: Informational significance of geophysical method application at the site of Halutsa (southern Israel). Indicator

I’A/B

C, Expenditure Units

T, Time Units

U

Self-potential Magnetic field

1.3265 2.1374

2 5

4 2

1.6581 1.7100

Notes. C is some basic expenditure for geophysical survey in area of 10  10 m with a grid of 1  1 m. The calculation of parameters C and T includes values of geophysicist’s salaries, amortization (rent) of magnetometric and self-potential equipment and time expenditures.

basis of informational approach and long-term experience in the field of applied geophysics) can be used: USP ¼

I’A/BðSPÞ . . ; CðSPÞ CðMagnÞ ,TðSPÞ TðMagnÞ

UMagn ¼

I’ . A/BðMagnÞ . : CðMagnÞ CðSPÞ ,TðMagnÞ TðSPÞ

(14.19)

(14.20)

The data compiled in the last column of Table 14.5 show that magnetic prospecting is characterized by more optimal parameters.

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