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Aromatic grasses for phytomanagement of coal fly ash hazards
Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 425–428
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ecological Engineering journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng
Short communication
Aromatic grasses for phytomanagement of coal fly ash hazards Sanjeet K. Verma a,b , Kripal Singh b, * ,1, Anand K. Gupta b , Vimal Chandra Pandey c , Pragya Trivedi b , Rajesh Kumar Verma b , D.D. Patra b a
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India Division of Agronomy and Soil Science, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India c Eco-Auditing Group, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 10 July 2014 Received in revised form 13 September 2014 Accepted 29 September 2014 Available online xxx
Fly ash (FA), a residue of coal combustion, has been accepted as a hazardous solid waste all over the world. Even though several approaches for its utilization in agriculture and material industry have been proposed, the amount of the stocked FA is increasing because production exceeds the amount that can be utilized. We propose the use of aromatic grasses for better in situ remediation of FA landfill hazards and to get several tangible and intangible benefits. ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aromatic grasses Ecosystem services Environment Fly ash Phytoremediation
1. Introduction of fly ash and its hazards
2. Use and management of fly ash
Fly ash (FA), a coal combustion residue from thermal power plants, is a serious threat to the environment. The FA polluted area is increasing at an alarming rate and has become a global concern. Due to increasing demand of energy, countries all over the world are discharging FA to the extent of approximately 600 million tonnes per year (Ram and Masto, 2014). As per World Bank report, in years to come only India will produce about 170 million tonnes of FA that will require about 1000 km2 land for its disposal. By 2015 global FA production may cover up to 3235 km2 of land area (Pandey and Singh, 2012). FA is hazardous due to the presence of toxic heavy metals like Cr, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Se etc. (Scotti et al., 1999; Pandey et al., 2011), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Ruwei et al., 2013) and several other pollutants that pollute soil and water. Recent investigations have proven that FA affects the health of humans, animals and birds directly or indirectly due to their dietary exposure (Bryan et al., 2012). According to United States Environmental Protection Agency, FA pollution causes skin and cardiac diseases, cancer, and genetic and respiratory disorders. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to search better options for remediation of coal FA hazards.
In situ management of FA through afforestation (Pandey and Singh, 2012; Pandey et al., 2009b; Ram et al., 2008) and its utilization in cement, sanitary and brick industries is in practice (Ferraiolo et al., 1990). The presence of several macro and micro nutrients in FA has encouraged agricultural and environmental researchers to use it in agriculture as a soil amendment (Jala and Goyal, 2006; Pandey and Singh, 2010). Several investigations have been carried out using FA alone and in combination with other organic amendments like press-mud, farmyard manure, sewage sludge, biochar, etc. Application of FA in soil promotes the plant growth and increases the yield of rice (Oryza sativa), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), wheat (Tritiucm aestivum), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), sabai grass (Eulaiopsis binata), mung (Vigna radiata), carrots (Daucas carota), onion (Allium cepa), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) and white clover (Trifolium repens) and improved the physicochemical, microbial properties of the soil (Singh and Pandey, 2013; Singh et al., 2011, 2013; Pandey et al., 2009a, 2010; Grewal et al., 2001; Lau and Wong, 2001; Garg et al., 2005; Basu et al., 2009; Pandey and Singh, 2011; Chaudhary et al., 2011). Pioneer work by Pandey (2012a,b, 2013), Pandey et al. (2012, 2014b,c) and Kumari et al. (2013) suggests to manage FA on discharged sites through naturally growing flora along with ecologically and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 522 27185536; fax: +91 522 2342666. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (K. Singh). K. Singh contributed equally as the first author.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.106 0925-8574/ ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
426
S.K. Verma et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 425–428
socio-economically benefits. Recently, Pandey et al. (2014a) suggested that using naturally colonizing and economically valuable plants to accomplish sustainable phytoremediation and cleaner production. Despite these best efforts, the amount of the stocked FA is increasing because production exceeds the amount that can be utilized in agriculture and material industry. On other hand, due to presence of heavy metals (see above), alkaline and/or acidic nature (this depends on coal quality) and pozzolanic (mainly due to silica component) nature use of FA can be damaging to soil system and crop, animal and human health. Use of FA in the production of bricks, sheets and cement is also not safe due to enhanced concentration of natural radionuclides (Radium, Thorium and Potassium) during coal combustion (Gupta et al., 2013a). The fate of other pollutants of FA in soil–plant system should be monitored when using aromatic grasses for FA management. 3. Use of aromatic grasses and their benefits In situ management of FA is a better option if it yields environmental and societal benefits. In earlier studies proposed technologies are safe in the health perspectives but yield less ecological, economical and societal benefits. We are proposing use of aromatic grasses for better in situ management of FA dumping sites. Aromatic grasses like Cymbopogon martinii, Vetiveria zizanioides, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon winterianus are high value crops due to their essential oil production (Table 1). They contain several valuable aromatic chemical constituents which are used in perfumery, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and aromatherapy as well as toiletry products. Aromatic grasses are most suitable option likely due to their ability to grow in adverse conditions like FA. The suitability of aromatic grasses at FA disposal site can be assumed by the adaptability of wild grasses, like Saccharum munja and Saccharum spontaneum, growing well on FA dumping sites (Fig. 1a). All said aromatic grasses, S. munja and S. spontaneum belong to same family i.e., Poaceae. S. munja flourishes on abandoned FA lagoons; its roots grow up to 10–15 ft deep in FA and produce high biomass (Pandey et al., 2012). Aromatic grasses synthesize essential oil in their specific plant parts like leaves (C. flexuosus and C. winterianus), leaves and inflorescence (C. martinii), and roots (V. zizanioides). The production of secondary metabolites is always high during
environmental stress and, therefore, aromatic grasses produce more essential oil in stress conditions (Farooqi et al., 1999). The low density and high porosity of FA would facilitate root growth in vetiver (V. zizanioides) which is commercial part of this plant. We may obtain higher biomass from FA dumping sites as compared to other wastelands because poor soil structure restricts root’s growth and development and root breakage occurs during its digging. Even though there is no risk of growing aromatic grasses with FA but research is limited. Preliminary reports concerning cultivation of aromatic grasses in FA treated soils are available (Adholeya et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 2001). Mentha arvensis and V. zizanoides were successfully planted in FA used in conjunction with 20% farmyard manure (FYM) and mycorrhiza (Adholeya et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 2001; Kumar and Patra, 2012). High yield of aromatic grasses in presence of different FA–soil combinations is attributed to increased availability of major plant nutrients. Several environmental and societal benefits are likely to be drawn through cultivation of aromatic grasses on FA dumping sites (Fig. 1b). Aromatic grasses are unpalatable, industrial/commercial crops, perennial in nature with multiple harvests and tolerate to stress conditions (pH variability, heavy metal toxicity and drought) (Gupta et al., 2013b); most importantly essential oil is extracted through hydro distillation and free from the risk of toxic heavy metals (Khajanchi et al., 2013; Zheljazkov et al., 2006). Cultivation of aromatic grasses can prevent dust flow and diminish air pollution. It is cost effective because the sprinklers used for preventing the air pollution can fulfill the minimal water requirement of these crops. FA provides a porous substratum; therefore, maximized root growth can lead to deep sequestration of CO2 in bare FA. The solid waste of aromatic grasses left after extraction of essential oil can be recycled in FA dumping site to increase its fertility. The global demand of herbal products, in which essential oils from aromatic grasses contribute significantly, is continuously increasing and it is expected to touch the mark of US$ 5 trillion by the end of year 2050. Therefore, cultivation of aromatic grasses on FA landfills is economically viable. Safety issues associated with the physical harvesting of the crops are important and should be considered. With these arguments and facts, there is a greater scope to cultivate high value essential oil bearing aromatic grasses for the remediation of FA hazards. This is an economically feasible and environment friendly approach for the management of FA landfills.
Table 1 Description of aromatic grasses proposed to manage fly ash landfills. Name of crop
Family
Plant part used
Active compounds
Uses
Cymbopogon martinii
Poaceae
Leaves and inflorescence
Myrcene, linalool, geraniol, geranyl acetate, dipentene, limonene
Cymbopogon flexuosus
Poaceae
Leaves
Myrcene, citronellal, geranyl acetate, nerol, geraniol, neral
Cymbopogon winterianus
Poaceae
Leaves
Citronellic acid, borneol, citronellol, geraniol, nerol, citral, citronellal, camphene, dipentene, limonene
Vetiveria zizanioides
Poaceae
Roots
Benzoic acid, vetiverol, furfurol, A and B, vetivone, vetivene, vetivenyl, vetivenate
Used in soaps, perfumes and cosmetics industries. Used as antiseptic, antiviral, bactericide, cytophylactic, digestive, febrifuge and hydrating (Rajeswara Rao, 1999). Analgesic, anti-depressant, antimicrobial. antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, deodorant, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, galactagogue, insecticidal, nervine, nervous system sedative and tonic (Chandrashekhar and Prasanna, 2010). Antiseptic, bactericidal, deodorant, diaphoretic, insecticide, parasitic, tonic and stimulant (Quitans-Junior et al., 2008). Antiseptic, aphrodisiac, cicatrisant, nervine, sedative, tonic, sedative and vulnerary. Helps to dispel anger, hysteria and irritability and neurotic behavior can also be reduced, as stress and tension is reduced (Champagnat et al., 2008).
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Research, New Delhi, India for financial assistance in the form of CSIR-Junior Research Fellowship and CSIR-Nehru Postdoctoral fellowship (HRDG/CSIR—Nehru PDF/LS/EMR-I/03/2013), respectively. References
Fig. 1. An overview of fly ash landfill and expected benefits of aromatic grasses. (1a) Fly ash dumping site and luxuriant growth of Saccharum munja and Saccharum spontaneum on bare fly ash. (1b) Various benefits of cultivating aromatic grasses (Cymbopogon martinii,Vetiveria zizanioides, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon winterianus) on fly ash dumping sites.
4. Conclusion This study reveals that aromatic grasses offer a natural way for remediation and management of coal fly ash hazards along with multiple benefits from environmental to societal without any risk. Any agency, institute or nation can be benefited and protect the environment by using this approach of FA management. Most importantly, the coal based thermal power plants should take advantage of this strategy for FA landfills’ management. Acknowledgments Sanjeet K. Verma (AcSIR-CIMAP Ph.D. fellow) and Kripal Singh express sincere thanks to the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Adholeya, A., Sharma, M.P., Bhatia, N.P., Tyagi, C., 1997. Mycorrhizae biofertilzer: a tool for reclamation of wasteland and bioremediation. National Symposium on Microbial Technologies for Environmental Management and Resource Recovery. The Energy and Resources Institute, New Delhi, India, pp. 58–63. Basu, M., Pande, M., Bhadoria, P.B.S., Mahapatra, S.C., 2009. Potential fly ash utilization in agriculture: a global review. Prog. Nat. Sci. 19, 1173–1186. Bryan Jr., A.L., Hopkins, W.A., Parikh, J.H., Jackson, B.P., Unrine, J.M., 2012. Coal fly ash basins as an attractive nuisance to birds: parental provisioning exposes nestlings to harmful trace elements. Environ. Pollut. 161, 170–177. Champagnat, P., Heitz, A., Carnat, A., Fraisse, D., Carnat, A., Lamaison, J., 2008. Flavonoids from Vetiveria zizanioides and Vetiveria nigritana (Poaceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 36, 68–70. Chandrashekhar, K.S., Prasanna, K.S., 2010. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the essential oil from Cymbopogon flexuosus. Pharmacogn. J. 2 (14), 23–25. Chaudhary, S.K., Rai, U.N., Mishra, K., Huang, H.G., Yang, X.E., Inouhe, M., Gupta, D.K., 2011. Growth and metal accumulation potential of Vigna radiata L: grown under fly ash amendments. Ecol. Eng. 37, 1583–1588. Farooqi, A.H.A., Sangwan, N.S., Sangwan, R.S., 1999. Effect of different photoperiodic regimes on growth: flowering and essential oil in Mentha species. Plant Growth Regul. 29, 181–187. Ferraiolo, G., Zilli, M., Converti, A., 1990. Fly ash disposal and utilization. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 47, 281–305. Garg, R.N., Pathak, H., Das, D.K., Tomar, R.K., 2005. Use of fly ash and biogas slurry for improving wheat yield and physical properties of soil. Environ. Monit. Assess. 107, 1–9. Grewal, K.S., Yadav, P.S., Mehta, S.C., Oswal, M.C., 2001. Direct and residual effect of fly ash application to soil on crop yield and soil properties. Crop Res. 21, 60–65. Gupta, M., Mahur, A.K., Varshney, R., Sonkawade, R.G., Verma, K.D., Prasad, R., 2013a. Measurement of natural radioactivity and radon exhalation rate in fly ash samples from a thermal power plant and estimation of radiation doses. Radiat. Meas. 50, 160–165. Gupta, A.K., Verma, S.K., Khan, K., Verma, R.K., 2013b. Phytoremediation using aromatic plants: a sustainable approach for remediation of heavy metals polluted sites. Environ. Sci. Technol. 47, 10115–10116. Jala, S., Goyal, D., 2006. Fly ash as a soil ameliorant for improving crop production—a review. Bioresour. Technol. 97, 1136–1147. Khajanchi, L., Yadava, R.K., Kaurb, R., Bundelaa, D.S., Khana, M.I., Chaudharya, M., Meenaa, R.L., Dara, S.R., Singha, G., 2013. Productivity essential oil yield, and heavy metal accumulation in lemon grass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) under varied wastewater–groundwater irrigation regimes. Ind. Crop. Prod. 45, 270–278. Kumar, K.V., Patra, D.D., 2012. Alteration in yield and chemical composition of essential oil of Mentha piperita L. plant: effect of fly ash amendments and organic wastes. Ecol. Eng. 47, 237–241. Kumari, A., Pandey, V.C., Rai, U.N., 2013. Feasibility of fern Thelypteris dentata for revegetation of coal fly ash landfills. J. Geochem. Explor. 128, 147–152. Lau, S.S.S., Wong, J.W.C., 2001. Toxicity evaluation of weathered coal fly ash amended manure compost. Water Air Soil Pollut. 128, 243–254. Pandey, V.C., Singh, N., 2010. Impact of fly ash incorporation in soil systems. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 136, 16–27. Pandey, V.C., Singh, K., 2011. Is Vigna radiata suitable for the revegetation of fly ash basins? Ecol. Eng. 37, 2105–2106. Pandey, V.C., Singh, B., 2012. Rehabilitation of coal fly ash basins: current need to use ecological engineering. Ecol. Eng. 49, 190–192. Pandey, V.C., Abhilash, P.C., Upadhyay, R.N., Tewari, D.D., 2009a. Application of fly ash on the growth performance, translocation of toxic heavy metals within Cajanus cajan L.: implication for safe utilization of fly ash for agricultural production. J. Hazard. Mater. 166, 255–259. Pandey, V.C., Abhilash, P.C., Singh, N., 2009b. The Indian perspective of utilizing fly ash in phytoremediation, phytomanagement and biomass production. J. Environ. Manage. 90, 2943–2958. Pandey, V.C., Singh, J.S., Kumar, A., Tewari, D.D., 2010. Accumulation of heavy metal by chickpea grown in fly ash treated soil: effect on antioxidants. CLEAN – Soil Air Water 38, 1116–1123. Pandey, V.C., Singh, J.S., Singh, R., Singh, N., Yunus, M., 2011. Arsenic hazards in coal fly ash and its fate in Indian scenario. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 55, 819–835. Pandey, V.C., Singh, K., Singh, R.P., Singh, B., 2012. Naturally growing Saccharum munja L: on the fly ash lagoons: a potential ecological engineer for the revegetation and stabilization. Ecol. Eng. 40, 95–99. Pandey, V.C., Pandey, D.N., Singh, N., 2014a. Sustainable phytoremediation based on naturally colonizing and economically valuable plants. J. Cleaner Prod doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.08.030. Pandey, V.C., Prakash, P., Bajpai, O., Kumar, A., Singh, N., 2014b. Phytodiversity on fly ash deposits: evaluation of naturally colonized species for sustainable phytorestoration. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11356-014-3517-0.
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Pandey, V.C., Singh, N., Singh, R.P., Singh, D.P., 2014c. Rhizoremediation potential of spontaneously grown Typha latifolia on fly ash basins: study from the field. Ecol. Eng. 71, 722–727. Pandey, V.C., 2012a. Invasive species based efficient green technology for phytoremediation of fly ash deposits. J. Geochem. Explor. 123, 13–18. Pandey, V.C., 2012b. Phytoremediation of heavy metals from fly ash pond by Azolla caroliniana. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 82, 8–12. Pandey, V.C., 2013. Suitability of Ricinus communis L: cultivation for phytoremediation of fly ash disposal sites. Ecol. Eng. 57, 336–341. Quitans-Junior, L.J., Souza, T.T., Leite, B.S., Lessa, N.M.N., Bonjardim, L.R., Santos, M.R. V., Alves, P.B., Blank, A.F., Antoniolli, A.R., 2008. Phythochemical screening and anticonvulsant activity of Cymbopogon winterianus Jowitt (Poaceae) leaf essential oil in rodents. Phytomedicine 15, 619–624. Rajeswara Rao, B.R., 1999. Aromatic plants for dry areas. In: Singh, R.P., Osman, M. (Eds.), Sustainable Alternate Land Use Systems for Dryland. Oriental Enterprises, Dehradun, India, pp. 157–170. Ram, L.C., Masto, R.E., 2014. Fly ash for soil amelioration: a review on the influence of ash blending with inorganic and organic amendments. Earth Sci. Rev. 28, 52–74. Ram, L.C., Jha, S.K., Tripathi, R.C., Masto, R.E., Selvi, V.A., 2008. Remediation of fly ash landfills through plantation. Remediation J. 18, 71–90.
Ruwei, W., Jiamei, Z., Jingjing, L., Liu, G., 2013. Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in coal-fired power plant bottom ash and fly ash from Huainan China. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 65, 193–202. Scotti, I.A., Silva, S., Botteschi, G., 1999. Effect of fly ash on the availability of Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd to chicory. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 72, 159–163. Sharma, M.P., Tanu, U., Adholeya, A., 2001. Growth and yield of Cymbopogon martinii as influenced by fly ash, AM fungi inoculation and farmyard manure application. 7th International Symposium on Soil and Plant analysis . Singh, J.S., Pandey, V.C., 2013. Fly ash application in nutrient poor agriculture soils: Impact on methanotrophs population dynamics and paddy yields. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 89, 43–51. Singh, J.S., Pandey, V.C., Singh, D.P., 2011. Coal fly ash and farmyard manure amendments in dry-land paddy agriculture field: effect on N-dynamics and paddy productivity. Appl. Soil Ecol. 47, 133–140. Singh, K., Pandey, V.C., Singh, B., Patra, D.D., Singh, R.P., 2013. Effect of fly ash on crop yield and physico-chemical, microbial and enzyme activities of sodic soils. Environ. Eng. Manage. J. http://omicron.ch.tuiasi.ro/EEMJ/pdfs/accepted/ 266_716_Singh_12.pdf. Zheljazkov, V.D., Craker, L.E., Baoshan, X., 2006. Effects of Cd, Pb and Cu on growth and essential oil contents in dill pepper mint and basil. Environ. Exp. Bot. 58, 9–16.
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Ecological Engineering journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng
Short communication
Aromatic grasses for phytomanagement of coal fly ash hazards Sanjeet K. Verma a,b , Kripal Singh b, * ,1, Anand K. Gupta b , Vimal Chandra Pandey c , Pragya Trivedi b , Rajesh Kumar Verma b , D.D. Patra b a
Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India Division of Agronomy and Soil Science, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow 226015, Uttar Pradesh, India c Eco-Auditing Group, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history: Received 10 July 2014 Received in revised form 13 September 2014 Accepted 29 September 2014 Available online xxx
Fly ash (FA), a residue of coal combustion, has been accepted as a hazardous solid waste all over the world. Even though several approaches for its utilization in agriculture and material industry have been proposed, the amount of the stocked FA is increasing because production exceeds the amount that can be utilized. We propose the use of aromatic grasses for better in situ remediation of FA landfill hazards and to get several tangible and intangible benefits. ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aromatic grasses Ecosystem services Environment Fly ash Phytoremediation
1. Introduction of fly ash and its hazards
2. Use and management of fly ash
Fly ash (FA), a coal combustion residue from thermal power plants, is a serious threat to the environment. The FA polluted area is increasing at an alarming rate and has become a global concern. Due to increasing demand of energy, countries all over the world are discharging FA to the extent of approximately 600 million tonnes per year (Ram and Masto, 2014). As per World Bank report, in years to come only India will produce about 170 million tonnes of FA that will require about 1000 km2 land for its disposal. By 2015 global FA production may cover up to 3235 km2 of land area (Pandey and Singh, 2012). FA is hazardous due to the presence of toxic heavy metals like Cr, As, Cd, Pb, Hg, Se etc. (Scotti et al., 1999; Pandey et al., 2011), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (Ruwei et al., 2013) and several other pollutants that pollute soil and water. Recent investigations have proven that FA affects the health of humans, animals and birds directly or indirectly due to their dietary exposure (Bryan et al., 2012). According to United States Environmental Protection Agency, FA pollution causes skin and cardiac diseases, cancer, and genetic and respiratory disorders. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to search better options for remediation of coal FA hazards.
In situ management of FA through afforestation (Pandey and Singh, 2012; Pandey et al., 2009b; Ram et al., 2008) and its utilization in cement, sanitary and brick industries is in practice (Ferraiolo et al., 1990). The presence of several macro and micro nutrients in FA has encouraged agricultural and environmental researchers to use it in agriculture as a soil amendment (Jala and Goyal, 2006; Pandey and Singh, 2010). Several investigations have been carried out using FA alone and in combination with other organic amendments like press-mud, farmyard manure, sewage sludge, biochar, etc. Application of FA in soil promotes the plant growth and increases the yield of rice (Oryza sativa), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), wheat (Tritiucm aestivum), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), alfalfa (Medicago sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), sabai grass (Eulaiopsis binata), mung (Vigna radiata), carrots (Daucas carota), onion (Allium cepa), beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) and tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum) and white clover (Trifolium repens) and improved the physicochemical, microbial properties of the soil (Singh and Pandey, 2013; Singh et al., 2011, 2013; Pandey et al., 2009a, 2010; Grewal et al., 2001; Lau and Wong, 2001; Garg et al., 2005; Basu et al., 2009; Pandey and Singh, 2011; Chaudhary et al., 2011). Pioneer work by Pandey (2012a,b, 2013), Pandey et al. (2012, 2014b,c) and Kumari et al. (2013) suggests to manage FA on discharged sites through naturally growing flora along with ecologically and
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 522 27185536; fax: +91 522 2342666. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (K. Singh). K. Singh contributed equally as the first author.
1
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.106 0925-8574/ ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
426
S.K. Verma et al. / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 425–428
socio-economically benefits. Recently, Pandey et al. (2014a) suggested that using naturally colonizing and economically valuable plants to accomplish sustainable phytoremediation and cleaner production. Despite these best efforts, the amount of the stocked FA is increasing because production exceeds the amount that can be utilized in agriculture and material industry. On other hand, due to presence of heavy metals (see above), alkaline and/or acidic nature (this depends on coal quality) and pozzolanic (mainly due to silica component) nature use of FA can be damaging to soil system and crop, animal and human health. Use of FA in the production of bricks, sheets and cement is also not safe due to enhanced concentration of natural radionuclides (Radium, Thorium and Potassium) during coal combustion (Gupta et al., 2013a). The fate of other pollutants of FA in soil–plant system should be monitored when using aromatic grasses for FA management. 3. Use of aromatic grasses and their benefits In situ management of FA is a better option if it yields environmental and societal benefits. In earlier studies proposed technologies are safe in the health perspectives but yield less ecological, economical and societal benefits. We are proposing use of aromatic grasses for better in situ management of FA dumping sites. Aromatic grasses like Cymbopogon martinii, Vetiveria zizanioides, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon winterianus are high value crops due to their essential oil production (Table 1). They contain several valuable aromatic chemical constituents which are used in perfumery, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and aromatherapy as well as toiletry products. Aromatic grasses are most suitable option likely due to their ability to grow in adverse conditions like FA. The suitability of aromatic grasses at FA disposal site can be assumed by the adaptability of wild grasses, like Saccharum munja and Saccharum spontaneum, growing well on FA dumping sites (Fig. 1a). All said aromatic grasses, S. munja and S. spontaneum belong to same family i.e., Poaceae. S. munja flourishes on abandoned FA lagoons; its roots grow up to 10–15 ft deep in FA and produce high biomass (Pandey et al., 2012). Aromatic grasses synthesize essential oil in their specific plant parts like leaves (C. flexuosus and C. winterianus), leaves and inflorescence (C. martinii), and roots (V. zizanioides). The production of secondary metabolites is always high during
environmental stress and, therefore, aromatic grasses produce more essential oil in stress conditions (Farooqi et al., 1999). The low density and high porosity of FA would facilitate root growth in vetiver (V. zizanioides) which is commercial part of this plant. We may obtain higher biomass from FA dumping sites as compared to other wastelands because poor soil structure restricts root’s growth and development and root breakage occurs during its digging. Even though there is no risk of growing aromatic grasses with FA but research is limited. Preliminary reports concerning cultivation of aromatic grasses in FA treated soils are available (Adholeya et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 2001). Mentha arvensis and V. zizanoides were successfully planted in FA used in conjunction with 20% farmyard manure (FYM) and mycorrhiza (Adholeya et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 2001; Kumar and Patra, 2012). High yield of aromatic grasses in presence of different FA–soil combinations is attributed to increased availability of major plant nutrients. Several environmental and societal benefits are likely to be drawn through cultivation of aromatic grasses on FA dumping sites (Fig. 1b). Aromatic grasses are unpalatable, industrial/commercial crops, perennial in nature with multiple harvests and tolerate to stress conditions (pH variability, heavy metal toxicity and drought) (Gupta et al., 2013b); most importantly essential oil is extracted through hydro distillation and free from the risk of toxic heavy metals (Khajanchi et al., 2013; Zheljazkov et al., 2006). Cultivation of aromatic grasses can prevent dust flow and diminish air pollution. It is cost effective because the sprinklers used for preventing the air pollution can fulfill the minimal water requirement of these crops. FA provides a porous substratum; therefore, maximized root growth can lead to deep sequestration of CO2 in bare FA. The solid waste of aromatic grasses left after extraction of essential oil can be recycled in FA dumping site to increase its fertility. The global demand of herbal products, in which essential oils from aromatic grasses contribute significantly, is continuously increasing and it is expected to touch the mark of US$ 5 trillion by the end of year 2050. Therefore, cultivation of aromatic grasses on FA landfills is economically viable. Safety issues associated with the physical harvesting of the crops are important and should be considered. With these arguments and facts, there is a greater scope to cultivate high value essential oil bearing aromatic grasses for the remediation of FA hazards. This is an economically feasible and environment friendly approach for the management of FA landfills.
Table 1 Description of aromatic grasses proposed to manage fly ash landfills. Name of crop
Family
Plant part used
Active compounds
Uses
Cymbopogon martinii
Poaceae
Leaves and inflorescence
Myrcene, linalool, geraniol, geranyl acetate, dipentene, limonene
Cymbopogon flexuosus
Poaceae
Leaves
Myrcene, citronellal, geranyl acetate, nerol, geraniol, neral
Cymbopogon winterianus
Poaceae
Leaves
Citronellic acid, borneol, citronellol, geraniol, nerol, citral, citronellal, camphene, dipentene, limonene
Vetiveria zizanioides
Poaceae
Roots
Benzoic acid, vetiverol, furfurol, A and B, vetivone, vetivene, vetivenyl, vetivenate
Used in soaps, perfumes and cosmetics industries. Used as antiseptic, antiviral, bactericide, cytophylactic, digestive, febrifuge and hydrating (Rajeswara Rao, 1999). Analgesic, anti-depressant, antimicrobial. antipyretic, antiseptic, astringent, bactericidal, carminative, deodorant, diuretic, febrifuge, fungicidal, galactagogue, insecticidal, nervine, nervous system sedative and tonic (Chandrashekhar and Prasanna, 2010). Antiseptic, bactericidal, deodorant, diaphoretic, insecticide, parasitic, tonic and stimulant (Quitans-Junior et al., 2008). Antiseptic, aphrodisiac, cicatrisant, nervine, sedative, tonic, sedative and vulnerary. Helps to dispel anger, hysteria and irritability and neurotic behavior can also be reduced, as stress and tension is reduced (Champagnat et al., 2008).
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Research, New Delhi, India for financial assistance in the form of CSIR-Junior Research Fellowship and CSIR-Nehru Postdoctoral fellowship (HRDG/CSIR—Nehru PDF/LS/EMR-I/03/2013), respectively. References
Fig. 1. An overview of fly ash landfill and expected benefits of aromatic grasses. (1a) Fly ash dumping site and luxuriant growth of Saccharum munja and Saccharum spontaneum on bare fly ash. (1b) Various benefits of cultivating aromatic grasses (Cymbopogon martinii,Vetiveria zizanioides, Cymbopogon flexuosus and Cymbopogon winterianus) on fly ash dumping sites.
4. Conclusion This study reveals that aromatic grasses offer a natural way for remediation and management of coal fly ash hazards along with multiple benefits from environmental to societal without any risk. Any agency, institute or nation can be benefited and protect the environment by using this approach of FA management. Most importantly, the coal based thermal power plants should take advantage of this strategy for FA landfills’ management. Acknowledgments Sanjeet K. Verma (AcSIR-CIMAP Ph.D. fellow) and Kripal Singh express sincere thanks to the Council of Scientific and Industrial
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