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Architecture for space habitats. Role of architectural design in planning artificial environment for long time manned space missions
Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593 www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro
Architecture for space habitats. Role of architectural design in planning artificial environment for long time manned space missions Vera Martinez Fachgebiet Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung und Entwerfen und Baugestaltung, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract The paper discusses concepts about the role of architecture in the design of space habitats and the development of a general evaluation criteria of architectural design contribution. Besides the existing feasibility studies, the general requisites, the development studies, and the critical design review which are mainly based on the experience of human space missions and the standards of the NASA-STD-3000 manual and which analyze and evaluate the relation between man and environment and between man and machine mainly in its functionality, there is very few material about design of comfort and wellbeing of man in space habitat. Architecture for space habitat means the design of an artificial environment with much comfort in an “atmosphere” of wellbeing. These are mainly psychological effects of human factors which are very important in the case of a long time space mission. How can the degree of comfort and “wellbeing atmosphere” in an artificial environment be measured? How can the quality of the architectural contribution in space design be quantified? Definition of a criteria catalogue to reach a larger objectivity in architectural design evaluation. Definition of constant parameters as a result of project necessities to quantify the quality of the design. Architectural design analysis due the application and verification within the parameters and consequently overlapping and evaluating results. Interdisciplinary work between architects, astronautics, engineers, psychologists, etc. All the disciplines needed for planning a high quality habitat for humans in space. Analysis of the principles of well designed artificial environment. Good quality design for space architecture is the result of the interaction and interrelation between many different project necessities (technological, environmental, human factors, transportation, costs, etc.). Each of this necessities is interrelated in the design project and cannot be evaluated on its own. Therefore, the design process needs constant check ups to choose each time the best solution in relation to the whole. As well as for the main disciplines around human factors, architectural design for space has to be largely tested to produce scientific improvement. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Two aspects of the planning of space habitats can reach a further depths through architecture: the design
E-mail address: [email protected]. 0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.034
of the space for the group (the micro community of the crew) and the one for the single person. Architecture can provide answers for the needs of the social community as well as the needs for the wellbeing of the single person in a totally artificial environment. Architecture defines the “build” rules for the cultural life of a community [1]. The division into public, semi
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
public and private spaces shows the changing relationships between group and individual person [2]. These architectural rules extend further than the plain functional organization. Help to interpret the patterns of behavior that are important for the group. In a totally isolated environment, that is characterized by dangers there is no other choice for the individual person but to subscribe to the condition that are valid for the whole group. This means that the rules for the life within the community have to be easily understood and acceptable to everyone [3], even in the case of an international crew with varied cultural background. The wellbeing of the individual person in space relates to the condition between human being and environment. It is also based on the experience of the senses [4–6]. In comparison with the diversity which can be experienced by man on earth a severe reduction in the artificial habitat (relation between natural and man-made places, [7]) will be incremental. To give quality to human life in the space habitat, despite its restriction, a sensitive design of the environment is absolutely necessary [8]. To give an answer to the problems of human factor on space missions the design process has to take into account aspects of sociology (the portrayal of micro communities: “city planning”) and psychology (for the definition of environment: architecture). A range of criteria for the main design aspects concerning the communal live of the crew as well as the well being of the individual in the artificial environment helps to evaluate architectural designs. Since 2001, the architecture department of the Technical University Darmstadt has been working on these themes. In the projects students have intuitively asked these questions and looked for answers. The pictures that accompany my talk have been developed by students as part of their design projects. Technical aspects of realization are the main part of designing a space habitat, in which we worked interdisciplinary with the institute of astronautics Prof. Walter TUM. Aspects of design support the necessary technology for the planning of space habitats. 2. Assessment strategies and catalogue of criteria The catalogue of assessment criteria for the “space” architecture will be based on various qualities, which will correspond to various design criteria. Following is a list of criteria, which will describe the problems of architecture and design of space habitats. The proposal of the criteria catalogue enables the assessment of the predefined topics, so for obtaining more objectivity in
589
the evaluation. It is the aim to be able to better analyze the advantages and disadvantages in comparison. An essential starting point for the planning will arrive from the prescription of the mission design and will be developed corresponding to aims and expectations. The more precise the mission is defined, the better the architectonical design process can be used and therefore a qualitatively better solution can be developed. The number of people, their composition and the countries they come from, their cultural background, their necessary activities and their expectations will play a big role in the architectonical design of their lives environment. The design will correspond to the composition, space, order, room, program and organization of the habitat [9]. Questions of definition of city planning (intended as built expression of community live) will have their effect on the design from the very start. Traditionally city planning is used to represent the accepted forms of community organization on an urban level [10]. Also the micro community of the astronauts will not be able to miss the portrayal of the social aspects of communal life. The consideration of the conditions of environment or the conditions of limits and expectations, which depend on the position in space (Moon, Mars or etc.), will influence the design from the very first sketch. The following parameter will form the base for successfully using the habitat. They include protection from radiation and meteorites, protection from heat or cold, adjustment to gravitation [11], in situ use of resources, topography and atmosphere of planets etc. Each one of these demands will set borders for the planning and influences the options for design decisions. The concept defines the inherent idea of the design. The search for the concept will facilitate the decision making in the design process, for example the concept of an “oasis” (see Fig. 2) in the design of team yellow in the task of planning a lunar base station is a clearly conceptual approach. The design was developed according to the reference image. The use of the concept helps in finding simple and clear strategies for the planning process. Another important criteria will be the design quality of the habitat, the architecture. Here not the portrayal of the dramaturgy of the living conditions of the group is important, but the special qualities of the artificial spaces in which the human being will be forced to stay for quite a long time [8]. The compulsion in isolation and confinement and the impossibility of leaving make the difference: light, material, definition of space, design of space, definition of volume and form have to be
590
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
used for the composition of a comfortable surrounding. Architecture alone has to substitute the diversity of the natural environment that the human being is used to, on the face of the earth [7]. For the planning of space habitats can be chosen from the diversity of architectural design possibilities. The pure aesthetic will play a much bigger role in space than on earth because mankind can do without beauty only for a short while [12]. The habitat has to be functional. Ergonomics [13], the right measurements for working, handling have to be solved in a highly successful manner, therefore, not risking the success of the mission. A lot has been researched on this subject in the past years (as for ISS), but a lot more can be done. 2.1. Energy efficiency Space habitats are closed systems. Water, oxygen and energy, which are necessary for substain life, have to reusable to a high degree. Waste in solid and liquid form has to be minimized, for it cannot be disposed of in space or on foreign planets. On developing a micro closed cycle on biological basis is being worked at the moment. Planning a habitat with “greenhouse” as part of a closed cycle can facilitate life in space and should be included in the design process [12]. The realization of the project should be possible (in architectural design for space feasibility often faults). The observance of technical necessitie [14] has to be included in the planning from the beginning [15]. Questions of realization as well as design issues have to be part of the design process from the start, often the two aspects benefit from each other. The problems can be solved effectively only through consequential and cooperative integration. The cooperation between the department architecture Entwerfen and Baugestaltung (design and room planning) Prof. Johann Eisele and Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung (design and space planning) Lehrbeauftragte Vera Martinez Technical University Darmstadt and the Astronautics Institute Prof. Ulrich Walter Technical University of Munich HAAL) was formed in order to develop this integration during the studies. Integral part of the design are questions about the necessary tools, which are to be integrated into the architecture of the habitat to perform certain tasks (specially in microgravity), beginning with a chair (the best example is the “Munich Space Chair”) to shower, bed, storage facilities, waste containers, etc. Good design means a precise adaptation to function and quality (aesthetics) of the objects. The ergonomic qualities have to ensure comfort and cosines [16].
Awareness of costs should influence the design from the start. The limitation of costs would help to evaluate the quality of designs, instead of only evaluating the design quality of the project. Even during the design process the estimate of costs can lead to optimization in a lot of respects without jeopardizing the quality. Whereas the optimization of projects according to costs at the end of the design process often influences the quality of the design. Good quality space architecture if integrated in the mission design process from the beginning will not produce higher costs just higher ambiance quality. One of most interesting feed-back by teaching to interdisciplinary student teams is to see that they take advantage from the collaboration and respect the different competences of each. City planning, environmental conditions, concept, architecture, function, energy efficiency, realization, costing. Each one of the aforementioned criteria leads to the definition of parameter which help to evaluate the quality of design, to reach more objectivity and to minimize mistakes in the decision making. Through these criteria the quality of design can be more clearly explained to a team of people from various professional fields. The principle of introducing certain criteria reflects the successful principle of judging Architectural competitions. The various criteria can have different importance in the decision process, therefore, adjusting to the particular needs of the mission. The various fields of science involved will define the different parameters. For the planning of space habitats is a definition of a micro world basically all the different fields of science gain importance. To speak with Norberg Schultz, architecture and the work of architects can contribute to the design of a “genius loci” for space habitat. 3. Sociological aspects of the design of space habitats The design of space habitats is a highly complex task, for it touches various important aspects of human life [17]. The main assumption is that architecture (urbanism) represents physically the social rules of a community and therefore influences behavior. The architecture of space habitats does not imply the definition of housing for human beings in a natural environment in which the human being is able to survive on his own, but the design of a life ensuring environment in the void of space. Various fields of science, arts, humanities, technics, have to be implemented into
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
the design therefore creating a comfortable “home in space” for human beings. Technics are being used to ensure the possibility of life outside the atmosphere of the earth whereas psychology and sociology refer to the field of human factors, in particular the psychological condition of the individual person and the social community of the group (particularly important for longer missions). Architecture defines the environment which influences a society and its culture [18]. The human being can reflect the nature of its environment. Unwritten rules define the face of urban and rural life. The relation between public and private is important, in this the rules of the sociologically accepted life are defined. The micro society which will live in a space ship or in the base station on a foreign planet, will reflect itself in an environment which is defined through rules in public and private life. Only functional approach cannot fulfill the demands of space design in a hostile environment. The architectural definition of the living environment of the group begins at the position and relation of the rooms to each other (also question of quantity) [19] and reaches the design of the public, semipublic and private areas (question of quality) [2]. Questions arise: how extensive should be the private space in comparison to the public ones? In the common design the public spaces are rather smaller in order to provide more room for laboratories, work and training facilities. Can this relation work for extended time missions? If yes, then why? Which architectural criteria define the public space compared to the private room? How much personal quality can be admitted to public life? How open or flexible has the habitat to be in order to adapt to the changing needs of public life? How much room can be allocated to specialized functions and how much room can be given over to multifunctional tasks. Can in situ resource (in case of stations on moon or mars) be used for extending the habitat? Which new forms of social life can develop through the new environment in space? (for example permanent fear) How are these architectonically expressed? How is the room composed which reflects the community? How extensive does the space have to be in order to create comfort, shelter and also representation. A lot of the functions will overlap due to the limitation of space. Many functions will be used like tools [20] in various spaces therefore rooms will be multifunctional. A clear distinction will be made for private rooms (for recreation and diminishing of aggression). Because manned space travel will be done in international cooperation the different cultural demands will influence the design. This means the design has to be clear and unmistakably interpretable. This could lead to a natural understanding of space not fixed to a
591
Fig. 1. Studentwork “space city”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Makensen, Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
Fig. 2. Studentwork “lunar base OASIS”. Source: F. Larisch, S. Kassekert, G. Tagisade, D. Weirauch, Technische Universität Darmstadt (architecture) in cooperation with Technische Universität München (astronautics) 2005.
Fig. 3. Studentwork “space habitat”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Makensen, Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
particular cultural interpretation and could also lead to a wider acceptance. Signals should be used for orientation purposes in particular situations and for working
592
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
Fig. 4. Studentwork “lunar base”. Source: A. Dietrich, S. Rapp, S. Reuss, Technische Universität Darmstadt (architecture) in cooperation with Technische Universität München (astronautics) 2005.
the steering panels (but not reflect the only possibility of orientation). The search for a common denominator in various cultural backgrounds should help to minimize misunderstanding and uncomfortable feeling or to create a basis for discussion (Figs. 1–4). 4. Psychological aspects of the design of space habitats The environment is experienced by human beings through the senses. To see, hear, taste, smell and feel are used to experience the environment. The sense give information to the space where the human being is situated. The definition of a so-called “green zone” concerning the term of comfort for each sense is an aim of this study (“green zone” means the sector of a scale, in which the state of comfortableness of one of the five senses is proven). An ideal situation would be to develop an ambiance in which every sense reaches the “green zone” and which is harmonic in the whole design at the same time. Normally a good design is developed through sensitive composition of the space under regards of all predefined conditions. This would not suffice to adjust to the perception influenced by psychological factors. The physical environment and the psychologically felt environment can be quite different. To define a “green zone” for the psychological perception is more difficult, because this touches the “gray area” of the subjective individuality of each single person. Even though in our society the environment is mainly explored through the
eye [21], in the background connections develop between the seen, the felt, the smelt and the heard. The nature of the things and the living beings, which are found in our environment, are not experienced only by the eye. To the seen corresponds a certain “materiality”. We connect a certain smell with certain things, for example with wood: a certain material quality, a certain temperature, a certain noise. The same is true for each material which plays a role in our life: stone, glass, steel, etc. The relation of all experiences is felt as a certainty. The question of materiality plays a big role in manned space travel, because the astronauts live in an environment which is artificial to a high degree. The sensual quality of the materials could be used to harmonize the space or the artificial environment. Though widely used throughout architecture and design the knowledge of the sensual perception of the environment hardly influences the design process. The color design of the interior of space ships could be used as an example (compare [14]). The use of neutral colors, nonsaturated and gray, is also found in the design of airplanes, trains, etc., because it works best in contrast to the colorful environment. It is different in space where the void is endless and effects should be questioned. Perception is as well defined through cultural background (Think of the different use of colors to express joy or mourning). Analytical studies should show stronger connections and offer a theoretical construct as base for further empirical studies. Partial areas can be empirically studied to gain objectivity even through minor factors (compare [22]). The development of a questionnaire (for astronauts and cosmonauts) to research factors of environment quality in manned space travel could provide support for various aspects of design. For the design of certain areas the sensual awareness is considered and already used in a particular way: color, light, temperature, acoustics, smell, surface conditions. Aim: concentration, comfort, safety, freedom of interference, relaxation, personality, use, fun. Use of these studies can be made in the earthly every day life (compare [23]). References [1] K. Frampton, Reflections on the autonomy of architecture: a critique of contemporary production, in: G. Diane (Ed.), Out of Site: A Social Criticism of Architecture, Bay Press, 1991, pp. 17–26. [2] G. Consonni, L’internitá dell’esterno: scritti sull’abitare e il costruire, clup, 1989. [3] C. Norberg-Schulz, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, Rizzoli, 1980.
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593 [4] S. Hesselgren, Man’s Perception of Man-Made Environment: An Architectural Theory, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 1975, p. 179. [5] S. Hesselgren, The Language of Architecture, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 1967. [6] N.L. Prak, The Language of Architecture: A Contribution to Architectural Theory, Mouton, The Hague, The Netherlands, 1968. [7] V. Scully, Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade, St. Martin’s Press, 1991. [8] T. Thiis-Evensen, Archetypes in Architecture, Norwegian University Press, 1987. [9] Vitruvio “De Architectura”, The Ten Books on Architecture, Book 1, Chapter 3, Section 2. Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Dover, 1960. Reprint of translation published by Harvard University, 1914. Originally written by Vitruvius for the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar (23 a.C.). [10] M.N. Auge, Introduzione a una antropologia della surmodernitá, 2005 eleuthera (traduction rolland d.). [11] T.W. Hall, The Architecture of Artificial-Gravity, Environments for Long-Duration Space Habitation, University of Michigan, 1994. [12] M. Heidegger, Die Zeit des Weltbildes, 1938. [13] B.L. Bandini, Ergonomia e progetto dell’utile e del piacevole, Maggioli Editore, Rimini, 1998.
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[14] Man-Systems Integration Standards, NASA-STD-3000 Handbook, 1994. [15] R. Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, second ed., Praeger Publishers, 1967. [16] A. Dominioni, Industrial Design for Space, 2002 Silvana Editoriale Spa, Milano, 2002. [17] W. Benjamin, Passagen-werk, 1962 (published after death). [18] A. Rossi, L’architettura della cittá, citta studi, 1994. [19] Isolation NASA Experiments in: H.W. Lane, R.L. Sauer, D.L. Feeback (Eds.), Closed-Environment Living Advanced Human Life Support Enclosed System, Science and Technology Series, A Supplement to Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, vol. 104, Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt, Incorporated, P.O. Box 28130, San Diego, CA 92198, USA. [20] T. Maldonado, Il futuro della modernitá, Feltrinelli, Milano, 4’ edizione, 1988. [21] M. Foucault, The eye of power, 1974 excerpt. [22] M. Hassenzahl, R. Wessler, Capturing design space from a user perspective: the repertory technique revisited, International Journal of Human-computer Interaction (2000) 441–459. [23] Space Architecture, AD Architectural Design, Wiley-Academy, London, 2000.
Architecture for space habitats. Role of architectural design in planning artificial environment for long time manned space missions Vera Martinez Fachgebiet Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung und Entwerfen und Baugestaltung, Faculty of Architecture, Technical University Darmstadt, Germany
Abstract The paper discusses concepts about the role of architecture in the design of space habitats and the development of a general evaluation criteria of architectural design contribution. Besides the existing feasibility studies, the general requisites, the development studies, and the critical design review which are mainly based on the experience of human space missions and the standards of the NASA-STD-3000 manual and which analyze and evaluate the relation between man and environment and between man and machine mainly in its functionality, there is very few material about design of comfort and wellbeing of man in space habitat. Architecture for space habitat means the design of an artificial environment with much comfort in an “atmosphere” of wellbeing. These are mainly psychological effects of human factors which are very important in the case of a long time space mission. How can the degree of comfort and “wellbeing atmosphere” in an artificial environment be measured? How can the quality of the architectural contribution in space design be quantified? Definition of a criteria catalogue to reach a larger objectivity in architectural design evaluation. Definition of constant parameters as a result of project necessities to quantify the quality of the design. Architectural design analysis due the application and verification within the parameters and consequently overlapping and evaluating results. Interdisciplinary work between architects, astronautics, engineers, psychologists, etc. All the disciplines needed for planning a high quality habitat for humans in space. Analysis of the principles of well designed artificial environment. Good quality design for space architecture is the result of the interaction and interrelation between many different project necessities (technological, environmental, human factors, transportation, costs, etc.). Each of this necessities is interrelated in the design project and cannot be evaluated on its own. Therefore, the design process needs constant check ups to choose each time the best solution in relation to the whole. As well as for the main disciplines around human factors, architectural design for space has to be largely tested to produce scientific improvement. © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction Two aspects of the planning of space habitats can reach a further depths through architecture: the design
E-mail address: [email protected]. 0094-5765/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.034
of the space for the group (the micro community of the crew) and the one for the single person. Architecture can provide answers for the needs of the social community as well as the needs for the wellbeing of the single person in a totally artificial environment. Architecture defines the “build” rules for the cultural life of a community [1]. The division into public, semi
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
public and private spaces shows the changing relationships between group and individual person [2]. These architectural rules extend further than the plain functional organization. Help to interpret the patterns of behavior that are important for the group. In a totally isolated environment, that is characterized by dangers there is no other choice for the individual person but to subscribe to the condition that are valid for the whole group. This means that the rules for the life within the community have to be easily understood and acceptable to everyone [3], even in the case of an international crew with varied cultural background. The wellbeing of the individual person in space relates to the condition between human being and environment. It is also based on the experience of the senses [4–6]. In comparison with the diversity which can be experienced by man on earth a severe reduction in the artificial habitat (relation between natural and man-made places, [7]) will be incremental. To give quality to human life in the space habitat, despite its restriction, a sensitive design of the environment is absolutely necessary [8]. To give an answer to the problems of human factor on space missions the design process has to take into account aspects of sociology (the portrayal of micro communities: “city planning”) and psychology (for the definition of environment: architecture). A range of criteria for the main design aspects concerning the communal live of the crew as well as the well being of the individual in the artificial environment helps to evaluate architectural designs. Since 2001, the architecture department of the Technical University Darmstadt has been working on these themes. In the projects students have intuitively asked these questions and looked for answers. The pictures that accompany my talk have been developed by students as part of their design projects. Technical aspects of realization are the main part of designing a space habitat, in which we worked interdisciplinary with the institute of astronautics Prof. Walter TUM. Aspects of design support the necessary technology for the planning of space habitats. 2. Assessment strategies and catalogue of criteria The catalogue of assessment criteria for the “space” architecture will be based on various qualities, which will correspond to various design criteria. Following is a list of criteria, which will describe the problems of architecture and design of space habitats. The proposal of the criteria catalogue enables the assessment of the predefined topics, so for obtaining more objectivity in
589
the evaluation. It is the aim to be able to better analyze the advantages and disadvantages in comparison. An essential starting point for the planning will arrive from the prescription of the mission design and will be developed corresponding to aims and expectations. The more precise the mission is defined, the better the architectonical design process can be used and therefore a qualitatively better solution can be developed. The number of people, their composition and the countries they come from, their cultural background, their necessary activities and their expectations will play a big role in the architectonical design of their lives environment. The design will correspond to the composition, space, order, room, program and organization of the habitat [9]. Questions of definition of city planning (intended as built expression of community live) will have their effect on the design from the very start. Traditionally city planning is used to represent the accepted forms of community organization on an urban level [10]. Also the micro community of the astronauts will not be able to miss the portrayal of the social aspects of communal life. The consideration of the conditions of environment or the conditions of limits and expectations, which depend on the position in space (Moon, Mars or etc.), will influence the design from the very first sketch. The following parameter will form the base for successfully using the habitat. They include protection from radiation and meteorites, protection from heat or cold, adjustment to gravitation [11], in situ use of resources, topography and atmosphere of planets etc. Each one of these demands will set borders for the planning and influences the options for design decisions. The concept defines the inherent idea of the design. The search for the concept will facilitate the decision making in the design process, for example the concept of an “oasis” (see Fig. 2) in the design of team yellow in the task of planning a lunar base station is a clearly conceptual approach. The design was developed according to the reference image. The use of the concept helps in finding simple and clear strategies for the planning process. Another important criteria will be the design quality of the habitat, the architecture. Here not the portrayal of the dramaturgy of the living conditions of the group is important, but the special qualities of the artificial spaces in which the human being will be forced to stay for quite a long time [8]. The compulsion in isolation and confinement and the impossibility of leaving make the difference: light, material, definition of space, design of space, definition of volume and form have to be
590
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
used for the composition of a comfortable surrounding. Architecture alone has to substitute the diversity of the natural environment that the human being is used to, on the face of the earth [7]. For the planning of space habitats can be chosen from the diversity of architectural design possibilities. The pure aesthetic will play a much bigger role in space than on earth because mankind can do without beauty only for a short while [12]. The habitat has to be functional. Ergonomics [13], the right measurements for working, handling have to be solved in a highly successful manner, therefore, not risking the success of the mission. A lot has been researched on this subject in the past years (as for ISS), but a lot more can be done. 2.1. Energy efficiency Space habitats are closed systems. Water, oxygen and energy, which are necessary for substain life, have to reusable to a high degree. Waste in solid and liquid form has to be minimized, for it cannot be disposed of in space or on foreign planets. On developing a micro closed cycle on biological basis is being worked at the moment. Planning a habitat with “greenhouse” as part of a closed cycle can facilitate life in space and should be included in the design process [12]. The realization of the project should be possible (in architectural design for space feasibility often faults). The observance of technical necessitie [14] has to be included in the planning from the beginning [15]. Questions of realization as well as design issues have to be part of the design process from the start, often the two aspects benefit from each other. The problems can be solved effectively only through consequential and cooperative integration. The cooperation between the department architecture Entwerfen and Baugestaltung (design and room planning) Prof. Johann Eisele and Entwerfen und Raumgestaltung (design and space planning) Lehrbeauftragte Vera Martinez Technical University Darmstadt and the Astronautics Institute Prof. Ulrich Walter Technical University of Munich HAAL) was formed in order to develop this integration during the studies. Integral part of the design are questions about the necessary tools, which are to be integrated into the architecture of the habitat to perform certain tasks (specially in microgravity), beginning with a chair (the best example is the “Munich Space Chair”) to shower, bed, storage facilities, waste containers, etc. Good design means a precise adaptation to function and quality (aesthetics) of the objects. The ergonomic qualities have to ensure comfort and cosines [16].
Awareness of costs should influence the design from the start. The limitation of costs would help to evaluate the quality of designs, instead of only evaluating the design quality of the project. Even during the design process the estimate of costs can lead to optimization in a lot of respects without jeopardizing the quality. Whereas the optimization of projects according to costs at the end of the design process often influences the quality of the design. Good quality space architecture if integrated in the mission design process from the beginning will not produce higher costs just higher ambiance quality. One of most interesting feed-back by teaching to interdisciplinary student teams is to see that they take advantage from the collaboration and respect the different competences of each. City planning, environmental conditions, concept, architecture, function, energy efficiency, realization, costing. Each one of the aforementioned criteria leads to the definition of parameter which help to evaluate the quality of design, to reach more objectivity and to minimize mistakes in the decision making. Through these criteria the quality of design can be more clearly explained to a team of people from various professional fields. The principle of introducing certain criteria reflects the successful principle of judging Architectural competitions. The various criteria can have different importance in the decision process, therefore, adjusting to the particular needs of the mission. The various fields of science involved will define the different parameters. For the planning of space habitats is a definition of a micro world basically all the different fields of science gain importance. To speak with Norberg Schultz, architecture and the work of architects can contribute to the design of a “genius loci” for space habitat. 3. Sociological aspects of the design of space habitats The design of space habitats is a highly complex task, for it touches various important aspects of human life [17]. The main assumption is that architecture (urbanism) represents physically the social rules of a community and therefore influences behavior. The architecture of space habitats does not imply the definition of housing for human beings in a natural environment in which the human being is able to survive on his own, but the design of a life ensuring environment in the void of space. Various fields of science, arts, humanities, technics, have to be implemented into
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593
the design therefore creating a comfortable “home in space” for human beings. Technics are being used to ensure the possibility of life outside the atmosphere of the earth whereas psychology and sociology refer to the field of human factors, in particular the psychological condition of the individual person and the social community of the group (particularly important for longer missions). Architecture defines the environment which influences a society and its culture [18]. The human being can reflect the nature of its environment. Unwritten rules define the face of urban and rural life. The relation between public and private is important, in this the rules of the sociologically accepted life are defined. The micro society which will live in a space ship or in the base station on a foreign planet, will reflect itself in an environment which is defined through rules in public and private life. Only functional approach cannot fulfill the demands of space design in a hostile environment. The architectural definition of the living environment of the group begins at the position and relation of the rooms to each other (also question of quantity) [19] and reaches the design of the public, semipublic and private areas (question of quality) [2]. Questions arise: how extensive should be the private space in comparison to the public ones? In the common design the public spaces are rather smaller in order to provide more room for laboratories, work and training facilities. Can this relation work for extended time missions? If yes, then why? Which architectural criteria define the public space compared to the private room? How much personal quality can be admitted to public life? How open or flexible has the habitat to be in order to adapt to the changing needs of public life? How much room can be allocated to specialized functions and how much room can be given over to multifunctional tasks. Can in situ resource (in case of stations on moon or mars) be used for extending the habitat? Which new forms of social life can develop through the new environment in space? (for example permanent fear) How are these architectonically expressed? How is the room composed which reflects the community? How extensive does the space have to be in order to create comfort, shelter and also representation. A lot of the functions will overlap due to the limitation of space. Many functions will be used like tools [20] in various spaces therefore rooms will be multifunctional. A clear distinction will be made for private rooms (for recreation and diminishing of aggression). Because manned space travel will be done in international cooperation the different cultural demands will influence the design. This means the design has to be clear and unmistakably interpretable. This could lead to a natural understanding of space not fixed to a
591
Fig. 1. Studentwork “space city”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Makensen, Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
Fig. 2. Studentwork “lunar base OASIS”. Source: F. Larisch, S. Kassekert, G. Tagisade, D. Weirauch, Technische Universität Darmstadt (architecture) in cooperation with Technische Universität München (astronautics) 2005.
Fig. 3. Studentwork “space habitat”. Source: J. Vogel, T. von Makensen, Technische Universität Darmstadt 2004.
particular cultural interpretation and could also lead to a wider acceptance. Signals should be used for orientation purposes in particular situations and for working
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Fig. 4. Studentwork “lunar base”. Source: A. Dietrich, S. Rapp, S. Reuss, Technische Universität Darmstadt (architecture) in cooperation with Technische Universität München (astronautics) 2005.
the steering panels (but not reflect the only possibility of orientation). The search for a common denominator in various cultural backgrounds should help to minimize misunderstanding and uncomfortable feeling or to create a basis for discussion (Figs. 1–4). 4. Psychological aspects of the design of space habitats The environment is experienced by human beings through the senses. To see, hear, taste, smell and feel are used to experience the environment. The sense give information to the space where the human being is situated. The definition of a so-called “green zone” concerning the term of comfort for each sense is an aim of this study (“green zone” means the sector of a scale, in which the state of comfortableness of one of the five senses is proven). An ideal situation would be to develop an ambiance in which every sense reaches the “green zone” and which is harmonic in the whole design at the same time. Normally a good design is developed through sensitive composition of the space under regards of all predefined conditions. This would not suffice to adjust to the perception influenced by psychological factors. The physical environment and the psychologically felt environment can be quite different. To define a “green zone” for the psychological perception is more difficult, because this touches the “gray area” of the subjective individuality of each single person. Even though in our society the environment is mainly explored through the
eye [21], in the background connections develop between the seen, the felt, the smelt and the heard. The nature of the things and the living beings, which are found in our environment, are not experienced only by the eye. To the seen corresponds a certain “materiality”. We connect a certain smell with certain things, for example with wood: a certain material quality, a certain temperature, a certain noise. The same is true for each material which plays a role in our life: stone, glass, steel, etc. The relation of all experiences is felt as a certainty. The question of materiality plays a big role in manned space travel, because the astronauts live in an environment which is artificial to a high degree. The sensual quality of the materials could be used to harmonize the space or the artificial environment. Though widely used throughout architecture and design the knowledge of the sensual perception of the environment hardly influences the design process. The color design of the interior of space ships could be used as an example (compare [14]). The use of neutral colors, nonsaturated and gray, is also found in the design of airplanes, trains, etc., because it works best in contrast to the colorful environment. It is different in space where the void is endless and effects should be questioned. Perception is as well defined through cultural background (Think of the different use of colors to express joy or mourning). Analytical studies should show stronger connections and offer a theoretical construct as base for further empirical studies. Partial areas can be empirically studied to gain objectivity even through minor factors (compare [22]). The development of a questionnaire (for astronauts and cosmonauts) to research factors of environment quality in manned space travel could provide support for various aspects of design. For the design of certain areas the sensual awareness is considered and already used in a particular way: color, light, temperature, acoustics, smell, surface conditions. Aim: concentration, comfort, safety, freedom of interference, relaxation, personality, use, fun. Use of these studies can be made in the earthly every day life (compare [23]). References [1] K. Frampton, Reflections on the autonomy of architecture: a critique of contemporary production, in: G. Diane (Ed.), Out of Site: A Social Criticism of Architecture, Bay Press, 1991, pp. 17–26. [2] G. Consonni, L’internitá dell’esterno: scritti sull’abitare e il costruire, clup, 1989. [3] C. Norberg-Schulz, Genius Loci: Towards a Phenomenology of Architecture, Rizzoli, 1980.
V. Martinez / Acta Astronautica 60 (2007) 588 – 593 [4] S. Hesselgren, Man’s Perception of Man-Made Environment: An Architectural Theory, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 1975, p. 179. [5] S. Hesselgren, The Language of Architecture, Studentlitteratur, Lund, Sweden, 1967. [6] N.L. Prak, The Language of Architecture: A Contribution to Architectural Theory, Mouton, The Hague, The Netherlands, 1968. [7] V. Scully, Architecture: The Natural and the Manmade, St. Martin’s Press, 1991. [8] T. Thiis-Evensen, Archetypes in Architecture, Norwegian University Press, 1987. [9] Vitruvio “De Architectura”, The Ten Books on Architecture, Book 1, Chapter 3, Section 2. Translated by Morris Hicky Morgan, Dover, 1960. Reprint of translation published by Harvard University, 1914. Originally written by Vitruvius for the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar (23 a.C.). [10] M.N. Auge, Introduzione a una antropologia della surmodernitá, 2005 eleuthera (traduction rolland d.). [11] T.W. Hall, The Architecture of Artificial-Gravity, Environments for Long-Duration Space Habitation, University of Michigan, 1994. [12] M. Heidegger, Die Zeit des Weltbildes, 1938. [13] B.L. Bandini, Ergonomia e progetto dell’utile e del piacevole, Maggioli Editore, Rimini, 1998.
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[14] Man-Systems Integration Standards, NASA-STD-3000 Handbook, 1994. [15] R. Banham, Theory and Design in the First Machine Age, second ed., Praeger Publishers, 1967. [16] A. Dominioni, Industrial Design for Space, 2002 Silvana Editoriale Spa, Milano, 2002. [17] W. Benjamin, Passagen-werk, 1962 (published after death). [18] A. Rossi, L’architettura della cittá, citta studi, 1994. [19] Isolation NASA Experiments in: H.W. Lane, R.L. Sauer, D.L. Feeback (Eds.), Closed-Environment Living Advanced Human Life Support Enclosed System, Science and Technology Series, A Supplement to Advances in the Astronautical Sciences, vol. 104, Published for the American Astronautical Society by Univelt, Incorporated, P.O. Box 28130, San Diego, CA 92198, USA. [20] T. Maldonado, Il futuro della modernitá, Feltrinelli, Milano, 4’ edizione, 1988. [21] M. Foucault, The eye of power, 1974 excerpt. [22] M. Hassenzahl, R. Wessler, Capturing design space from a user perspective: the repertory technique revisited, International Journal of Human-computer Interaction (2000) 441–459. [23] Space Architecture, AD Architectural Design, Wiley-Academy, London, 2000.