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Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291

Architecture indigenous to extreme climates Jeffrey Cook School of Architecture, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-1605, USA

Abstract The term 'extreme' climates suggests that some climates have exaggerated characteristics in comparison with others that are more neutral and less extreme. By reducing the number of global climate zones to less than ten, a discipline of climatic description is forced that emphasizes their distinctive differences. Reviewed are the Arctic and Subarctic, and the maritime climatic zones. Simultaneously, indigenous architecture is examined as an indicator or telltale of climatic uniqueness, parallel to the use of vegetation types to define and distinguish biological climates. The snow igloo of the Inuit is examined in detail as both a constructive and operational environmental system. In comparison the Lapp winter hut or kata is also described. Although nominally examples of the temperate or maritime climate, the New England Cape Cod cottage is contrasted with the Hungarian village and house. A series of conclusions identify lessons from indigenous architecture appropriate to sustainability in industrial and post-industrial cultures. Keywords: Environmental architecture; Extreme climates

1. Introduction Whether climate is the enemy, or a colleague in the collaborative search for a more meaningful built environment is a cultural statement that is hardly measurable scientifically. But measurement and statistical analysis can be used to define climate into a series o f charateristics for any number of purposes. Looking at climate zones based on architectural response is relatively rare. 1.1. Climatic architecture 1.1.1. High-style architecture By examining the creative architectural solutions of many high-style designers such as Frank Lloyd Wright we can appreciate how sometimes ,:limate was a matter of complete indifference among his world-acclaimed designs. Alternatively for his winter camp, Taliesen West near Phoenix, the desert climate was a stimulus to his genius, and the human experience of the desert is heightened by this creative architectural configuration. His 1937 design is attractive because of its rich textures and bold 9rofiles. But heavy masonry mass for floor and some walls, rnovible canvas for roof and some walls, and blazing fireplaces at night are the bioclimatic elements of this landmark o f 20th-century architecture, see Fig. 1. In reviewing his subsequent career one might argue that the discipline o f designing for the extremes of the Arizona 0378-7788/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved SSDI0378-7788(95)OO953..U

Fig. 1. Taliesen West. Winter camp in the desert near Phoenix, AZ, USA, 1937. Frank Lloyd Wright, architect. desert provided a creative stimulus to this 70-year old master who seemed ready to retire, and propelled his professional liveliness another 22 years. 1.1.2. Vernacular architecture More consistent responses can be observed in the body of vernacular architecture that is indigenous to one particular place and its climate. Of course not all vernacular architecture is climatically responsive. Sometimes cultural determinates dominate and overshadow the needs from climate. But many cultures, prehistoric, historic and contemporary, provide richly informative resources in how to design with climate, including those exaggerated conditions considered extreme.

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1.1.3. Extreme climates .The term 'extreme' suggests a reactionary judgement against some norm. Many of us practice a kind of climate envy. We think that we live and work in an extreme climate, while our lucky colleagues live and work in climates that are beautifully balanced, stable, obvious and reliable, and thus easy to accommodate by design. Meanwhile our home climate lacks such clarity because every rule seems to require all kinds of exceptions. We live in a desert but we must allow for flooding. We design for the snowy Arctic but must accommodate more annual direct sun, and more annual twilight than at the equator. We have gentle temperatures and rainfall but an occasional devastating windstorm, or a deep freeze threatens all normal structures. Thus most climates have unpredictable moments of the extreme that defy our concepts of passive architectural intervention and are sources of occasional human discomfort. 1.2. Global climate maps There seem to be almost as many global maps of climates as there are climatologists. Apparently, not just politicians and military generals enjoy putting boundaries across the land's surface. But seldom do political boundaries have anything to do with climatic zones. Alternatively, ethnic groups often share a common topography and biological climatic zone. 1.2.1. Climate zones Global classifications typically cluster prominent climatic data into zones of similitude for biological study, especially useful in agriculture. By combining the de Candolles's vegetation maps of the 1860s de Candolle (1966), with maps of mean monthly temperature and precipitation, K6ppen together with his co-editor Geiger (K6ppen and Geiger, 1974) developed the first widely accepted system in the encyclopedic Handbuck der Klimatologie, 1930-1940. The K6ppen--Geiger system identifies five basic zones: (i) tropical/ rainy; (ii) dry; (iii) warm/temperate; (iv) cool/snow/forest, and (v) polar. Trewartha (1954) modified the system beginning in 1954 in response to certain criticisms. Geiger (1975) extended microclimatic definitions. 1.2.2. Architectural climate maps Climates stimulate needs for shelter, influence local cultures, but also provide the conditions of local building materials. Climate zones to describe appropriate building design should be different from those invented for agriculture or aeronautics. Just as the emergence of certain vegetation typologies, particularly bio-indicators, define biological climate zones, certain architectural strategies and features might become the basis of an atlas of bioclimatic architectural design zones. The similarity between vegetation and buildings is that neither have feet, and thus cannot move if the natural environment changes or becomes threatening. Vegetation must survive on its wits, but unfortunately buildings

can survive with almost no intelligence if enough remote resources are imported. Since Vitruvius (ca. 90-20 BC), prominent architectural theorists have often included select climatic parameters as design determinates without being comprehensive. This continues to be appropriate since designs or performances based on broad climatic type are strongly modified by microclimate. But all architectural features have climatic consequences. By definition indigenous architecture is sensitive to local determinate variants such as microclimate. Cereghini (1950) identified many local aspects of the rustic Alpine vernacular of Europe including altitude, orientation, and materials, as well as culture. He also discussed other mountainous locations such as Tibet together with examples of modern architecture for the mountains, and thus bridged across different economies and different cultures. 1.2.3. Climatic mapping based on vernacular architecture Because climate is not the single determinate of vernacular architecture it has rarely been the basis of geographic mapping. Dolfus (1954) correlated regional house types identified primarily by roofs, with thermal and precipitation zones. Higher roof slopes were used in wet-temperate and cooler zones. Flat roofs occurred in hot dry zones, and slightly inclined roofs were found in temperate climates with consistently dry summers. Zones where the roof was more essential than the walls, which may not be needed at all, included rainy equatorial forests and tropical savannas of Africa, monsoon Asia, Australia, Polynesia and the Amazon. Fitch and Branch (1960) popularized the scientific performance analysis of vernacular architecture based on climate by identifying seven zones and focusing on four: (i) Arctic and Subarctic; (ii) continental steppe; (iii) desert, and (iv) tropical rain forest, where the greatest variety of design responses were found. Olgyay (1963) proposed a bioclimatic approach to architectural regionalism based on climatic analysis and vernacular examples by identifying four zones in the USA and Canada: (i) Hot and humid; (ii) hotand arid; (iii) temperate, and (iv) cool. Based on the vernacular of the tropics, Koenigsberger et ai. (1974) used the Atkinson-climate classification of air temperature and humidity as the sources of discomfort. Their three major warm climatic zones (with three subgroups) include: (i) warm-humid equatorial ( + warm humid island or trade-wind); (ii) hot dry desert or semi-desert ( + hot dry maritime desert), and (iii) composite or m o n s o o n - - a combination of I and 2 ( + tropical upland). 1.2.4. Climate is not always the prime determinate of architectural form We all know recognized architectural masterpieces, as well as unfortunate mongrels of the art of building design in which climate has had little, if any, consideration. Simultaneously, in demanding climates such as New England where the constant freeze/thaw cycle might encourage an architecturally revealing discipline, we find technical solutions that are trite and wasteful such as strings of electrically heated wires strung

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along the eaves to melt the ice dams. Even in the most elementary indigenous archilecture in the most stressful climates, such as aboriginal shelters in the central deserts of Australia, the deliberate responses to natural environmental conditions also contain variations based on symbolic needs such as the definition of users, gender, etc. Yet there are many case studies where climate has formed a design discipline of high performance extended through time by the traditions of indigenous architectural practice. Such disciplines tend to emerge in extreme climates where resources are limited and where natural conditions may be life threatening. There, continuous design skill emerges from the necessity to preserve the culture, both physically and culturally. 1.3. Indigenous architecture

In terms of architecture, traditional indigenous designs are the human constructive parallel to the Darwinian evolution of environmental fitness ir, the biological world. Thus, vegetation types and biological systems that have emerged in response to their unique climatic regimes may have an architectural analogy. Indigenous architectural design by definition is based on local materials. It is restricted by local resources and has emerged as a creative expression of an intimate knowledge of climatic needs, developed through continuous and consistent human engagement. The flowers, the leaves, the stalks of plants and the aphids of the biologist have their counterpart in the roofs, the porches and the kitchens of indigenous archit,~cture. Especially in the highly stressed or exaggerated conditions of extreme climates, both indigenous vegetation anti indigenous architecture can be information rich. For everyone except the Esquimo or native Inuit, the Arctic and Subarctic represent one of the most extreme climates for humzns.

2. A r c t i c a n d S u b a r c t i c

All areas north of the Arctic circle, 66 ° 33' N latitude are Arctic. The Subarctic inclttdes areas south of the Arctic circle that approximate those conditions. In Antarctica there are no indigenous human settlements, but conditions are comparable to the Arctic. All of these areas come to mind when one mentions an architecure of the extremes. 2.1. Locations

The Arctic and Subarctic consist of four distinct biological regions or biomes: (i) the uninhabitable frozen polar seas, and the glaciers, including the one that covers all of Greenland except its coast ( 11% of the land of the world is under ice); (ii) the coasts and islands with their marine climates; (iii) the treeless tundra plain with its continuous permafrost ( 10% of the world's land), and (iv) the taiga, the largely coniferous

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boreal forest that covers more than half of Canada, most of Alaska, and much of Scandinavia and Siberia. The taiga begins in the south where trees have an annual growing season of approximately 150 days and where permafrost is discontinuous. At the northern treeline of the stunted boreal forest, it dissipates into the vast rolling tundra. Here the growing season is 90 days or less, and pe.rmafrost becomes continuous beneath the surface even during the short summer. Permafrost, concrete-hard frozen ground, is 1000 feet (300 m) thick in northern Alaska and a mile thick ( 1600 m) in Siberia's northern Yakutia. Arctic and Subarctic human cultures are divided between those who hunt inland for caribou or reindeer, and those who hunt on the ice and the shore for birds and sea life. The coasts and islands of the Arctic and Subarctic are the longest and most intricate shoreline system of the world. Although locked in ice or storms for up to 10 months of the year, the Arctic seas are extraordinarily rich with foods. Water modifies local climatic conditions - - so spring and autumn come late and summer is longer. The western coast of Greenland, the east half of Baffin Island, Novaya Zemlya, the Kurils and the Aleutians are also each special climatic situations dominated by the presence of the sea. 2.2. Conditions

The Arctic is a frigid high latitude desert, with a scarce vegetation and strong daily and seasonal swings of air temperature. But during days of 24 h darkness, or 24 h of light, air temperatures change little. Like the hot deserts, air temperature and radiation in Arctic climates are factors critical to human habitation: here outgoing radiation steals much of the incoming solar energy because of clear air and low water vapor. Nevertheless, the Arctic can annually receive more direct sunlight, as well as up to 3.5 times more twilight, than the equator. Sunlight may be reduced by clouds and ice fog, as well as the turbidity of the air, although aerosols and water vapor are largely absent. Incoming solar radiation is decreased because of the low solar angles, but radiation exchange and loss is exaggerated by reflection from snow and ice on the fiat landscape. Winters are long and cold; summers in July and early August are short and cool. Mean annual temperatures at settlements are seldom above freezing and sometimes are below - 12 °C ( 10 °F). Mean monthly temperatures differ between 17 and 41 °C (30 and 70 °F). The Subarctic inland has the lowest winter temperatures and the coldest recorded on earth. Precipitation on the tundra is small: 25 cm ( 10 in) or less annually. Some major areas have 12.5 cm (5 in) or less. Surprisingly blizzards are often only wind-blown old snow. The cold in winter is extremely dry. A typical winter-day temperature ranges between - 2 3 and - 3 4 °C ( - 10 and - 30 °F). The sea is frozen from mid-October until late June. Temperatures in the short summer of complete daylight seldom rise above 10 °C (50 °F). The most northern people on

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earth, the Polar Inuit of northwest Greenland, live in a tundra area where only one month, July, the average temperatures get above freezing. The taiga, or boreal region, is the largest forest on earth, primarily of conifers. The position of the treeline and the distribution of woody plants is generally determined by temperatures during the growing season. Precipitation in the taiga is variable but typically is between 25 cm (10 in) annually sometimes considered the lower limit for appreciable vegetation - - and 50 cm (20 in). The mean annual temperature is between - 10 and - 4 °C ( 15 and 25 °F). Summer of one to three months with mean temperatures above 10 °C (50 °F) is considered short and hot. Mosquitoes and other pestilent insects thrive. Extensive bogs (muskeg), innumerable lakes and flowing streams punctuate the rolling terrain with its shallow poor soil. Marginal agriculture is possible with a freeze-free season of between 70 and 90 days. The long summer daylight hours enhance fast growth and early ripening. Ocean temperatures are a major climatic influence. Melted polar ice provides cold water. Tropically warmed ocean currents rotate to the north and east making the west coasts of North America and Europe temperate and humid into the high latitudes. Thus, Scandinavia has milder winters and less severe climates than Siberia on the same latitude. Although relatively rich in seasonal game and sea mammals, the Arctic is potentially the most challenging environment on earth for humans. Sea mammals thrive in polar waters normally at 0 °C (32 °F) in part because the temperature gradient to their deep body temperature is only half of the 70 °C ( 125 °F) gradient between deep body temperature and the environment of most terrestrial animals and humans. For seals, walruses and whales who have little hair on their skin, a layer of blubber serves as insulation. The musk-ox has two layers of fur - - a very dense layer of wool close to the skin and an outer layer of long hairs. Humans use both body fat and animal furs, together with strategically layered architectural shelter to respond. -

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2.3. Architectural response Furs are worn, and skins or furs are often used in construction, both as radiant shields and as insulating layers against heat conduction inside shelters. But controlling the cold wind is the first strategy. Until recently, only natives culturally skilled in the climate could survive. The human potential of modifying extreme climates is best demonstrated architecturally by the performance of the snow igloo, or igluviga of the Inuit, made of blocks of wind-packed dry snow. Interior temperatures may run 36 °C (65 °F) or more above outdoor values, and with a lining may reach 15° C (59 °F). Although as a dwelling type it provides conditions far below the comfort range of industrialized peoples, this ingenious microclimatic control using only snow provides amenable indoor living well above a survival mode. Earth and timber igloos provide even more insulation opportunity. Snow is stacked against the more popular karmet or qummik

of stone, whalebone, and sod, and even against tents, tupiq for its insulation value. 2.4. The snow igloo There is no book for Eskimos to learn how to build or live in a snow igloo. That knowledge defines the culture. Indeed, to get adequate instructions as a non-native one must refer to texts written so that aliens can survive in a climate that outsiders consider both extreme and almost continuously life threatening such as 'Down ButNot Out', created by the Royal Canadian Air Forces Survival Training School Staff. They recommend the snow igloo as an 'ideal' winter shelter in the Arctic. It is solid, sound-proof, and wind resistant, and is large enough for comfort. Needless to say, Eskimos are very comfortable with their climate and regard as extreme only those climates of others further south. 2.4.1. Building the snow igloo 'When you have found a good snow-drift, lay out the floor plan'. The Eskimo does this by eye, but he has had a lot of practice. Draw a circle centered on the best snow, with the approximate diameter as follows:one man: 8 feet or 2.4 m; two man: 9 feet or 2.7 m; three man: 10 feet or 3.0 m; four man: 12 feet or 3.6 m, and five man: 13 feet or 3.9 m. 'Now, begin to lay in a supply of snow blocks. Cut them from the face of a trench, laid out as shown'. Thus the extraction of the construction material forms the entrance ramp down into the dome, see Fig. 2. 'Lift the snow block to one side and begin another. When you have about a dozen cut, then you may begin to build. When the first row reaches the snow block trench, a snow block is replaced in it to permit the wall to be taken across it. Note the slope of the first row of blocks. All end joints are fitted with faces radial to the igloo center... When the first row is finished, begin the spiral which will end at the key block. If you are right handed, cut away any three blocks diagonally, sloping down from left to right', see Fig. 3. The second row now in a spiral is started at the notch. Thus only the bottom and one side of each block needs to be fitted, which is done in place. 'Carry on building, block by block. You will find that the increasing slope of the igloo wall will of course increase the tendency for the block to fall in, but

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J. Cook/Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291

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this is compensated by the increasing angle between the A B axis of the successive blocks as the diameter of the opening decreases. Building actually becomes easier toward the finish, as the blocks will jam firmly into place'. 'When you run out of snow block snow inside the igloo, cautiously cut a small door as far down the wall as you can, tunneling underneath to make enough space for the outside workers to push in more building blocks. Try to keep the curve of the walls symmetrical and avoid a pointed igloo, because the high ceiling weuld steal warmth before the sleeping bench gets its share of heat', see Fig. 4. Thus in both domes the natural stratification provides the same temperature differential of 50 °F (28 °C). In the low dome the temperature at the bench is 40 °F (4.5 °C) or well above freezing. But in the high dome the bench is at freezing, 32 °F (0 °C).

2.4.2. Making the snow igloo habitable 'Across the floor, about one third of the way back from the door, build a snow wall about 20 in (50 cm) high to conserve warmth. This will form the front of your sleeping shelf, which will raise you into the warrr, air trapped above the door. Shove all the loose snow in the igloo behind the wall to form the shelf. Break up the lumps and blocks to soften the bench and to provide better insulation. Level the bench top carefully', see Fig. 5. 'At each side of the door, leave or erect little benches allowing about 20 in (50 cm) of leg room between the sleeping shelf and bench. This ts the kitchen and heating area. It must be reasonably close to the bench to permit the cook and lamp tender to reach it without rising from the sleeping bench'. The military mentality is also direct about the criteria

Fig. 6. Suggested floor plan of the igloo.

of assigning sleeping places on the bench. The use of the low space next to the wall for storage, such as 'kit bags', also provides a thermal transition and is common usage not just in all igloos, but also teepees, yurts, etc., see Fig. 6.

2.4.3. Sealing the envelope 'Chink the dome of the igloo carefully with powder snow, which when packed firmly into the open seams will soon harden and stop loss of warm air from the igloo. If you plan a short stay, chink only the outer seams, but for a better job do both inside and outside joints'. Not mentioned is the native practice of completing the structure and sealing a lighted oil lamp inside. One waits for the temperature to rise, melting the inner surface. When the oxygen is consumed the lamp goes out and the occupant now cuts a fresh door into the interior and allows the cold air to freeze the softened surface thereby making an ice glazed air barrier in which ventilation can be more carefully controlled. In this cross section an airtemperature change, or thermocline of only 35 °F (20 + 15 ), or (20 °C) is shown. 'If a high wind is blowing, the drifting snow can erode the wall of the igloo very rapidly. A snow wall should be erected to act as a windbreak, and any broken blocks can be piled against the windward wall to protect it from the cutting effect of the drift', see Fig. 7.

2.4.4. Daily life patterns 'Persons entering the igloo for a stay of longer than an hour or so, after removing mukluks and snow from garments, should get up on the sleeping bench, out of the way. One man

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should be responsible for adequate ventilation; keeping the vent holes in the dome and door open enough to avoid risk without freezing the occupants. Carbon monoxide is insidious and dangerous'. 'During the day the door is left open. At night it is closed by a snow block which should be chinked and a ventilation hole should be bored through the upper part. The more fumes being generated, the larger must be the aperture. Do not wait until the lamp will not burn properly and you begin to feel groggy before letting in air. It is dangerous, and it is not necessary at all. If the roof hole does not draw properly because of wind, a snow chimney can be made by setting a perforated block over the hole'. 'A snow block (kovik) may be kept on the floor for use as a chamber-pot after the snow block door is closed for the night. The user is responsible for its sanitary disposition'.

2.4.5. Aerodynamic design An enquiry into another aspect of design was made by the Norwegian researcher, Anne Brit Borve, who looked at the snow igloo as an aerodynamic architectural form in a fiat landscape, as a way of informing modern buildings, see Fig. 8. Streamlined forms reduce erosion of the building surfaces, and control the dropping and drifting of wind blown snow especially around the entrance, aside from reducing conduction and convention heat transfer. She also shows a thermal advantage from - 2 0 °C ( - 4 ° F) outside to + 20 °C ( + 6 8 °F) inside. A vital part of that advantage comes from the controlled entry, with its cluster of auxiliary storage SNITT

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modules that provides climatic transitions, in contrast to the one night, single-cell military survival structure. Her thesis title is quite descriptive: 'Hus og husgrupper i klimautsatte, kalde strok Utforming og verkem~te', (The design and function of single buildings and building clusters in harsh, cold climates) (Borve, 1987). Published in Oslo in 1987 it describes the extreme climatic dimensions of design responses more comprehensively by going beyond the typical thermal consideration. Since wind and wind chill factors exaggerate extreme cold, they should be prime considerations.

2.4.6. The snow igloo as a system The snow igloo is remembered from our childhood as a romantic or exotic folkway from a remote and inaccessible culture. Although we as designers and architects are not likely be called on to design or build in such extreme climates, yet there are many invaluable if invisible lessons latent in such solutions of habitation. Indeed, only a minority of the Arctic people ever used snow houses and today they are only built temporarily during the hunt. Yet these lessons of applied building science are integrated within a fascinating and complex high performance system of construction and operation. For instance, although relatively high air temperatures may be generated in this compact space, the mean radiant temperature of the ice surfaces need to be kept near freezing for structural reasons. All aspects of building construction and form as well as cultural behavior affect favorible human accommodation. It is a complex system in which every aspect and each element contributes to the net environmental definition. One hesitates to use the terms 'comfort' or 'environmental control' for this high-performance shelter since our use of the word has a different meaning from the Inuit goals of environmental modification. 2.5. The Lapp kata of the Taiga forest The conical winter hut, or turf kata, of the Lapps, Sami, of northern Scandinavia is another well-developed cold-climate building design. It sits deep in the well-protected taiga forest, and illustrates environmental fit, as shown in Fig. 9. Layers of logs, and bark, peat and turf make a substantial continuous all roof enclosure supported by curved rafters similar to the frame of the summer tent kata. The ground is insulated with a thick layer of spruce boughs, or birch twigs and covered with reindeer skins. The central firepit with its ring of hearth stones, and the suspended hot metal pot provide multiple radiant heat sources from the continuous burning of logs. Cracks in the plank door allow some ventilation air. Smoke and an ice fog caused by cooking and breathing fill the upper part of the interior thus controlling seasonal flying insects, while close to the ground it is cold and drafty. Thus a series of legendary layered interior microclimates are provided. Comparing the kata with the snow igloo may yield some criteria for evaluation. Fuel consumption is much greater and less effective in the kata, than the use ofoil lamps in the snow

J. Cook / Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291

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the Mediterranean Sea and to a lesser extent by the Caspian and the Black Seas. However, the position of Spain and the mountainous block of the Alps separate the climates of western, central, and northern Europe from countries surrounding the Mediterranean. 3.2. Conditions

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igloo. Feeding and tending ;he fire is a continuous physical involvement in the kata, that does not allow other activities or rest that the igloo encourages, both by its horizontal accommodation and its low burning lamps. The igloo also maintains a much finer restraint and balance of combustion and ventilation air than the kata, resulting in better control, and a more stable interior environment.

3. Extremes of the temperate: two maritime climates The term 'maritime' describes mid-latitude coastal climates of the globe continuously dominated by ocean influences. They are humid, temperate, and changeable, having short cool summers and shcrt mild winters with some frost but not continuous snow. Both spring and fall are extended in length. There are small ditferences between monthly mean temperatures. Precipitation occurs in all seasons. 3.1. Locations The land edges on all oceans between 40 ° and 60 ° latitude, both north and south, have temperate maritime climates. The northwest, northeast, and mid-Atlantic coasts of the USA, and the Atlantic Provinces and West Coast of Canada have characteristic maritime climates, like the coasts of Chile, New Zealand, the southeast coast of Australia, and most of Japan. Most maritime climates are restricted by coastal mountain ranges or by prevailing winds off the land. Western and Central Europe are the exceptions, where the absence of a highland or mountain barrier leaves the continent open to the wind and moisture effects of the Atlantic. This makes the climate warmer than similar latitudes elsewhere, comparable to at least 10° latitude closer to the equator. The tempering effect of the Atlantic is re-inforced by the presence to the south of

Maritime climates are changeable with moderate conditions within a narrow temperature range. Deciduous vegetation characterizes the landscape. There are no dry seasons. Fog, dampness and overcast conditions can occur throughout the year, but this description best fits the winter. Ocean influences make August the warmest month in the northern hemisphere. It is February, in the southern hemisphere. Typically, daily conditions in mid-ocean have an average difference of 1.7 °C (3 °F) between the highest and lowest temperature. On small islands and immediately on the coast this range is less than 5.7 °C ( 10 °F). But the microclimate influence of the nearby ocean usually dissipates within 160 km (100 miles) of most coasts. Continuous westerly and northwest winds make Europe unique. Through prevailing winds, the Atlantic Ocean influences are strong for over 3600 km (2000 miles) in western, northern and central Europe. Locations far from the Atlantic such as Belgrade and Budapest receive slightly more rain than Paris or London. In spite of the changeability of the weather there is a relatively narrow range of conditions. European culture measures climate into four equal seasons of spring, summer, autumn or fall, and winter. The annual precipitation in Atlantic Europe is moderate, between 50 and 75 cm (20 and 30 in). 3.3. General architectural responses Architectural responses to changeable temperate mariUme climates are not consistent, although there is always a sensitivity to dampness. There is much less recognition of climate in the literature of European vernacular architecture than in studies in other climates and locations. However, one notes similar roof pitches in Ireland, Hungary, and Japan as well as similar uses of thatch or reeds as a roofing and insulation material. Large roofs of insulated materials and limited wall areas reduce thermal loss and maximize the advantage of a large central oven to heat the entire house. But in similar climates both in Europe and elsewhere there are also traditions of roofing with slate, terra cotta tile, or with flagstones: more permanent and fire resistant materials that have much less insulative value. Orientation, when consciously practiced, provides barriers in the direction of stormy winds. Stormy exposures presumably are the basis of small widely spaced windows in locations such as Ireland. But large windows for adequate light are an architectural compensation for overcast maritime skies in some other locations at higher latitudes such as Scandinavia and the low countries of Europe.

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Masonry walls, or stucco or lime washes over earthen or adobe walls may be responses to damp conditions. When wood is exposed, the tradition of protective paint is often more than aesthetic. Alternatively, the vernacular uses of corrugated iron metal roofs with generous porches in southeast Australia and New Zealand may have their indigenous counterparts in the wooden assembly houses and porches of the Maori in New Zealand, and the plank roofs of the Haida of the west coast of Canada. The local presence of rot-resistant timbers such as red cedar on the west coast of Canada support the exposed wood structures of the Haida and Nootka. In cooler and more variable maritime climates such as New England of the USA, and the Atlantic Provinces of Canada wood houses have only slight overhangs, and continuously painted surfaces address storms from all directions.

3.4. The Cape Cod cottage of New England The changeable climate of New England inspired the quotation, 'If you do not like the weather, wait for five minutes' that has been applied with equal effect to many other places. Although often categorized as 'temperate', it is a climate better designated 'maritime' because the Atlantic Ocean dominates the weather, locally and regionally. Although in latitude it is much closer to the equator, the climate along the shores of Massachusetts is much more extreme than in the UK. Here 'extreme' refers to changeability. In particular 'orientation' may have little meaning because the weather can come from any quarter and might change by the hour. Thus, the Cape Cod cottage emerged in the early in the 17th century as an adaptable New World version of earlier Old World prototypes.

3.4.1. The Cape Cod cottage Also known as Cape, colonial, early American, hall and parlor, etc., cottage or house, the Cape Cod is an imprecise and changing American and Canadian term referring to the prototypical early English settler houses of New England. Although found in all early English settlements from eastern Long Island of New York through the Atlantic Provinces of Canada, the term was first used in 1800 by Timothy Dwight, President of Yale College to describe houses then common olt Cape Cod. It is the only old dwelling found on Lower Cape Cod, a low unprotected sand spit connected to the Massachusetts coast. Exposure to the Atlantic Ocean exaggerates the climatic changeability at this mid-latitude. A familiar and

convenient Old World house type was adopted but modified in part because of this more rigorous and unpredictable climate; warmer summers, colder winters, and more wind year round. The compact one-story cubic exterior with a continuously heated fireplace/chimney mass in the center provided logical shelter in a land of plentiful fuel. These first English settler houses typically faced south regardless of road direction, although the small paned windows faced all orientations to provide daylight and summer ventilation. No authority has commented on this observation about the consistent orientation, but one should not suggest a thermal reason because the envelop is similar on all sides. Rather than heat gain, the solar orientation might be aesthetic a preference to face the sun if it ever comes out, and the usual direction of fair and fine weather. A partial or full underground cellar was a New World innovation that provided cool storage but was frost-free. The stair down from the front entry was fitted under the attic stair. A rear service entry door might give access for kitchen needs. Later, stairs were added from the rear of the house, and from the exterior. -

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3.4.2. Cape Cod plan This American house type is derived from English standards developed during the 'Housing Revolution' of the Tudor period, and established in East Anglia, the origin of many New England immigrants, by the early 17th century. Post-medieval innovations included glass in the windows, and internal chimneys and fireplaces constructed of brick or stone that provided cooking and kitchen activities within the house. The new plan known as 'hall and parlor' described the two rooms of a 'double house', which were separated by the massive masonry of back to back open hearth fireplaces, see Fig. 10. The hall or 'east room' was the all-purpose cooking and living space: the 'keeping' or 'dwelling' room. Opposite was the 'parlor', the 'good room', a 'great room' for guests, that also provided sleeping for the parents. The house was one room deep. The major door facing the street opened into a tiny entry or vestibule which could provide both wind lock, and privacy separation between the two major rooms. It also gave access with steep stairs up to 'chambers' in the attic used for storage, and sometimes finished later for sleeping. Cummings (1979) has traced origins and details of the timber framed houses remaining from 1625 to 1725 along Massachusetts Bay, from Boston to approximately 30 miles (50 km) north beyond Cape Ann, but excluding Cape Cod and its Bay to the south. During this period the majority of

Fig. 10. Cape Cod cottage, with hall and parlor, late 17th century, New England.

J. Cook~Energyand Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291

houses (82 out of 144) were begun with one room as 'halfhouse' plans, about 20 feet or 6 m in frontage, regardless of the prosperity of the owner. But all were later enlarged longitudinally by the addition of a parlor room to become a 'double house', now 34 to 40 feet or 10 to 12 m long. Often there were later additions that furthur modified the original Cape Cod. An example from Cummings is typical, see Fig. 11. As shown with the solid black walls, the original Whipple House in Ipswich, Massachusetts was one room with an open fireplace and a simple gable roof, built around 1655. The slightly larger parlor on the right with a second open fireplace was added a generation later by 1683. Perhaps the massiveness of the masonry core of fireplaces is under represented in this drawing. The successive lean-to additions along the north side that were added in the 18th century are shown only in outline.

285

3.4.3. The 'salt box'

A lean-to added along the entire rear in the last decades of the 17th century or later, developed the 'salt box', named for its similarity in profile to the wooden box with hinged sloped cover for salt in every kitchen, as shown in Fig. 12. This leanto typically added three smaller rooms behind the hall and parlor, developing a square plan which was two rooms deep, with a growing differentiation of function. This extension, or alternatively an ell to the rear, provided service rooms and storage above grade, such as pantries and kitchens. This took food preparation out of the hall, which now was used for sitting and dining. Although the 'salt box' is often identified as a bioclimatically shaped aerodynamic form, its origins are in the expediency of add-on construction, and its thermal advantage is primarily in the square plan, since New England winds come from all quarters. 3.4.4. Larger colonial houses

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By the 18th century the compact square plan two rooms deep still with central chimneys became more typical for larger American Colonial houses in New England. With the usuable space in the attic they are called two and one half stories, see Fig. 13. Their cubic architectural form is thermally efficient. There are no porches or overhangs, perhaps because they would keep sun and light away from the windows in a changeable climate. They would also be difficult to maintain because of dampness and rot. Since all exposures are similar, orientation is meaningless, and foul weather is addressed regardless of direction. Small windows all the way around bring cross daylight to all corners. Most important for survival and comfort is again the large central fireplace and chimney with its large thermal mass of masonry continuously warmed by an open fire that maintains the thermal strategies of the earliest Cape Cod cottages. But the one-room deep cottage with usable attic as a one and one half-story house still persisted. Clad with unpainted pine shingles or clapboards, they still had weathered exteriors. But the decorated interiors became plastered and papered partly to decrease wind infiltration. 3.4.5. American innovations

Fig. 12. Cape Cod cottagewith a lean-tois called a 'salt box'.

Construction and material transformations characterize the adaptability of this house form on the American shores. Very early the English traditional heavy timber mortise and tenon

W Fig. 13.18th century Americancolonialhouse that continues Cape Cod strategies.

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frame got exterior non-structural weather boarding, even before installing the brick or clay wall infill or nogging. Underboarding or sheathing for roofs and walls developed the structural integrity of the substrata of the weather skins that allow the timber frame to be lighter. Plank frames, shingles and clapboards were other rapid early American innovations that made it more rigid and climate responsive. By the 19th century the same compact house was easily constructed with the thinner mill sawn studs of platform and balloon framing. Houses were seldom totally finished at once, and also were frequently remodeled. Later, particularly in the mid and late 19th century, such styling as the application of Greek Revival details and white paint provided aesthetic transformations, as well as layers of mouldings and paint to resist the weather.

3.4.6. Spreading the house type As the New Englander Planters thrived, they resettled, to the west and especially to the north, and the Cape Cod cottage spread as a highly functional settler house in the changeable climates along the East Coast of British North America. Prefabricated house frames were exported from Boston during the 18th century. Thus for instance it is found in Nova Scotia as the house of resettled Planters, as a specific design copied from Connecticut in 1767, as well as its adoption and evolution by settlers of diverse backgrounds, such as Scotts, Germans, French and Irish, Penny (1987, 1989). Although the Cape Cod term is still used in Canada, it has other names. In what became the USA this historic vernacular dwelling became increasingly influential as the New Englanders gradually evolved a dominant culture. The two-room or four-room colonial homestead with central chimney became the core of an accretive chain design in the evolution of the New England connected farm building through the 19th century (Hubka, 1984). The Cape Cod inclusion as a visible type in a late 20th century inventory of 17 000 common houses in America's small towns from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi, confirms its popularity as well as strong New England affiliation (Jakle et al., 1989). 3.4.7. The Cape Cod today Generally today Cape Cod is a mode chosen for reasons of style or taste, although it continues to have bioclimatic assets. The term now means a compact white-painted clapboarded one-story wooden house, in which the date of construction or the thermal properties of the exterior envelope are irrelevent. Thus an 18th century 'full-sized' Cape such as the Two Bay cottage at Chatham, Massachusetts (Fig. 14) is interchangeable in appearance with a late 20th century model. Today the central chimney and possible fireplaces are sometimes missing. Originally it was unpainted, the window shutters protected against storms and winter cold, and the fence of solid boards kept drifting sand and wandering livestock out of the yard. Sometimes compact two-story houses are popularly included in the Cape Cod term. They always have a simple

Fig. 14. Full-sized Two Bay 18th century Cape Cod cottage, or today's American house? rectangular plan, or a connected assembly of rectangular plan forms with multiple central chimneys. Later more complex and picturesque roof forms were added, often including dormers. The main door facing the street is on the broadside, and can be symmetrically placed, or asymmetrically. The windows are regularly spaced on all walls. Immovable shutters and a white picket fence often complete the current imagery. But the popular conception is of a compact, cosy, and comfortable dwelling of historic origins, that is accommodating to the latest technology. The highly visible central fireplace and chimney has been replaced by the invisible central mechanical heating and cooling equipment and ducts.

3.5. The generic Hungarian village house Hungarian village houses as known today illustrate integrated design traditions evolved over almost a millennia that combine social custom, and native materials with response to predictable maritime effects coming from the north and west. Although both are dependent on a central fire with heavy thermal mass, the omnidirectional compact Cape Cod cottage contrasts with the lineal Hungarian house that is open to the south. The celebrated Hungarian architect and patriot, K~oly K6s (1883-1977) popularized both the romantic house image as seen in Fig. 15 as well as the ethical and social values of his agriculturally-based culture. His 1934 woodcut published as Plate 1 of Erdely (K6s, 1934), his book on the cultural history of Transylvania, shows a mid 19th century

Fig. 15. Hungarianvillagehouse in 19.34woodcut by K6s.

J. Cook~Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291

287

house with adobe walls, thatch roof, a stork nest, as well as a central chimney, see Fig. 15. Especially in the fiat lands of the Hungarians, in both the Great Plain and the Pannonian Plain, along both sides of the Danube, the Hungarian house developed through the centuries as an series of bioclimatic strategies integrated with other criteria.

3.5.1. Continuity of the plan. From archaeological excavations, the patterns of Hungarian village houses are known between the the 1 lth and 13th century. Most houses were small with one all-purpose room partially sunk into the earth. The space of the room was utilized in a diagonal pattern. In one corner was the open hearth and its built-in oven, the focus of daily work. Diagonally opposite was the so-called 'holy corner', the masters built in seat. Often it was part of a conversation pit. It is a pattern that continues into the 20th century, as seen in Fig. 16. Now two benches (d) face a corner table (c), opposite to the massive hearth and oven. Beds occupy the other two corners. Originally there was almost no movible furniture. The earthembraced structure, and the earth-shaped interior provided a thermal mass warmed by the continuous fire.

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Fig. 17. Plan of the 1830 Miiota House with sections through its heating and cooking system.

3.5.2. Separating the smoky kitchen By the 16th century, houses contain two or three larger rooms in a row. But the big innovation is the separation of the kitchen functions to a middle room that also serves as entrance to the other rooms, which isolates the hearth and oven from the living space. The dirty activities and smoke are kept in the kitchen, but the oven projects through the wall into the living space, although it is serviced from the kitchen side. For a long period houses had chimneyless kitchens, fiistOs konyha, to avoid taxes. The smoky kitchen allowed the thatch of the roof to be preserved as the smoke found its way out through the attic, and also added to the preservation of food, contributing especially to the quality of sausages. When chimneys were added it w~ts often above an adobe smoke bell, szikrafog6, which kept sparks off the reeds of the thatch roofing, see Fig. 17.

Fig. 16. Plan of the main living room with the master's seat diagonally opposite the fire.

3.5.3. Designing the heat source As the oven together with its open hearth and its cooking surfaces became more enclosed, its earthen construction became well developed in design. This piece of built in thermal equipment for both heating and cooking often became the dominant physical element, as well as the most distinctive decorative element of a traditional house. As an expressive element it could also respond to technical improvements as well as sculptural opportunities at many scales. Sometimes the massive oven furnace which was strongly shaped contrasted with the modest-sized utilitarian cooking range, as in Fig. 18.

Fig. 18. Alternative forms of oven furnace and cooking range.

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and Buildings 23 (19%) 277-291

Fig. 20. Pattern of south facing houses and work yards of Hungarian village houses.

Fig. 19. House plans from three different families in the village of AtAny, end of 19th century.

3.6. Evolving the traditions of the Hungarian village house By the 18th century most of the aspects of the traditonal Hungarian village house were in place. The one-storey house faces south. It is entered from the south, through the kitchen which sometimes did not have a door, or even a wall on the south side, which helps resolve the lack of chimney. On one end was a ceremonial room, the ‘best’ room, or the ‘clean’ room. The plan is a linear pattern of several rooms arranged in a single row, broadside to the sun. By the end of the 18th century and early into the 19th century, continuous porches were often added along the south wall. The basic unity of these Hungarian traditions in house design is best seen by comparing house plans at the same scale from one village built around the same time. At the end of the 19th century, in the village of At&y on the Great Plain, three houses belonging to three families of different social and economic standings show common standards. All have the same orientation, and all have large furnaces which are serviced through the wall from the central kitchen. Only the size and number of rooms differ, as well as the absence of a porch for the simpest house, see Fig. 19. 3.7. Houses making the Hungarian village The design of the traditional house gives form and meaning to the village. The north wall of the traditional Hungarian village house sits on the property line. It has no openings, and thus is blank to the cold winter winds while providing privacy to neighbors. The house plan is one room deep and opens to the south, typically with a continuous porch. The gabled ends of houses define the street. The houses and their support structures extend back into the farm land and away from the road. The wind-protected yard is fenced and gated to the street and provides a discrete outdoor space usable most of the year, and protected by the blank wall of the neighboring house. Thus the planning of the house and its

surrounding uses determines the pattern of the village, see Fig. 20. Based on land reforms and resettlements in the 18th and 19th centuries, the feudal village system of long narrow ‘ribbon lots’, szalagtelkes, was re-inforced. Continuing the wall line of the dwelling against the north property line, were the agricultural service structures needed in small mixed farms. Sometimes the pantry, stable and barn were attached; often they were separated. But they always had the same siting rules. As shown in Fig. 21, each plot with its house and service buildings is a parallel string in a dense comb-like pattern of microclimatic design, that formed either street villages, ut& falu, or linear villages, soros falu, that are still found throughout much of Hungary.

4. Making architecture from extreme climates A global survey of climates from the point of view of indigenous architecture reveals that perhaps there are no average or normal climates. Successful indigenous architectural responses anticipate the extremes that every climate displays of one sort or another. Thermal resilience is built in, both in construction and in use patterns. 4.1. Lessons from indigenous architecture For researchers and designers of buildings intended to fit their climate, there are many lessons to be derived from the study of indigenous architecture. Especially where extreme climates have stretched human ingenuity we may find appropriate concepts if not models to address today’s problems. But we should have no illusions of returning to the folk culture that through time developed local traditional architectural expressions based on climatic response. Yet there are many concepts that may be useful and even necessary in an industrial and post-industrial society that is now searching for models of sustainability, such as the following: 4.1.1. Use local materials Indigenous materials have the obvious advantage that they usually have very low costs of origin, and require little transportation expense. In addition, they may demand little proc-

289

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enous architecture has a 'hand-in-glove' relationship with the mechanical or strategic source of relief from climatic stress. Typically mechanical devices have never been 'closeted', but were extensions both thermally and aesthetically of the architecture. Thus in every sense sources of thermal amelioration were both visible and integrated.

4.1.2. Design microclimates

4.1.4. Conceive at all scales

The performance of indigenous architecture in providing successful bioclimatic shelter results from a conscious design of microclimates both inside and outside the building. Layering those microclimates multiplies their accumulative advantages. Respecting the immediate outdoor conditions of the site is an integral part of understanding how satisfactory indoor conditions can be developed. Similarly, enclosed spaces typically provide several deliberate qualities and transitions of protective environments.

The tendency to expect a single architectural form or strategy to accommodate a climatic need cannot be found in indigenous architecture. Especially in extreme climates, the layering of thermal concepts goes well beyond the sandwiching of architectural materials. The bioclimatic success of the snow igloo adds to the advantages of the structural efficiency of a snow dome and its wind shedding aerodynamic form. Indeed the architectural form is only one aspect of the materiality of those indigenous buildings that maximize human shelter in the often resource poor places of extreme climate.

4.1.3. Integrate the comfort sources

Indigenous architecture is often a clever series of construction strategies to amplify the effects of a comfort source. In cold climates the source is file open flame from burning fuel. In overheated climates the source of comfort is not always such a point source, although an overhead fan is a parallel device appropriate in many locations. But in all cases indig-

4.1.5. Climate is an architectural generator

Climate issues, especially extreme climatic conditions can inspire innovative architecture in both form and in performance. Climate can stimulate the grand gesture, the memorable architectural move. However, architecture is also generated from many other sources. But there are climatic responses

290

J. Cook/ Energy and Buildings 23 (1996) 277-291 Hubka, T.C., 1984, Big House, Little House, Back House, Barn. The Connected Farm Buildings of New England, University Press of New England, London. Jakle, J.A., R.W. Bastian and D.K. Meyer, 1989, CommonHousesin America's Small Towns, The Universityof Georgia Press, London. Koenigsberger, O.H., T.G. Ingersoll,A. Mayhewand S.V. Szokolay, 1974,

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Longman, Harlow. K0ppen, W. and R. Geiger (eds.), 1930-1938,Handbuch der Klimatologie, Borntraeber, Berlin; Reprint 1972, Nendeln Kraus; Landsberg, H.E., 1974, WorldSurvey of Climatology, Elsevier, Amsterdam. K6s, K., 1934,Erdely, Erd61yiSz~pmivesC6h, Kolozsv~r,Romania. Olgyay, V., 1963, Design with Climate, Princeton University Press, Princetown, NJ. Penny, A., 1987, The Simeon Perkins House: An Architectural Interpretation, 1767-1987, The Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax. Penny,A.. 1989,Housesof Nova Scotia. The Nova ScotiaMuseum, Halifax. Trewartha, G.T., 1954, An Introduction to Climate, McGraw-Hill, New York, 4th edn., 1968.

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Fig. 22. All architectural decisions have climatic implicationsand performance consequences. and performance consequences of all architectural decisions. These should be both comforting and stimulating thoughts. Now that the machine aesthetic of the industrial revolution has lost its prime attractiveness, the world is looking for an architectural expression of broader and deeper meaning. The final image, the Apartments at 860 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, 1951 by Mies van der Rohe was a masterpiece in summarizing the goals of that moment of industrialized modernism, see Fig. 22. Now is a new and very different moment. Design paradigms from extreme climates are timeproven models, and creativ ,~ responses to climate are among the great design opportunities.

References

Borve, A.B., 1987,Hus og Husgrupper i Klimautsatte, Kalde Strok U~orming og Verkenu~te,The Design and Function of Single Buildings and Building Clusters in Harsh, Cold Climates) with English summary, Arkitekthogskolen I Oslo, Oslo. Cereghini, M., 1950, Construire en Montagne; 1956, rev. 2rid ed.; 1957. Building in the Mountains, Edizioni del Miliane, Milan. de Candolle, A., 1824-1873, Prodromu Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, Veflag J. Cramer, Paris, reprint 1966; 1855, G#ographieBotanique Raisonn~e.

Cummings, A.L., 1979, The FramedHouses of Massachusetts Bay, 16251725, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. Dollfus, J., 1954,Les Aspects de L'Architecture Populairedans de Monde, Albert Morane6, Paris. Fitch, J. and D. Branch, 1960, Primitive Architectureand Culture, Sci. Am., 203 (6) 134-144. Geiger, R., 1975, The Climate Near the Ground, Harvard UniversityPress, Cambridge, MA, USA, translated from 4th edn., 1961.

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Akin, W.E., 1991, Global Patterns" Climate, Vegetation, and Soils, University of Oklahoma, London. Bruemmer, F. and W.E. Taylor, 1985, The Arctic World, Portland House, New York. Foley, M. M., 1979, The American House, Harper and Row, New York. Grillo, P.J., 1975, Form, Function, and Design, Dover, New York. Guidoni, E., 1978, Primitive Architecture, Harry N. Abrams, New York. Seifert, R.D., 1981, A Solar Design Manual f o r Alaska, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Trewartha, G.T., 1961, The Earth' s Problem Climates, The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, MI. Arctic and Subarctic

Brody, H., 1987, Living Arctic, FaDer and FaDer, London. Bruemmer, F. and W.E. Taylor, 1985, The Arctic WorM, Portland House, New York. RCAF Survival School Staff, 1970, Down But Not Out, CFP 217, The Queen's Printer, Ottawa. Seifert, R.D., 1981, A Solar Design Manual f o r Alaska, University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Cape Cod

Byers, M. and McBurney, 1994, Atlantic Hearth, The University of Toronto Press, Toronto. Connally, E.A., 1960, The Cape Cod house - - an introductory study, J. Soc. Archit. Historians, 19 (2) 47-56. Ennals, P. and D. Holdsworth, Vernacular architecture and the cultural landscape of the maritime provinces - - a reconnaisance, Acadiensis, 10 (2) 86-106. Glassie, H., 1968, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture o f the Eastern United States, The University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

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Heritage Trust Staff, 1984, A Nova Scotian ' s Guide to Built Heritage ~ Architectural Styles, 1604-1930. Department of Tourism and Culture, Halifax. Upton, D. and J.M. Vlach, 1986, Common Places, The University of Georgia Press, London. Williams, H.L. and O.K. Williams, 1962, A Guide to Old American Houses, 1700--1900. Barnes and Noble, Totowa, NJ. Hungary

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